Adaptations of Cellular Growth and Differentiation
Adaptations are reversible changes in the size, number, phenotype, metabolic activity, or functions of cells in response
to changes in their environment. Such adaptations may take several distinct forms.
HYPERTROPHY
Hypertrophy refers to an increase in the size of cells, resulting in an increase in the size of the organ. The hypertrophied
organ has no new cells, just larger cells. The increased size of the cells is due to the synthesis of more structural
components of the cells. Cells capable of division may respond to stress by undergoing both hyperplasia (described
below) and hypertrophy, whereas in nondividing cells (e.g., myocardial fibers) increased tissue mass is due to
hypertrophy. In many organs hypertrophy and hyperplasia may coexist and contribute to increased size.
Hypertrophy can be physiologic or pathologic and is caused by increased functional demand or by stimulation by
hormones and growth factors. The striated muscle cells in the heart and skeletal muscles have only a limited capacity
for division, and respond to increased metabolic demands mainly by undergoing hypertrophy. The most common
stimulus for hypertrophy of muscle is increased workload. For example, the bulging muscles of bodybuilders engaged in
“pumping iron” result from an increase in size of the individual muscle fibers in response to increased demand. In the
heart, the stimulus for hypertrophy is usually chronic hemodynamic overload, resulting from either hypertension or
faulty valves. In both tissue types the muscle cells synthesize more proteins and the number of myofilaments increases.
This increases the amount of force each myocyte can generate, and thus increases the strength and work capacity of the
muscle as a whole.
Mechanisms of Hypertrophy
Hypertrophy is the result of increased production of cellular proteins. Much of our understanding of hypertrophy is
based on studies of the heart. Hypertrophy can be induced by the linked actions of mechanical sensors (that are
triggered by increased work load), growth factors (including TGF-β, insulin-like growth factor-1 [IGF-1], fibroblast growth
factor), and vasoactive agents (such as α-adrenergic agonists, endothelin-1, and angiotensin II). Indeed, mechanical
sensors themselves induce production of growth factors and agonists. These stimuli work coordinately to increase the
synthesis of muscle proteins that are responsible for the hypertrophy. The two main biochemical pathways involved in
muscle hypertrophy seem to be the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt pathway (postulated to be most important in
physiologic, e.g., exercise-induced, hypertrophy) and signaling downstream of G protein-coupled receptors (induced by
many growth factors and vasoactive agents, and thought to be more important in pathologic hypertrophy). Hypertrophy
may also be associated with a switch of contractile proteins from adult to fetal or neonatal forms. For example, during
muscle hypertrophy the α isoform of myosin heavy chain is replaced by the β isoform, which has a slower, more
energetically economical contraction. In addition, some genes that are expressed only during early development are reexpressed
in hypertrophic cells, and the products of these genes participate in the cellular response to stress. For
example, the gene for atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) is expressed in both the atrium and the ventricle in the embryonic
heart, but it is down-regulated after birth. Cardiac hypertrophy, however, is associated with reinduction of ANF gene
expression. ANF is a peptide hormone that causes salt secretion by the kidney, decreases blood volume and pressure,
and therefore serves to reduce hemodynamic load.
HYPERPLASIA
Hyperplasia is an increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue, usually resulting in increased mass of the organ
or tissue. Although hyperplasia and hypertrophy are distinct processes, frequently they occur together, and they may be
triggered by the same external stimulus. Hyperplasia takes place if the cell population is capable of dividing, and thus
increasing the number of cells. Hyperplasia can be physiologic or pathologic.
Physiologic Hyperplasia
Physiologic hyperplasia can be divided into: (1) hormonal hyperplasia, which increases the functional capacity of a tissue
when needed, and (2) compensatory hyperplasia, which increases tissue mass after damage or partial resection.
Hormonal hyperplasia is well illustrated by the proliferation of the glandular epithelium of the female breast at puberty
and during pregnancy, usually accompanied by enlargement (hypertrophy) of the glandular epithelial cells. The classical
illustration of compensatory hyperplasia comes from the myth of Prometheus, which shows that the ancient Greeks
recognized the capacity of the liver to regenerate. As punishment for having stolen the secret of fire from the gods,
Prometheus was chained to a mountain, and his liver was devoured daily by an eagle, only to regenerate anew every
Carlos S. - Adaptations of Cellular Growth and Diffrentiation
night. In individuals who donate one lobe of the liver for transplantation, the remaining cells proliferate so that the
organ soon grows back to its original size. Experimental models of partial hepatectomy have been very useful for
defining the mechanisms that stimulate regeneration of the liver.
