Jevy a procesy v neživé přírodě v
kontextu vývoje současné krajiny a
archeologického záznamu
Lenka Lisá
Habilitační práce
Brno 2016
Masarykova univerzita
Přírodovědecká fakulta
Ústav geologických věd
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Obsah:
Summary…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 5
Předmluva…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 7
Seznam zkratek…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….. 9
1. Formační procesy vývoje současné krajiny
1.1. Svahové procesy……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 10
1.2. Fluviální procesy……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 12
1.3. Eolické procesy………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 13
1.4. Glacigenní procesy…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 16
1.5. Procesy probíhající v prostředí jezer a mokřadů………………………………………………………. 17
1.6. Procesy probíhající v jeskynním prostředí………………………………………………………………… 19
1.7. Formační procesy v archeologickém kontextu…………………………………………………………. 20
2. Vybrané metodické nástroje současné geoarcheologie
2.1. Koncept základního popisu……………………………………………………………………………………… 23
2.2. Mikromorfologie v archeologickém kontextu…………………………………………………………. 23
2.3. Povrchová morfologie křemenných zrn………………………………………………………………….. 25
2.4. Zrnitostní analýza……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 26
2.5. Environmentální magnetismus………………………………………………………………………………….27
2.6. Geochemie……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 28
4. Vlastní práce
4.1. Svahové procesy………………………………………………………………………………………………………................. 33
Lisa, L., Komoroczy, B., Vlach, M., Válek, D., Bajer, A., Kovárník, J., Rajtár, J., Hüssen, C.M.,
Šumberová, R. (2015): How were the ditches filled? Sedimentological and
micromorphological classification of formation processes within graben-like
archaeological objects. Quaternary International, 370, 66-76.
Lisa, L., Hosek, J., Bajer, A., Matys Grygar T., Vandenberghe D. (2014): Geoarchaeology of
Upper Palaeolithic loess sites located within a transect through Moravian valleys,
Czech Republic.- Quaternary International, 351, 25-37.
4.2.Fluviální procesy…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………61
Lisá, L., Lisý, P., Chadima, M., Čejchan, P., Bajer, A., Cílek, V., Suková, L. and Schnabl, P.
(2012): Microfacies description linked to the magnetic and non-magnetic proxy as
a promising environmental tool: Case study from alluvial deposits of the Nile river.
Quaternary International, 266, pp. 25-33.
Grygar, T, Svetlik, I, Lisa, L, Koptikova, L, Bajer, A, Wray, DS, Ettler, V, Mihaljevic, M,
Novakova, T, Koubova, M, Novak, J, Macka, Z, Smetana, M. (2010): Geochemical
tools for the stratigraphic correlation of floodplain deposits of the Morava River in
Straznicke Pomoravi, Czech Republic from the last millennium. CATENA, 80, 2,
106-121.
4.3. Eolické procesy…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………89
Lisá, L., Buriánek D., Uher P. (2009):New approach to garnet redistribution during aeolian
transport.- Geological Quarterly,53 (3).
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Hosek, J., Hambach, U., Lisá, L., Matys Grygar, T., Horáček, I., Meszner, S., Knésl, I. (2015):
An integrated rock-magnetic and geochemical approach to loess/paleosol
sequences from Bohemia and Moravia (Czech Republic): Implications for the
Upper Pleistocene paleoenvironment in central Europe. Palaeography
Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology. 418
4.4. Glacigenní procesy…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………113
Mentlík P., Minár J., Břízová E., Lisá L., Taborik P. & Stacked V. (2010): Glaciation in the
surroundings of Prášilské Lake (Bohemian Forest, Czech Republic).Geomorphology,
117, 1-2, 181-194.
Krizova, L, Krizek, M, Lisa, L. (2011): Applicability of quartz grains surface analysis to the
study of the genesis of unlithified sediments. GEOGRAFIE, 116, 1, 59-78
4.5. Prostředí jezer a bažin……………………………………………………………………………………………………………147
Letr L., Sádlo J., Žáčková P., Lisá L., Novák J., Pokorný P. (2014): Late-Glacial and Holocene
Environmental History of an Oxbow Wetland in the Polabí Lowland (River Elbe,
Czech Republic); a Context-Dependent Interpretation of a Multi-Proxy Analysis.Folia
Geobotanica, 49, 2, 137 – 162.
Cílek, V., Bárta, M., Lisá, L., Pokorná, A., Juříčková, L., Brůna, V., Mahmoud, A.M.A., Bajer,
A., Novák, J. and Beneš, J. (2012): Diachronic development of the Lake of Abusir
during the third millennium BC, Cairo, Egypt. Quaternary International, 266, pp.
14-24
4.6. Procesy v jeskyním prostředí…………………………………………………………………………………………………189
Lisá L., Neruda P., Nerudová Z., Bajer A. (2013): Geoarcheologický záznam středního a
mladého paleolitu v jeskyni Kůlně, Moravský kras.- Acta Musei Moraviae.
Scientiae sociales = Časopis Moravského muzea. Vědy společenské. 98, 2: 197-214.
