Mgr. Alžběta Možíšová Masarykova univerzita, Brno, Czech Republic „The wall of silence“: Domestic Violence in Lesbian Relationships Structure of the presentation žDomestic violence in general žFeminist approach and the family violence approach žGender (a)symmetry žSilence surrounding the topic žViolence in lesbian relationships žSituation in the Czech Republic žMy dissertation project The first defines domestic violence in a wider context of the violence in the family and assumes gender symmetry.The second emphasizes the gendered context of domestic violence Domestic violence in general žResearch topic since 1970‘ (mostly in the USA) žTwo main approaches: žFeminist žSociological Feminist approach to DV ždomestic violence as a part of a broader problem of violence against women žemphasizes the gendered context of domestic violence and the male domination — „One of feminism’s major contributions to domestic violence policy and practice has been to identify men as the primary perpetrators of domestic violence“ (Itzin 2000: 360) žDV is a product (and a cause) of the relations of gender inequality in (patriarchal) society ž(Patriarchal) Power and control are crucial aspects of DV ž Feminist discourse on DV is connected with creation of the first shelters and counseling for survivors, as well as new legal definitions. The topic served as a strong argument to show how women are being oppressed in the patriarchy. In consequence, men are depicted as violent and women as innocent victims of violence (therefore not capable of being violent themseves) Feminist approach to DV žFor some authors violence (in different forms) was a key concept in their theorizing of gender inequality (e.g. MacKinnon, Brownmiller) žUniversalism and essentialism of the binary notion of male perpetrators and female victims was criticized by subsequent authors (e.g. Flax 1987, Segal 1993, Featherstone, 1997), as well as the conceptualization of gender within the domestic violence discourse as such ž ž Feminist discourse on DV is connected with creation of the first shelters and counseling for survivors, as well as new legal definitions. The topic served as a strong argument to show how women are being oppressed in the patriarchy. In consequence, men are depicted as violent and women as innocent victims of violence (therefore not capable of being violent themseves) Flax (1987) emphasizes the intersectional character of gender and suggests to examine its relations with and among other categories The concept of gender in relation to sexuality was further discussed Sociological approach to DV žthe original aim was to free the discourse on DV from the psychiatric definitions of perpetrators (and victims) as psychopathological personalities without considering the structural and cultural-societal context of the violence (Freeman 1980) ži.e. the discourse of family violence - defines domestic violence in a wider context of the violence in the family and assumes gender symmetry (based on the results of quantitative studies of DV) gender symmetry – Straus (1979) National Violence Survey Conflict Tactics Scale (Straus, Gelles 1986) First interest in 1970‘ (until 1969 not a single article in Journal of Marriage and Family Dixon (1995: 359. National Violence Survey 1975: 12,1 % men reported using some form of violence and 11,6 % women (severe violence 3,8 % men and 4,6 % women). 1985: 11,3 % men a 12,1 % women; severe 3 % men respektive 4,4 % women. Gender (a)symmetry žGender symmetry assumes that men and women are equally violent, the violence can be reciprocal, therefore gender is not important in the matter (e.g. Straus, Gelles 1986; Gelles 1997; Moffitt, Robins, Caspi 2006). žGender asymmetry points out the different impact of domestic violence on women (Straton 1994 ,DeKeseredy, Schwartz 1998) and statistics from criminal research and shelters that report 90 – 95 % women as survivors of DV (Dobash et al., 1992; Johnson, 1995; Belknap and Melton 2005). Gender symmetry was misinterpreted and misused for the feminist backlash, therefore feminism in order to secure its basic assumptions was reluctant to discuss violence by women (on other women) Sources of the gender (a)symmetry controversy žDifferent conceptualization of violence (Dixon 1995) žDifferent data and different types of violence (Johnson 