Pathologic Hyperplasia
Most forms of pathologic hyperplasia are caused by excesses of hormones or growth factors acting on target cells.
Endometrial hyperplasia is an example of abnormal hormone-induced hyperplasia. Normally, after a menstrual period
there is a rapid burst of proliferative activity in the epithelium that is stimulated by pituitary hormones and ovarian
estrogen. It is brought to a halt by the rising levels of progesterone, usually about 10 to 14 days before the end of the
menstrual period. In some instances, however, the balance between estrogen and progesterone is disturbed. This
results in absolute or relative increases in the amount of estrogen, with consequent hyperplasia of the endometrial
glands. This form of pathologic hyperplasia is a common cause of abnormal menstrual bleeding. Benign prostatic
hyperplasia is another common example of pathologic hyperplasia induced by responses to hormones, in this case,
androgens. Although these forms of hyperplasia are abnormal, the process remains controlled because there are no
mutations in genes that regulate cell division, and the hyperplasia regresses if the hormonal stimulation is eliminated. In
cancer the growth control mechanisms become dysregulated or ineffective because of genetic aberrations, resulting in
unrestrained proliferation. Thus, hyperplasia is distinct from cancer, but pathologic hyperplasia constitutes a fertile soil
in which cancerous proliferation may eventually arise. For instance, patients with hyperplasia of the endometrium are at
increased risk for developing endometrial cancer.
Hyperplasia is a characteristic response to certain viral infections, such as papillomaviruses, which cause skin warts and
several mucosal lesions composed of masses of hyperplastic epithelium. Here, growth factors produced by viral genes or
by infected cells may stimulate cellular proliferation.
Mechanisms of Hyperplasia
Hyperplasia is the result of growth factor–driven proliferation of mature cells and, in some cases, by increased output of
new cells from tissue stem cells. For instance, after partial hepatectomy growth factors are produced in the liver that
engage receptors on the surviving cells and activate signaling pathways that stimulate cell proliferation. But if the
proliferative capacity of the liver cells is compromised, as in some forms of hepatitis causing cell injury, hepatocytes can
instead regenerate from intrahepatic stem cells.
ATROPHY
Atrophy is reduced size of an organ or tissue resulting from a decrease in cell size and number. Atrophy can be
physiologic or pathologic. Physiologic atrophy is common during normal development. Some embryonic structures, such
as the notochord and thyroglossal duct, undergo atrophy during fetal development. The uterus decreases in size shortly
after parturition, and this is a form of physiologic atrophy.
Pathologic atrophy depends on the underlying cause and can be local or generalized. The common causes of atrophy
are the following:
1. Decreased workload (atrophy of disuse). When a fractured bone is immobilized in a plaster cast or when a
patient is restricted to complete bedrest, skeletal muscle atrophy rapidly ensues. The initial decrease in cell size
is reversible once activity is resumed. With more prolonged disuse, skeletal muscle fibers decrease in number
(due to apoptosis) as well as in size; this atrophy can be accompanied by increased bone resorption, leading to
osteoporosis of disuse.
2. Loss of innervation (denervation atrophy). The normal metabolism and function of skeletal muscle are
dependent on its nerve supply. Damage to the nerves leads to atrophy of the muscle fibers supplied by those
nerves
3. Diminished blood supply. A decrease in blood supply (ischemia) to a tissue as a result of slowly developing
arterial occlusive disease results in atrophy of the tissue. In late adult life, the brain may undergo progressive
atrophy, mainly because of reduced blood supply as a result of atherosclerosis. This is called senile atrophy; it
also affects the heart.
4. Inadequate nutrition. Profound protein-calorie malnutrition (marasmus) is associated with the use of skeletal
muscle as a source of energy after other reserves such as adipose stores have been depleted. This results in
marked muscle wasting (cachexia). Cachexia is also seen in patients with chronic inflammatory diseases and
Carlos S. - Adaptations of Cellular Growth and Diffrentiation
cancer. In the former, chronic overproduction of the inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is
thought to be responsible for appetite suppression and lipid depletion, culminating in muscle atrophy.
