Theory Reflections: Intercultural Competence Framework/Model
Successful intercultural interactions are at the heart of what international education is all about. So what
does it mean to interact successfully with those from different cultures? This is the key question underlying the
concept of intercultural competence, the focus of my research which led to the development of an intercultural
competence framework, or model. Through my research, I worked with leading intercultural scholars in reaching
consensus on a definition and elements comprising intercultural competence, resulting in the first grounded
research-based framework, or model, of intercultural competence. The framework is comprised of the following:
Attitudes: Based on my study, several essential attitudes emerged, those of respect, openness, curiosity and
discovery. Openness and curiosity imply a willingness to risk and to move beyond one’s comfort zone. In
communicating respect to others, it is important to demonstrate that others are valued. These attitudes are
foundational to the further development of knowledge and skills needed for intercultural competence.
Knowledge: In regard to knowledge necessary for intercultural competence, intercultural scholars concurred on the
following: cultural self-awareness (meaning the ways in which one’s culture has influenced one’s identity and
worldview), culture-specific knowledge1 , deep cultural knowledge including understanding other world views, and
sociolinguistic awareness. The one element agreed upon by all the intercultural scholars was the importance of
understanding the world from others’ perspectives.
Skills: The skills that emerged from this study were ones that addressed the acquisition and processing of
knowledge: observation, listening, evaluating, analyzing, interpreting, and relating.
Internal Outcomes: These attitudes, knowledge, and skills ideally lead to an internal outcome that consists of
flexibility, adaptability, an ethnorelative perspective and empathy. These are aspects that occur within the individual
as a result of the acquired attitudes, knowledge and skills necessary for intercultural competence. At this point,
individuals are able to see from others’ perspectives and to respond to them according to the way in which the other
person desires to be treated. Individuals may reach this outcome in varying degrees of success.
External Outcomes: The summation of the attitudes, knowledge and skills, as well as the internal outcomes, are
demonstrated through the behavior and communication of the individual, which become the visible outcomes of
intercultural competence experienced by others. This then becomes the agreed upon definition of the intercultural
scholars, that intercultural competence is “the effective and appropriate behavior and communication in intercultural
situations.” However, it is important to understand that this definition is predicated on the elements highlighted in
this essay. It is also important to understand the implications of “effective” and “appropriate” behavior and
communication: Effectiveness can be determined by the individual while the appropriateness can only be determined
by the other person – with appropriateness being directly related to cultural sensitivity and the adherence to cultural
norms of that person.
These five overall elements can be visualized through the following model of intercultural competence,
thereby providing a framework to further guide efforts in developing intercultural competence in our students.
(See model on pages following Bibliography)
                                                            
1 There are many definitions that have been used for the word “culture.” For purposes of this discussion, “culture” is defined as values, beliefs
and norms held by a group of people. Culture shapes how individuals communicate and behave, that is, how they interact with others.
Discussion of Intercultural Competence Framework
This framework illustrates that it is possible for an individual to have the requisite attitudes and be
minimally effective and appropriate in behavior and/or communication, even without further knowledge or skills.
Adding the necessary knowledge and skills may ensure that an individual can be more effective and appropriate in
one’s intercultural interactions. With the added flexibility, adaptability, and empathy, one can be even more
effective and appropriate in intercultural interactions.
This framework also illustrates that intercultural competence is a process – a lifelong process – there is no
one point at which an individual becomes completely interculturally competent. Thus, it is important to pay as much
attention to the development process – of how one acquires the necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes – as one
does to the actual aspects of intercultural competence and as such, critical reflection becomes a powerful tool in the
process of intercultural competence development.
It is interesting to note that the intercultural scholars in this study could not agree on the role of language in
intercultural competence development, citing that language alone does not ensure one’s competency in the culture.
Thus, language is a necessary but not sufficient skill for intercultural competence. Language, however, can be a noted
vehicle through which to understand others’ worldviews, which is crucial to intercultural competence development.
Intercultural competence unfortunately does not “just happen” for most; instead, it must be intentionally
addressed. Intentionally addressing intercultural competence development at the post-secondary level through
programs, orientations, experiences, and courses – for both our domestic and international students – is essential if
we are to graduate global-ready students. Having a framework of intercultural competence such as the one
discussed in this essay can help guide our efforts in ensuring a more comprehensive, integrated approach.
Implications for our Work
What are some applications of this intercultural competence framework for international educators? Since
intercultural competence is not a naturally occurring phenomenon, we must be intentional about addressing this at
our institutions- through curricular and co-curricular efforts. In utilizing such a framework in our orientations and
intercultural programming, our efforts toward developing intercultural competence in our students can be included
in a more comprehensive, integrated approach instead of through random, ad-hoc approaches that often occur at
our institutions. It is also important that we assess our efforts – both to improve what we are doing to develop
intercultural competence among students and to also provide meaningful feedback to students themselves that
could aid them on their intercultural journey. Intercultural competence assessment is complex but doable, and
absolutely essential in moving the field toward a greater understanding of intercultural competence development.