Kadlec J., Chadima M., Lisá L., Hercman H., Osintsev A., and Oberhänsli H.(2009): Clastic
cave deposits in Botovskaya Cave (Eastern Siberia,Russian Federation). - Journal of
Cave and Karst Studies, NSS. 70, (3), p. 142-155.
4.7. Procesy v antropogenním kontextu………………………………………………………………………………………… 223
Dejmal, M., Lisá, L., Nývltová Fišáková M., Bajer A., Petr, L., Kočár, P., Kočárová R., Nejman
L., Rybníček M., Suvová Z., Culp, R., Vavrčík H. (2014): Medieval horse stable; The
Results of Multi Proxy Interdisciplinary Research.- Plos One, 9, 3, e89273.
Novák J., Lisá L., Pokorný P., Kuna M. (2012): Charcoal analyses as an environmental tool
for the study of Early Medieval sunken houses infills in Roztoky near Prague, Czech
Republic.- Journal of Archaeological Science, 39, 808 – 817.
5. Shrnutí………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 246
6. Použitá literatura…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 247
5
The phenomena and processes in the inanimate nature in context of recent
landscape development and archaeological record
Summary
The presented work is generally focused on the study of the phenomena and processes in the
inanimate nature during the Quaternary, i.e. the period covering approximately the last 2.5 Ma.
However the phenomena and processes important to the understanding of the current landscape on
the Earth took place not only during the Quaternary, but in essence continuously flowed logically
from the beginning of the Earth’s development. Therefore, the main factors of the development of
the countryside generally can be summarized under the concept of Geodiversity. This is a complex,
constantly changing and evolving system influenced by a multitude of both exogenous as well as
endogenous factors. At the same time, it can be understood as the driving engine for the formation
of ekofactors, therefore, the landscape as a whole, which inevitably to some extent also affects us
and our perception of cultural values.
In the first part the work, a general introduction to the study of formation processes is
provided. Here, the basic formation processes of the quaternary sediments corresponding to the
type of environment in which they form are summarized, and at the same time the consequences of
these processes, both in the natural and archaeological context are described. Discussion of the
individual environment is conceived either methodically or in relation to climate change and
anthropogenic influences on the evolution of the current landscape. The methodological tools
commonly used in the context of these studies are summarized in the second part of the work. These
mainly include basic sedimenthological descriptions, micromorphological characteristics in natural or
anthropogenic contexts, grain size analysis, environmental magnetism, and chemical composition of
studied sediments and soils. For over 10 years I have published 29 papers with impact factor, which
have had great impact on these themes and now I am presenting 13 papers, accompanied by one
published in the peer-reviewed Journal of the Moravian Museum in Brno. These works I consider to
be essential for the chosen topic, and therefore I decided to always present two for each of the
described formation process. The study of quaternary sediments in relation to climate trends or
anthropogenic context is a multidisciplinary topic, therefore, these works are created mostly in the
broader team of co-authors while my specialization was and is mostly of a general concept
description of the formation processes, micromorphology and grain size analysis, environmental
magnetism and chemistry.
It might be said that this work is more or less the insight into my previous academic
experience. It can be noted that the study of cave sediments and the work on the application of
provenience methods in my thesis, in essence, predetermined the direction of my scientific career.
The provenance studies of aeolian sediment (the main topic of my thesis) deepened my knowledge
about provenience methods focused on the association of heavy minerals, geochemistry of garnets
or zircon typology. These studies were so far the most comprehensive works on the provenance of
the rich geometry of sediments in the territory of our republic. At the same time I managed to
incorporate the method of quartz grain micromorphology, into the methodology of provenance
studies which I used later several times with success in other directed studies. The benefit of this
methodology was for example the recognition of sediment transport by iceberg in the case of the
Šumava lakes, or the recognition of aeolian input into the sedimentary archives in the case of Labský
důl in Krkonoše Mountains. Although my currently published studies are still concerned with climatic
6
changes, my other career direction was influenced by the integration into the project of Cambridge
University and the beginning of cooperation with archaeologists. Gradually there are several studies
within the scope of this project focused on the relationship of changing climate, formation processes
in the landscape and human impact, especially during MIS3 (Marine Isotope stage 3). However it was
not possible to perform the study of the formation processes in a natural and archaeological context,
without deeper knowledge of geoarchaeological methods as for examples micromorfology,
environmental magnetism, or geochemical characteristics of the studied sediments. Gradually it was
possible to establish a certain methodology of Geoarchaeology, which is now commonly used in the
Czech Republic and lectured at several universities. The most important projects in recent years,
funded mainly by the Czech Grant Agency, include research of the wooden bailey in Veselí nad
Moravou, which in a complex globally unique multidisciplinary study directed on the maintenance of
the medieval stables was published. Another study was focused on Neolithic rondels, in which we
have conducted the first study to compare the fillings of sharp point ditches of enclosures from the
time of the Neolithic and Roman periods. One more example is the research of the early medieval
site at Roztoky u Prahy, where it was possible to identify and interpret the emergence, development
and disappearance of objects and, above all, their floor scales. The current study of the formation
processes is an essential part of environmental studies and there is a visible effort to incorporate this
methodological perspective into archaeological research. The methodological approaches used in
this direction are constantly developing and it seems, that this field of study has great potential for
the future.