5. Loss of endocrine stimulation. Many hormone-responsive tissues, such as the breast and reproductive organs,
are dependent on endocrine stimulation for normal metabolism and function. The loss of estrogen stimulation
after menopause results in physiologic atrophy of the endometrium, vaginal epithelium, and breast.
6. Pressure. Tissue compression for any length of time can cause atrophy. An enlarging benign tumor can cause
atrophy in the surrounding uninvolved tissues. Atrophy in this setting is probably the result of ischemic changes
caused by compromise of the blood supply by the pressure exerted by the expanding mass.
Mechanisms of Atrophy:
Atrophy results from decreased protein synthesis and increased protein degradation in cells. Protein synthesis decreases
because of reduced metabolic activity. The degradation of cellular proteins occurs mainly by the ubiquitin-proteasome
pathway. Nutrient deficiency and disuse may activate ubiquitin ligases, which attach the small peptide ubiquitin to
cellular proteins and target these proteins for degradation in proteasomes. This pathway is also thought to be
responsible for the accelerated proteolysis seen in a variety of catabolic conditions, including cancer cachexia.
In many situations, atrophy is also accompanied by increased autophagy, with resulting increases in the number of
autophagic vacuoles. Autophagy (“self eating”) is the process in which the starved cell eats its own components in an
attempt to find nutrients and survive. Autophagic vacuoles are membrane-bound vacuoles that contain fragments of
cell components. The vacuoles ultimately fuse with lysosomes, and their contents are digested by lysosomal enzymes.
Some of the cell debris within the autophagic vacuoles may resist digestion and persist as membrane-bound residual
bodies that may remain as a sarcophagus in the cytoplasm. An example of such residual bodies is the lipofuscin
granules, discussed later in the chapter. When present in sufficient amounts, they impart a brown discoloration to the
tissue (brown atrophy). Autophagy is associated with various types of cell injury, and we will discuss it in more detail
later.
METAPLASIA
Metaplasia is a reversible change in which one differentiated cell type (epithelial or mesenchymal) is replaced by
another cell type. It may represent an adaptive substitution of cells that are sensitive to stress by cell types better able
to withstand the adverse environment.
The most common epithelial metaplasia is columnar to squamous, as occurs in the respiratory tract in response to
chronic irritation. In the habitual cigarette smoker, the normal ciliated columnar epithelial cells of the trachea and
bronchi are often replaced by stratified squamous epithelial cells. Stones in the excretory ducts of the salivary glands,
pancreas, or bile ducts may also cause replacement of the normal secretory columnar epithelium by stratified
squamous epithelium. A deficiency of vitamin A (retinoic acid) induces squamous metaplasia in the respiratory
epithelium. In all these instances the more rugged stratified squamous epithelium is able to survive under
circumstances in which the more fragile specialized columnar epithelium might have succumbed. However, the change
to metaplastic squamous cells comes with a price. In the respiratory tract, for example, although the epithelial lining
becomes tough, important mechanisms of protection against infection—mucus secretion and the ciliary action of the
columnar epithelium—are lost. Thus, epithelial metaplasia is a double-edged sword and, in most circumstances,
represents an undesirable change. Moreover, the influences that predispose to metaplasia, if persistent, may initiate
malignant transformation in metaplastic epithelium. Thus, a common form of cancer in the respiratory tract is
composed of squamous cells, which arise in areas of metaplasia of the normal columnar epithelium into squamous
epithelium.
Mechanisms of Metaplasia : Metaplasia does not result from a change in the phenotype of an already differentiated cell
type; instead it is the result of a reprogramming of stem cells that are known to exist in normal tissues, or of
undifferentiated mesenchymal cells present in connective tissue. In a metaplastic change, these precursor cells
differentiate along a new pathway. The differentiation of stem cells to a particular lineage is brought about by signals
generated by cytokines, growth factors, and extracellular matrix components in the cells' environment. These external
stimuli promote the expression of genes that drive cells toward a specific differentiation pathway. In the case of vitamin
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A deficiency or excess, it is known that retinoic acid regulates gene transcription directly through nuclear retinoid
receptors , which can influence the differentiation of progenitors derived from tissue stem cells. How other external
stimuli cause metaplasia is unknown, but it is clear that they too somehow alter the activity of transcription factors that
regulate differentiation.
Carlos S. - Adaptations of Cellular Growth and Diffrentiation