1995) žDifferent conceptualization of gender (Anderson 2005) Podle Dixona (1995) jsou spory o genderovou (a)symetrii důsledkem nerozlišování mezi agresivitou a násilím. Johnson (1995), jiného typu násilí na odlišných datech. Zatímco genderová symetrie vychází ze studií velkých reprezentativních vzorků, genderová asymetrie se odvolává na data získaná přímo od obětí (z intervenčních center, policejních statistik či neziskových organizací). Podle Johnsona tak zkoumají jiné populace, které se nepřekrývají - odlišný typ násilí, který je v jednotlivých studiích zachycen. Studie, které potvrzují genderovou symetrii, podle něj zachycují „běžné partnerské násilí“, zatímco data, na něž se odvolávají teoretici genderové asymetrie, zachycují systematické násilí mužů na ženách, které označuje jako „patriarchální terorismus“ (Johnson 1995: 283). DeKesseredy a Dragiewicz (2007: 875) tvrdí, že zastánci genderové symetrie směšují pohlaví a gender, protože „diskuze o prevalenci, které stojí na proměnných ‚muž„ a ‚žena„ nám neřeknou mnoho o genderu, který je sociálně konstruovaným a normativním souborem významům, jež se k těmto kategoriím vážou. Jak podotýká Stanko (2006), uvažovat o genderu ve spojitosti s násilím má smysl, nikoli však ve snaze určit, zda jsou násilnější muži či ženy, ale v kontextu vnímání násilí v souvislosti s genderem. Renzetti (1999: 45) lakonicky doplňuje, že spory o genderovou asymetrii ukazují, že „s jistotou lze o domácím násilí říct, že je genderované“. Anderson: individualistický, interakcionistický a strukturalistický. Violence in non-heterosexual relationships žin 1990 various critics of existing DV discourse in relation to LGBT violence žDV discourse has been based on „heterosexual imaginary“ (Ingraham (1994: 204); domestic violence needs to be theorized in relation to social structure and the forms of social differentiation (such as heterosexuality) žThere is a growing body of research, especially in the USA, that shows that lesbians and gay men experience domestic violence at similar rates as heterosexual couples (e.g. Renzetti 1989, Renzetti 1998, Ristock 2002, Rohrbaugh 2006). Existence násilí v gay/lesbických vztazích nezpochybňuje roli genderu v partnerském násilí. Spíše vznáší další otázky ohledně vztahu genderu a sexuality v kontextu násilí (Anderson 2005: 856). 12 to 50 %. Meta-analysis of research on DV: 11-12 % in lesbian couples (Rohrbaugh 2006) v přehledu 11 hlavních nejvýznamnějších výzkumů srovnává čísla výskytu a rozlišuje studie podle míry reprezentativnosti. Na základě porovnání výsledků velkých studií tak odhaduje míru násilí v lesbických vztazích na 11-12 %, podobně jako v gay vztazích, kde z jediného rozsáhlejšího výzkumu z roku 1994 lze vyvodit 11 %. Reasons for the neglect of the topic žDefinition of domestic violence in terms of gender-based violence žThe gender asymmetry debates narrowed the discussion to the question of men‘s violence against women or vice versa žSilence within the LGBT community (to preserve the „lesbian utopia“ (Hart 1986: 13) Nevertheless, in 1980 the first attempts to name the problem of violence in lesbian relationships were carried out (Hart 1986) Violence in lesbian relationships žThe literature suggests, there are certain specifics that distinguish lesbian violence from heterosexual violence: žRenzetti (1989) speaks of various forms of violence, such as violence specifically targeted at survivor‘s soft spots (e.g. diabetic forced to eat sugar, disabled woman left alone without help, etc.); and homophobic violence (Rohrbaugh 2006) ) žLesbian women defend themselves more often (78 % - Renzetti 1989) žShifting dynamics of the relationship (Townley 2001) žThe societal context of heteronormativity and homophobia (Ristock 2002) žSilence (outside and within the community) (Merlis, Linville 2006). internalized homophobia, support from the family Silence: heteronormativity; silence within the community; lack of positive role-models; The silence žThe society: žHeteronormativity of the DV discourse (Renzetti 1998) žHeteronormativity in the services for survivors of DV (not a single shelter for gay or lesbian survivors (Messinger 2011: 2229)) žGender stereotyping (Renzetti 1998) žThe survivors: žInternalized homophobia of the survivors (they believe they deserve it or that‘s the way the