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Předmluva
Předkládaná práce je zaměřena obecně na studium jevů a procesů v neživé přírodě během
kvartéru, tedy období cca posledních 2,5 mil. let (2.588 ± 0.005 Ma; Cohen et al., 2013). Toto období
je specifické z mnoha hledisek. Chtělo by se egoisticky říci, že tím hlavním faktorem vyčlenění
kvartéru jako posledního období kenozoika je objev a rozšíření hominidů postupně na všech
kontinentech. Hlavní důvody, které však vedly stratigrafickou komisi k oddělení tohoto období od
toho předcházejícího - neogénu (hranice je stanovena paleomagneticky), jsou závislé především na
změnách vývoje klimatu řízeného střídáním Milankovičových cyklů (Hays et al., 1976) podmiňujících
opakovaný nárůst a odtávání ledovců na obou polokoulích a s tím související periodické střídání
chladných (resp. sušších) a teplejších (resp. vlhčích) výkyvů. Zároveň dochází k vývoji současného
utváření říční sítě nebo vzniku eolických sedimentů. Samotná role vlivu člověka na krajinu jako
takovou je markantnější až v posledním teplém (resp. humidním) výkyvu, který nazýváme holocén a
oddělujeme ho na základě klimatických změn od předcházejícího pleistocénu a pliocénu. Hranice
začátku holocénu je kladena do období 11,7 ka (Cohen et al., 2013). Posledních 200 let je potom
nazýváno antropocénem (Zalasiewicz, et. al., 2011), protože současně s industriální revolucí začala
být role člověka na planetě Zemi mnohem výraznější.
To bylo řečeno obecně k úvodu do stratigrafie, který bylo nutno minimálně takto předestřít
k předkládanému tématu. Jevy a procesy důležité k pochopení současné krajiny však na Zemi
probíhají nejen během kvartéru, ale v podstatě kontinuálně, logicky od začátku vývoje Země. Proto
lze hlavní faktory vývoje krajiny obecně shrnout pod pojem geodiverzita (v naší literatuře např. Bajer
et al., 2015). Geodiverzita je komplexní, neustále se měnící a vyvíjející se systém ovlivněný
množstvím jak exogenních, tak endogenních faktorů. Zároveň ji lze chápat jako hnací motor pro
formování ekofaktorů, tedy krajiny jako celku, který zákonitě do jisté míry ovlivňuje i nás samotné a
naše vnímání kulturních hodnot. Základem geodiverzity, potažmo diverzity současné krajiny, je
v první řadě složení horninového substrátu. Již první pohled na geologickou mapu českých zemí nám
odhalí, že na jejich stavbě se podílejí dvě geologické jednotky prvního řádu - Český masiv, který
buduje celé Čechy a zhruba dvě třetiny Moravy a Slezska, a Západní Karpaty, jejichž vnější pásmo
včetně předhlubně se táhne podél celé jihovýchodní hranice Českého masivu. Nedílnou součástí
geologického podloží je i jeho nejsvrchnější „slupka“ na hranici geosféry a atmosféry tvořená
kvartérními sedimenty a půdami. Ty jsou v klasickém geologickém pojetí často opomíjeny, jsou však
neodmyslitelně důležitou součástí krajinné geodiverzity. Dalším faktorem modifikujícím krajinu je
sám člověk. Studium zaměřené na interakci člověka s krajinou v archeologii spadá do oboru
geoarcheologie. Základní práce zabývající se geodiverzitou danou formačními procesy a v návaznosti
na činnost člověka a geoarcheologické přístupy jsou shrnuty například v pracích Goldberga a
MacPhaila (2006), Frenche (2005) nebo Robertse (2014).
Následující práce je v první části koncipována jako obecný úvod do studia formačních
procesů. Jsou zde shrnuty základní formační procesy kvartérních sedimentů odpovídající typu
prostředí, ve kterém vznikaly, a zároveň jsou zde popsány důsledky těchto procesů jak v přirozeném,
tak antropogenním kontextu. Diskuze k jednotlivým prostředím je koncipována buďto metodicky,
nebo ve vztahu ke změnám klimatu a antropogenním vlivům na vývoj současné krajiny. Úmyslem
této práce nebylo představit vyčerpávající rozbor všech typů sedimentů vznikajících v jednotlivých
prostředích, ale zaměřit se především na témata, která jsem publikovala ať již jako hlavní autor, nebo
spoluautor přibližně v posledních 10 letech. Obecně jsou v rámci kvartérních sedimentů vyčleňovány
sedimenty klastické a chemické (Kukal, 1986, Růžičková et al., 2003). Typ sedimentu odpovídá typu
procesu a prostředí, v rámci kterého vznikl. Tak lze následně vyčlenit: 1. svahové procesy; 2. fluviální
(říční) procesy; 3. eolické (větrné) procesy; 4. glacigenní (ledovcové) procesy; 5. procesy probíhající v
prostředí jezer a mokřadů; 6. procesy probíhající v jeskynním prostředí; 7. procesy vyvolané
8
zemědělstvím; 8. procesy akumulace odpadního a konstrukčního materiálu. Posledním typem je
proces při vývoji půd. Ten však není vzhledem k jeho komplexnosti a náročnosti tohoto
samostatného tématu zařazen do předkládané práce. Diskuze k recentním půdám a paleopůdám je
však zmiňována v kontextu s jinými formačními procesy (Lisá a Bajer, 2014). Metodické nástroje
běžně používané v rámci těchto studií jsou shrnuty v druhé části práce. Zahrnují především základní
sedimentologický popis, mikromorfologickou charakteristiku v přirozeném nebo antropogenním
kontextu, zrnitostní analýzu, environmentální magnetismus a chemismus studovaných sedimentů
nebo půd. Při studiu formačních procesů platí pravidlo vždy postupovat od tzv. makra k mikru, tzn.