Other questions for us to consider in applying this framework to our work: How interculturally competent are
we as international educators and what can we do to increase our own development in this area? How can we
incorporate the process of intercultural competence development into our programs? Given that this framework
represents a more US-centric perspective of intercultural competence, how do other cultures’ perspectives of
intercultural competence impact our work? What are the implications of the intercultural competence/global
citizenship nexus? How can we integrate assessment of intercultural competence throughout our programs? And
beyond international education, what are the broader implications and contexts of intercultural competence
development? As we continually search for ways to get along together as human beings sharing this one planet, the
need to transcend boundaries, to bridge and transform our differences, to be in relationship with one another, to join
in the oneness of our humanity while accepting our differences - these needs will continue to drive us as we seek to
overcome differences that may divide us. In the end, intercultural competence is about our relationships with each
other and ultimately, our very survival as humankind, as we work together to address the global challenges that
confront us in this century.
‐ Darla K. Deardorff
Bibliography
Bennett, Milton. 1993. "Toward Ethnorelativism: A Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity." In Education for
the Intercultural Experience, ed. R. Michael Paige. pp. 21-71. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
Byram, Michael. 1997. Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence. Clevedon: Multilingual
Matters.
Chen, Guo-ming, and Ran An. 2009. "A Chinese Model of Intercultural Leadership Competence." In The SAGE
Handbook of Intercultural Competence, ed. Darla K. Deardorff. pp. 196-208. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Deardorff, Darla K. 2006. “The Identification and Assessment of Intercultural Competence as a Student Outcome of
Internationalization at Institutions of Higher Education in the United States.” Journal of Studies in
International Education 10:241-266
Deardorff, Darla K. 2008. “Intercultural Competence: A Definition, Model and Implications for Education Abroad.” In
Developing Intercultural Competence and Transformation: Theory, Research, and Application in International
Education, ed. Victor Savicki. pp. 32-52. Sterling, VA: Stylus.
Deardorff, Darla K. , ed. 2009. The SAGE Handbook of Intercultural Competence. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Deardorff, Darla K. 2009. “Implementing Intercultural Competence Assessment.” In The SAGE Handbook of
Intercultural Competence, ed. Darla K. Deardorff. pp. 477-491. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Deardorff, Darla K. 2010. A Comparative Analysis and Global Perspective of Regional Studies on Intercultural
Competence. Paris: UNESCO
Nwosu, Peter. 2009. "Understanding Africans’ Conceptualizations of Intercultural Competence." In The SAGE
Handbook of Intercultural Competence, ed. Darla K. Deardorff. pp. 158-178. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Spitzberg, Brian, and Gabrielle Changnon. 2009. "Conceptualizing Intercultural Competence.” In The SAGE Handbook
of Intercultural Competence, ed. Darla K. Deardorff. pp. 2-52. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Zaharna, R.S. 2009. "An Associative Approach to Intercultural Communication Competence in the Arab World.” In
The SAGE Handbook of Intercultural Competence, ed. Darla K. Deardorff. pp. 179-195. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE MODEL
From “The Identification and Assessment of Intercultural Competence as a Student Outcome of
Internationalization at Institutions of Higher Education in the United States”
by Dr. Darla K. Deardorff in Journal of Studies in International Education, Fall 2006, 10, p.
241-266 and in The SAGE Handbook of Intercultural Competence, 2009 (Thousand Oaks: Sage).
Pyramid Model of Intercultural Competence (Deardorff, 2006. 2009):
DESIRED EXTERNAL OUTCOME:
Behaving and communicating effectively and
appropriately (based on one’s intercultural
knowledge, skills, and attitudes) to achieve
one’s goals to some degree
DESIRED INTERNAL OUTCOME:
Informed frame of reference/filter shift:
Adaptability (to different communication styles & behaviors;
adjustment to new cultural environments);
Flexibility (selecting and using appropriate communication
styles and behaviors; cognitive flexibility);
Ethnorelative view;
Empathy
Knowledge & Comprehension:
Cultural self-awareness;
Deep understanding and knowledge of
culture (including contexts, role and
impact of culture & others’ world
views);
Culture-specific information;
Sociolinguistic awareness
Skills:
To listen, observe, and interpret
To analyze, evaluate, and relate
Requisite Attitudes:
Respect (valuing other cultures, cultural diversity)
Openness (to intercultural learning and to people from other cultures, withholding judgment)
Curiosity and discovery (tolerating ambiguity and uncertainty)
NOTES:
• Move from personal level (attitude) to interpersonal/interactive level (outcomes)
• Degree of intercultural competence depends on acquired degree of underlying elements
Copyright 2006 by D.K. Deardorff
INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE MODEL
From “The Identification and Assessment of Intercultural Competence as a Student Outcome of
Internationalization at Institutions of Higher Education in the United States”
by Dr. Darla K. Deardorff Deardorff in Journal of Studies in International Education, Fall 2006,
10, p. 241-266 and in The SAGE Handbook of Intercultural Competence, 2009 (Thousand Oaks:
Sage)
Process Model of Intercultural Competence (Deardorff, 2006, 2009):
Notes:
• Begin with attitudes; Move from individual level (attitudes) to interaction level (outcomes)
• Degree of intercultural competence depends on acquired degree of attitudes,
knowledge/comprehension, and skills Copyright 2006 by D.K. Deardorff
Attitudes:
Respect (valuing other
cultures);
Openness (withholding
judgment);
Curiosity & discovery
(tolerating ambiguity)
Desired External
Outcome:
Effective and
appropriate
communication &
behavior in an
intercultural situation
Desired Internal
Outcome:
Informed Frame of
Reference Shift
(adaptability, flexibility,
ethnorelative view,
empathy)
Knowledge &
Comprehension:
Cultural self-awareness,
deep cultural knowledge,
sociolinguistic awareness
SKILLS: To listen,
observe & evaluate; To
analyze, interpret & relate