non-heterosexual relationship is supposed to be like) (Balsam, Szymanski 2005). žLack of positive role-models (Lehman 1997) žLack of support from close relatives (Kurdek 2010) žThe community: žfear of the negative image ž„denial, minimization and silence“ (Merlis a Linville 2006: 131). internalized homophobia, support from the family Silence: heteronormativity; silence within the community; lack of positive role-models; Domestic violence in the Czech Republic ždomestic violence has not been addressed until 1990 in the Czech Republic žThe dominant approach sees domestic violence as a broader issue of violence between various family members, not only in an intimate relationship, following the sociological approach of the family violence discourse (Straus, Gelles 1986; Gelles 1997). žIn case of partnership violence, it draws on the feminist notion of domestic violence as a gendered phenomenon, with women being the victims of domestic violence in majority of the cases. žSpecific definition of DV with 4 key factors: ž1. repeating and ongoing, 2. escalating intensity, 3. clear identification of perpetrator and survivor 4. private ; and „in order to speak of domestiv violence, all four characteristics must be present!“ (Domácí 2007) žThe issues of violence on men have been addressed in the last five years as well. žNevertheless, no research has been carried out on the violence within same-sex relationships and the issues that surround it. ž 3% - 4 % mužů obětí Domestic violence in the Czech Republic – non-heterosexual relationships? žSpecific definition of DV with 4 key factors: ž1. repeating and ongoing, 2. escalating intensity, 3. clear identification of perpetrator and survivor 4. private ; and „in order to speak of domestiv violence, all four characteristics must be present!“ (Domácí 2007) žViolence in non-heterosexual relationships has been ignored so far – no research, no article žRecently a single chapter in a book on domestic violence has been published („LGBT jako oběti domácího násilí“ Hunt, Špatenková 2011) - addresing violence of family members against LGBT people and LGBT partnership violence in context of heteronormativity of the family and society ž 3% - 4 % mužů obětí My dissertation project žDomestic violence in lesbian relationships (in the Czech Republic) žAim: To find out, what are the attitudes and experiences of lesbian women with domestic violence in lesbian relationships in the Czech Republic žResearch questions: žWhat is considered as a domestic violence within the lesbian community? How is it described, understood, and perceived? žIs domestic violence in lesbian relationships considered a problem? Does it exist (in the opinion of lesbian women)? Do the women have knowledge of the violence? Have they experienced it? žThe main focus will be on the experience of lesbian women with domestic violence – How is the violent behavior described? What is considered to be violence, how is it perceived? What forms does it have? What problems do lesbian survivors deal with? ž ž The answers to these questions will be confronted with research results from the main studies within the field (e.g. Renzetti 1998, Ristock 2002) and the results of domestic violence research on heterosexual couples in the Czech Republic (Pikálková 2004). My dissertation project žMethodology: žquantitative „pre-research“, focusing on the attitudes of lesbian women to the topic, using an internet-based questionnaire, žqualitative research will focus on the experience of lesbian women with domestic violence, using in-depth interviews with women, who have experienced domestic violence in a lesbian relationship. — Communication partners for the interview will be approached through the above mentioned questionnaire (which will serve as a call for those interested in participating in further research), and also through the network of LGBT organizations in the Czech Republic and community groups, which will be asked to send the call for participation in the research to their contacts. ž ž The answers to these questions will be confronted with research results from the main studies within the field (e.g. Renzetti 1998, Ristock 2002) and the results of domestic violence research on heterosexual couples in the Czech Republic (Pikálková 2004). Sources žAnderson, Kristin L. 2005. „Theorizing Gender in Intimate Partner Violence Research.