přistupovat k detailnějším a zároveň i finančně nákladnějším metodám až po dokonalé znalosti okolní
geologie, resp. sedimentologie a geomorfologie. Ač se to zdá logické, v reálu je toto pravidlo bohužel
až příliš často opomíjeno.
Z celkového počtu 29 impaktovaných prací, které jsem za posledních cca 10 let publikovala,
zde předkládám 13 článků doplněných o jednu publikaci zveřejněnou v recenzovaném časopise
Moravského zemského muzea. Tyto práce považuji za zásadní pro zvolené téma, a proto jsem vybrala
vždy dvě pro každý popisovaný formační proces. Studium kvartérních sedimentů ve vztahu k vývoji
klimatu nebo antropogennímu kontextu je multioborovým tématem, proto jsou tyto práce vytvářeny
povětšinou v širším autorském týmu, přičemž mou specializací byl a je převážně obecný koncept
popisu formačních procesů, mikromorfologická a zrnitostní analýza, environmentální magnetismus a
chemismus. Ostatní práce publikované v „pouze“ recenzovaných časopisech (kterých je do dnešního
dne již několik desítek) nebo v monografiích neuváděných na Web of Science nepovažuji za „horší“,
tyto jen neodpovídají svým zařazením tomu, jak je dnes scientometrie nastavena. Přesto však na tyto
publikace alespoň zčásti odkazuji v diskuzích k jednotlivým tématům a jejich seznam je následně
uveden v kapitole 3. Použitá literatura. Pro přehlednost jsou všechny práce, ve kterých jsem hlavním
autorem nebo spoluautorem, označeny tučně. Na konci této kapitoly je zároveň uveden seznam
zkratek používaných v textu. Výše zmiňovaný koncept procesů hrajících roli při vývoji současné
krajiny vychází z mé přednáškové činnosti (předmět Geoarcheologie vyučovaný každoročně a
dlouhodobě na FF MU v Brně, FF ZU v Plzni) a byl v poslední době publikován v monografiích Lisé a
Bajera (2014; Manuál geoarcheologa); Bajera et al. (2014; Micromorphology in natural and
antropogenical context) a Bajera et al. (2015; Krajina a geodiverzita - Neživá příroda jako základ
krajinných a kulturních hodnot). Vzhledem k rozsahu předkládané práce jsou její kostrou pouze
základní charakteristiky jednotlivých prostředí a základní metodické nástroje geoarcheologie. Tento
koncept byl již v minulosti částečně publikován ve výše zmíněných monografiích, zde je však výrazně
rozšířen a doplněn odkazy na příkladové studie, které jsem publikovala v posledních zhruba 10
letech.
Na tomto místě bych ráda poděkovala všem, kteří mne provázejí mým profesním životem a
pomáhají mi nejen v týmové práci. Jsou to kolegové z mé mateřské instituce Geologického ústavu
Akademie Věd České republiky a spoluautoři z nejrůznějších institucí v naší republice i mimo ni.
Neocenitelné díky však patří i mé rodině a mým rodičům, největší potom mému muži Pavlovi a dceři
Markétce za jejich pochopení při plánování mých víkendových cest a dovolených v terénu. Čtyři
kolegové, kteří mne v životě výrazně ovlivnili nejen na mé profesní cestě, ale i ve způsobu, jak chápat
dění kolem sebe, a kterým bych tímto chtěla poděkovat, jsou paní Vlasta Jankovská z Botanického
ústavu AVČR v Brně, pan Václav Cílek z Geologického ústavu AVČR v Praze, pan Martin Jones
z Cambridge University v UK a pan Rudolf Musil z mé alma mater, Masarykovy univerzity v Brně.
Za cenné připomínky k předkládané práci bych tímto ráda poděkovala kolegům Pavlovi
Bosákovi z Geologického ústavu AVČR v Praze, Petrovi Nerudovi z Moravského zemského muzea
v Brně a Alešovi Bajerovi z Mendelovy univerzity v Brně.
9
Seznam použitých zkratek
BC (before Christ) – před začátkem našeho letopočtu
BP (before present) – před současností
Cox – oxidovatelný uhlík
CHKO – chráněná krajinná oblast
ka – (for killoannus) - tisíc let
LOI (Loss on Ignition) – ztráta žíháním
LGM (Last Glacial Maximum) – Poslední glaciální maximum
LGT (Last Glacial Terminal)- terminální část posledního glaciálu
Ma (for megaannus) - milion let
MIS3 – Marine Isotope stage 3
MIS4 – Marine Isotope stage 4
PK1 – Pedokomplex 1
TOC (total organic carbon) – celkový obsah uhlíku
W1/2; W2/3 – zkratky pro starší členění würmu
10
1. Přirozené formační procesy vývoje současné krajiny
1.1. Svahové procesy
Svahové sedimenty vznikají jako postupná akumulace zvětralého materiálu v důsledku
gravitačních procesů. Způsob, jakým se materiál pohybuje, závisí na množství faktorů a je silně
ovlivněn mírou nasycení vodou. Pro tyto procesy, resp. pro výsledný typ sedimentů, který v jejich
rámci vzniká, existuje v literatuře široké spektrum terminologických výrazů. Lze se tedy setkat s
pojmy jako např. koluviální, deluviální, geliflukční nebo soliflukční sediment. Všechny tyto výrazy
popisují odchylky ve způsobu svahové depozice, resp. faktory, které při ní hrají roli. Hlavním faktorem
při svahovém způsobu depozice, která působí na nakloněné ploše, je zemská přitažlivost (gravitace).
Proto tyto sedimenty nazýváme obecně jako sedimenty svahové nebo gravitační. Dalším používaným
synonymem svahových nebo gravitačních sedimentů/procesů je termín koluviální (výraz coluvial
převzatý z anglosaské literatury). Tyto tři pojmy (gravitační/svahový/koluviální) v sobě zahrnují
širokou škálu vlivů, které mohou typ výsledných procesů/sedimentů modifikovat. Platí pravidlo, že
pokud nejsme schopni identifikovat přesněji vlivy, které při gravitační depozici hrály roli, můžeme
sediment obecně nazvat jako gravitační, svahový nebo koluviální. Naproti tomu například termín
deluviální už je specifičtější a charakterizuje sediment, na jehož vzniku se podílela jak gravitace, tak
nasycení vodou a výsledný proces byl poměrně rychlý. Odpovídá například ronu, plošnému splachu
nebo rychlému bahnotoku. V okamžiku, kdy se ke gravitaci přidá saturace sedimentu vodou a pohyb
po svahu je pomalý, můžeme vzniklý proces/sediment označit jako soliflukční. Známkou pomalé
soliflukce je například tzv. hákování, tj. ohýbání kmenů stromů ve směru depozice. Pokud je voda v
sedimentu alespoň částečně zmrzlá, vzniká geliflukční sediment. Ve svahových sedimentech jsou
křemenná zrna písčité frakce obvykle ostrohranná, jejich tvar odráží rychlost a sílu krátkodobé
depozice.
Svahové sedimenty jsou v podstatě nejrozšířenějším typem kvartérního sedimentu na území
naší republiky a vznikaly v různé míře jak během glaciálních, tak interglaciálních období. Typ
svahových sedimentů je obvykle závislý silně na podložní geologii a na klimatu, ve kterém vznikaly.
Tak například ve vyšších partiích Českomoravské vysočiny (Dráteník, Tři palice) nebo v okrajových
pohořích, které lemují naši republiku (Šumava – Čertova stěna, Krkonoše – Labský důl), můžeme
identifikovat balvanitá pole jako odraz glaciálních podmínek. Na druhou stranu například i dnes
vznikají v oblasti Moravskoslezského flyše rozsáhlá sesuvná území tvořená hlinitopísčitými sedimenty
a podmíněná především výskytem smykových zón a přítomností vody v geologickém podloží
(Hradecký a Pánek, 2008; Šilhán a Pánek, 2010; Pánek et al., 2011), zatímco na úpatí skal pevných,
zejména vulkanických hornin, se vytvářejí volné hrubé sutě – droliny. Svahové procesy mohou být
iniciovány jak přirozenými, tak antropogenními faktory. Poměrně často se lze setkat se svahovými
jevy a jejich důsledky (hiáty) - například ve sprašových sedimentech posledního glaciálu. Typickým
příkladem jsou chybějící A horizonty integlaciálních půd, případně redepozice interstadiálních
černozemí (Hošek et al., 2015) nebo interstadiálních půd na lokalitě Tvarožná (Škrdla et al., 2009)
nebo v Dolních Věstonicích (Lisá et al., 2013a; Lisá et al., 2014). Tato problematika byla autorkou
dlouhodobě studována především v jihomoravské sprašové oblasti. Zvýšená intenzita svahových
procesů je evidentně vázána především na rozdílné rozložení srážek na přechodu mezi výrazně
studenými (suchými) glaciálními podmínkami a relativně teplejšími (vlhčími) interglaciálními nebo
interstadiálními podmínkami.