“ Sex Roles 52(11/12): 853-865. žBalsam, Kimberly F., Szymanski Dawn M. 2005. „Relationship Quality and Domestic Violence in Women's Same-Sex Relationships: The Role of Minority Stress.“ Psychology of Women Quarterly 29(3): 258-269. žBelknap, Joanne, Melton, Heather. 2005. „Are Heterosexual Men Also Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse?„ VAWnet: The National Online Resource Center on Violence Against Women. [online] [cit. 3. 11. 2011] Dostupné z žDeKeseredy, Walter S., Schwartz, Martin D. 1998. „Measuring the extent of woman abuse in intimate heterosexual relationships: A critique of the Conflict Tactics Scales.“ U.S. žDixon, Jo. 1995. „The Nexus of Sex, Spousal Violence, and the State.“ Law & Society Review 29(2): 359-376. žDobash, Russell P. et al. 1992. „The Myth of Sexual Symmetry in Marital Violence.“ Social Problems 39(1): 71-91 žDomácí násilí. 2007. Bílý kruh bezpečí, o.s. [cit. 2. 12. 2011]. Dostupné z žFeatherstone, Brid; Trinder, Liz. 1997. „Familiar subjects? Domestic violence and child welfare.“ Child and Family Social Work. 2: 147-159. žFlax, Jane. 1987. „Postmodernism and Gender Relations in Feminist Theory.“ Signs 12(4): 621-643. žFreeman, Michael. D. A. 1980. „Violence against Women: Does the Legal System Provide Solutions or Itself Constitute the Problem?“ British Journal of Law and Society 7(2): 215-241. žGelles, Richard J. 1997. Intimate violence in families. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. žHart, "Barbara. 1986. „Preface" Pp. 9-18 in Kerry Lobel, (ed.) Naming the Violence: Speaking Out About Lesbian Battering. Seattle: Seal Press,. žIngraham, Chrys. 1994. „The Heterosexual Imaginary: Feminist Sociology and Theories of Gender.“ Sociological Theory 12(2): 203-219. žItzin, Catherine. 2000. „Gendering domestic violence: the influence of feminism on policy and practice.“ Pp. 356-380 in Hanmer, J., Itzin, C. (eds.) Home truths about domestic violence: feminist influences on policy and practice a reader. London: Routledge. Sources žJohnson, Michael P. 1995. „Patriarchal Terrorism and Common Couple Violence: Two Forms of Violence against Women.“ Journal of Marriage and the Family 57(2): 283-294. žKurdek, Lawrence A. 2010. „What Do We Know About Gay and Lesbian Couples?“ Pp. 123-129 in Fisher, T., McNulty, J. (eds). Current Directions in Human Sexuality and Intimate Relationships for Human Sexuality in a World of Diversity. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. žLehman, Mark. 1997. At The End Of Rainbow: A Report on Gay Male Domestic Violence and Abuse. Minnesota Center Against Violence and Abuse. [online] [cit. 15. 10. 2011] Dostupné z žMessinger, Adam M. 2011. „Invisible Victims: Same-Sex IPV in the National Violence Against Women Survey.“ Journal of Interpersonal Violence 26(11): 2228-2243 žMoffitt, Terrie E., Richard, Robins W., Avshalom, Caspi. 2001. „A Couples Analysis of Partner Abuse with Implications for Abuse-Prevention Policy.“ Criminology and Public Policy 1: 5–36. žRenzetti, Claire M. 1989. „Building a Second Closet: Third Party Responses to Victims of Lesbian Partner Abuse.“ Family Relations 38(2): 157-163. žRenzetti, Claire M. 1998. „Violence and Abuse in Lesbian Relationships: Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Issues.“ Pp. 117-127. in Bergen, R. K (ed.), Issues in Intimate Violence. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. žRistock, Janice. L. 2002. No more secrets: Violence in lesbian relationships. New York: Routledge. žRohrbaugh, Joanna B. 2006. „Domestic Violence in Same-gender Relationships.“ Family Court Review 44(2): 287–299. žSegal, Lynne. 1993. „False Promises: Anti-Pornography Feminism.“ Socialist Register 29. žStraton, Jack C. 1994. „The myth of the battered husband syndrome.“ Masculinities 2: 79-82. žStraus, Murray A., Richard J. Gelles. 1986. „Societal changes and change in family violence from 1975 to 1985 as revealed by two national surveys.“ Journal of Marriage and the Family 48: 465-479. žTownley, Kerry. 2001. Domestic Violence within Lesbian Relationships. MSc Criminology and Criminal Justice, Loughborough University. [online] [cit. 12. 11. 2011] Dostupné z ž ž Mgr. Alžběta Možíšová Masarykova univerzita, Brno, Czech Republic amozisova@gmail.com Thanks for your attention!