Jedním z příkladů toho, jak svahové formační procesy ovlivnily dlouhodobě uznávanou
terminologii, je na našem území období MIS 3 spojené s klasifikací pedokomplexu PK1. Během MIS 3
(období marinního izotopového stadia 3 – pro archeologii klíčového pro řešení problematiky počátku
mladého paleolitu) proběhla tři relativně výrazná oteplení (moershooftd, hengelo a denekamp).
Mírné oteplení hengelo bylo spojováno s interstadiálem W 1/2 (alpská klasifikace používaná v naší
11
starší literatuře) a denekamp s W 2/3 (Valoch 1971). V dnešním pojetí spadají moershooftd, hengelo i
denekamp do interpleniglaciálu v průběhu MIS 3 (Valoch, 2012). Z tohoto období byl do naší
stratigrafie zaveden pojem PK1, který souhrnně charakterizuje půdní komplex vznikající v těchto
obdobích (Kukla, 1969). Smolíková (1969, 1973) pedokomplex 1 popsala následovně: pseudoglej v
autochtonní pozici, arktická hnědozem, arktická hnědozem z čisté spraše na bázi. Problém související
přímo s gravitačními formačními procesy, které ovlivňují nejen současnou krajinu, ale i stratigrafický
záznam, je však v tom, že pojmem PK1 bývá označován téměř vždy jen jeden půdní horizont
přiřazovaný obvykle k poslednímu z těchto interstadiálů denecamp. Charakteristika PK1 se však
opírala pouze o radiokarbonově datovanou svrchní půdu s gravettienem v Dolních Věstonicích
srovnávanou se stillfriedem B v Dolním Rakousku (dřívějším W 2/3). Jedině v tomto pojetí lze tedy
PK1 chápat a používat (Valoch, 2012). V profilech, které byly využity pro model chronostratigrafického
vývoje pleistocenních sedimentů (Kukla, 1969), nebyly zbývající půdní horizonty
vzniklé v předchozích interstadiálech zastiženy, a nebyly proto popsány a očíslovány. Absence
zmiňovaných paleopůd je z velké míry způsobena právě erozí v důsledku svahových procesů
způsobených již zmiňovanými vyššími srážkovými úhrny, resp. rozdílným rozložením srážkových
úhrnů během roku. Typickým příkladem půdy, která nebyla do tohoto schématu zahrnuta z výše
zmíněných důvodů, je Bohunická půda (Haesaerts, 1985) odpovídající nejlépe půdě „Willendorf
(Bohunice)“ o stáří ±41 ka (Haesaerts a Teyssandier 2003).
Komplex sprašových sedimentů s tenkými vrstvičkami asociovanými Šroubkem et al. (2001)
s interstadiálními půdami ve vstupním portálu jeskyně Kůlny byl nesprávně interpretován jako eolická
sedimentace přerušovaná pedogenezí. Ve skutečnosti šlo v tomto případě opět o svahový sediment
uložený během výrazně vlhčí erozní události, (pravděpodobně během MIS 4), přičemž tenké vrstvičky
představují erodované rothlemové půdy z prostoru mimo jeskyni (Lisá et al., 2013b). Vstupním
částem jeskyní povětšinou dominují nejrůznější typy svahových procesů. Obvykle jsou sedimenty
těchto prostředí v naší literatuře interpretovány jako opady z komínů (Musil, 1993), v poslední době
však bylo revizí dvou jeskyní – jeskyně Pod hradem a jeskyně Kůlny - zjištěno, že se jedná téměř
výhradně o materiál deponovaný svahovými procesy (pomalou geliflukcí nebo deluviálními procesy)
z prostoru osypového kužele před jeskyní (případ jeskyně Pod hradem – Nejman et al., 2013), které
na jedné straně usazují kryoturbačně ovlivněné spraším podobné sedimenty, na druhé straně erodují
sedimenty vzniklé ve starších fázích depozice (příklad jeskyně Kůlna – Lisá et al., 2013b). Typické
texturní prvky indikující geliflukční procesy jsou zachytitelné i v tzv. otevřených stanovištích (open-air
sites), a sice například ve sprašové sérii v Dolních Věstonicích. Zde byla v kontextu s lidským osídlením
zachycena geliflukcí postižená poloha s gravetienským ohništěm (Lisá et al., 2014).
Svahové procesy lze velmi dobře studovat v antropogenním kontextu. Na lokalitě Sovín na
západním okraji Prahy byly pomocí sedimentologického, mikrostratigrafického a paleobotanického
výzkumu identifikovány mocné horizonty diluviálních sedimentů vzniklé v důsledku pravěkých
zemědělských praktik (Lisá, 2011). K nastartování svahových procesů v tomto případě přispěla
především lidská činnost (rozorání až příliš velkých ploch) v kombinaci s nepříznivými vlastnostmi
podložních hornin (cenomanské písky). Svahové procesy lze ovšem také studovat v mnohem menším
měřítku. Velmi dobrým příkladem jsou výplně archeologických objektů. Častým dotazem archeologů
při studiu těchto výplní je otázka, zda byl materiál do objektu intencionálně přemístěn, nebo zda jde
o přirozenou depozici v důsledku například svahových procesů (Tichý et al, 2010). Tato problematika
byla studována podrobně na příkladu hrotovitých příkopů. Ty se v archeologickém záznamu objevují
ve větší míře především v neolitu při výstavbě rondelových struktur a později v době římské při
výstavbě krátkodobých postupových táborů. Sedimentologickou analýzou těchto výplní podpořenou
mikromorfologickou charakteristikou bylo statisticky dokázáno, že formační procesy v rámci
rondelových výplní a v rámci příkopů římských táborů se diametrálně liší. Zatímco u rondelových
příkopů docházelo v první fázi k poměrně rychlé sedimentaci gravitací, při které vznikaly poměrně
tenké vrstvičky redeponované spraše a redeponované a částečně in situ vzniklé půdy, v druhé fázi
docházelo k periodickým splachům a průběžnému zarůstání vegetací. Druhá fáze trvala v řádech
12
stovek let. Třetí fáze výplní je charakteristická antropogenním vlivem, tj. rychlým přemístěním
materiálu valu, který byl v okolí příkopu deponován při jeho výstavbě (Lisá et al., 2013c, 2015; Válek
et al., 2013). Oproti tomu v případě římských táborů je první fáze depozice charakteristická
intencionální depozicí valu směrem do příkopu následovanou dlouhodobou, v rámci stovek let
dlouhou gravitační depozicí z okolí spojenou s průběžným zarůstáním. Třetí fází je opět intencionální
odstranění zbytku valu a zarovnání povrchu pro účely zemědělského využití (Lisá et al., 2015;
Komoroczy et al., 2014).
1.2. Fluviální (říční) procesy
Fluviální neboli říční sedimenty jsou neodmyslitelnou součástí krajiny. Poslední roky o nich
slýcháváme čím dál častěji, a to především v souvislosti s povodněmi. Fluviální procesy však
neprobíhají pouze během povodní. Činností řek, přesněji řečeno jejich erozními schopnostmi, se již
od miocénu (třetihory) začala formovat současná říční síť. Vzniká tak velmi specifická morfologie
krajiny, která po tisíciletí ovlivňuje migrace rostlin, zvířat i lidí, protože vytváří jeden z typů krajinného
koridoru. Říční údolí má vždy průřez tvaru V, na rozdíl od údolí modelovaného ledovcem, které má
průřez tvaru U. Vývoj říčního koryta a architektury říční nivy se mění v čase a v závislosti na klimatu
nebo lidském impaktu. Lze vyčlenit rozdílné základní typy řek: divočící, anastomozující a meandrující.
Když hovoříme o fluviálních procesech/sedimentech, myslíme tím výhradně prostředí
spojené s proudící vodou, nemusí se ale vždy jednat o říční koryto. Fluviální sedimenty dělíme obecně
na sedimenty korytové a aluviální. Korytové sedimenty se usazují v korytech řek, konkrétně na jejich
bázi. V rámci těchto prostředí vznikají facie, které odrážejí rozdílnou energii vodního fluida. Korytové
sedimenty jsou většinou ve frakci písku až štěrku, jsou vytříděné a v rámci koryta tvoří rozpoznatelné
morfologické tvary, například jesepy. Tím, jak do sebe jednotlivá zrnka písku během transportu
narážejí, se část zrn odlamuje, a vznikají tak charakteristické důlky. Následný transport tyto důlky
vyhlazuje do tvaru jamek. Celkově jsou zrna, která jsou transportována ve vodním fluidu, na svém
povrchu hladká a lesklá, protože vodní film nárazy brzdí. Relikty korytových sedimentů, které zůstaly
zachovány na svazích údolí poté, co se řeka zahloubila v důsledku klimatických nebo tektonických
procesů níže do geologického podloží, se nazývají terasy. Obecně platí, že terasy výše na svahu jsou
starší než terasy položené níže ve svahu.
Naproti tomu aluviální sedimenty, jinak také nazývané povodňové sedimenty nebo
sedimenty inundační zóny, jsou ukládány proudící vodou v době povodňové aktivity řeky. Voda se ve
formě obohacené suspenze vylije z koryta, a jemnozrnný materiál se tak dostává mimo něj a usazuje
se v rozlivové zóně v blízkém okolí řeky. Podle vzdálenosti od říčního koryta vyčleňujeme tzv.
proximální (blízkou) nebo distální (vzdálenou) nivu. Morfologicky znatelný přechod mezi korytovými
sedimenty a sedimenty aluviální zóny je tzv. levées neboli agradační val. Pod tímto pojmem je možné
si představit jakýsi mírně vyvýšený val v těsné blízkosti koryta, který vzniká během povodňové
aktivity. Je tvořen prachovitopísčitými sedimenty, které jsou s poměrně velkou energií doslova
vyhazovány z koryta řeky. Během vyšších povodňových stavů následně může dojít k protržení valů a
k jejich resedimentaci do výsledné formy kuželu situovaného směrem do povodňové zóny. V dnešní
krajině je většina velkých řek regulovaná a k agradaci povodňových sedimentů téměř nedochází,
přesněji řečeno jejich agradace je prostorově výrazně odlišně rozložena, než tomu bylo v minulosti.
Přesto lze nalézt na našem území místa s neregulovanými toky (například Osypané břehy v CHKO
Strážnické Pomoraví), kde lze sledovat víceméně přirozenou aktivitu řeky zahrnující agradaci
aluviálních sedimentů, erozi a vznik i zánik jednotlivých říčních koryt. Pokud si prohlédneme například
satelitní snímky z Google Earth, nalezneme v dnes odvodněných aluviálních zónách větších řek
množství pozůstatků po činnosti řek, respektive stavbě říční architektury. Výplně zaniklých koryt se
totiž většinou litologicky a zrnitostně liší od okolní aluviální zóny. Jsou většinou bohatší na organiku a
13
saturaci vodou, proto na snímcích vystupují jako tmavší plochy - do sebe propletená ramena již mrtvé
řeky.
Dynamika říční sedimentace se liší nejen v průběhu vodního koryta, v závislosti na tom, jaký
typ materiálu je do říčního koryta erodován a jakou energií, ale také v závislosti na klimatických
podmínkách. Jinou dynamiku mají například řeky v mírném pásu a jinou řeky v subtropických
oblastech. Nejvýrazněji se klimatické změny ve formačních procesech fluviálních sedimentů projevují
u velkých řek v extrémně klimaticky proměnlivých oblastech. Typickým příkladem toho může být
například povodí Nilu. Při studiu nilských sedimentů v rámci šestého Nilského kataraktu byla v rámci
úzkého údolí pohoří Sabaloka, kterým Nil protéká těsně před kataraktem, popsána extrémně
proměnlivá depozice sedimentů vznikajících v zálivových oblastech (tzv. slack water deposits), v rámci
kterých lze velmi dobře rozčlenit jednotlivé fáze povodně (Lisá et al., 2012). Počáteční fáze je typická
redepozicí lehkého materiálu klastické frakce. Následně vzniká prachovitopísčitý sediment bohatý na
organickou hmotu a obsahující množství uhlíků a především mikrouhlíků a propálených fytolitů
(částeček opálů) z vypalované vegetace. Následná fáze sedimentace je typická střídáním
jemnozrnějších nebo hrubozrnějších facií s minimem organické hmoty, a to převážně
prachovitopísčité až písčité frakce. Variabilita je proměnlivá a tento typ facie je často během povodně
usazován a znovu erodován. Finální fáze povodně je typická prachovitojílovitým sedimentem
bohatým na jemnozrnnou organickou hmotu. Formační procesy této facie probíhají již v pomalu
odtékající vodě, tj. v suspenzi s malou energií, kdy z roztoku vypadávají nejmenší částice, které jsou
povodní deponovány.
Většina velkých řek na našem území je již regulována a to ztěžuje studium jejich přírodních
archivů. Jednou z oblastí, kde je možné studovat environmentální záznam v říční nivě, je
neregulovaný úsek řeky Moravy ve strážnickém Pomoraví. Nivní zóna je v této oblasti pokryta
několika metry jemnozrnných sedimentů usazovaných od konce posledního glaciálního maxima a
během posledního tisíciletí prošla mnoha výraznými změnami (Kadlec et al., 2009; Grygar et al.,
2010). Poměrně rychlá agradace aluviálních sedimentů v posledním tisíciletí stejně jako nárůst
prachovité frakce v nivních sedimentech Moravy byla spojovaná se změnami v zemědělském využití
krajiny již v sedmdesátých letech (Prudič, 1978). Podobný trend byl zachycen nedávno například
v sedimentech Svratky (Parma et al., 2015), přičemž tento scénář je předpokládán pro většinu
evropských řek (de Moor et al., 2008; Notebaert et al., 2009; Hoffmann et al., 2009). Současné
názory na důvody agradace nivy Moravy však stále nejsou sjednoceny. Kadlec et al. (2009) navrhuje
podobný scénář jako Prudič (1978), zatímco Matys Grygar (2011) poukazuje na možnou souvislost
s klimatickými výkyvy. Jeho závěry jsou založeny na faktu, že zvýšená říční agradace byla
zdokumentována pro 13. a konec 16. století a koresponduje s hlavními evropskými klimatickými
extrémy. Mimo jiné bylo zjištěno, že v období mezi ~1000 a ~1900 AD se aktuální sedimentační
rychlost pohybovala v závislosti na různých depozičních faciích mezi 0,2 – 0,6 mm/rok−1
(Grygar et al.,
2010).
1.3. Eolické (větrné) procesy
Výsledkem eolických neboli větrných procesů jsou eolické sedimenty. Jejich základní členění
se odvíjí především od zrnitosti, tudíž je dělíme na váté prachy, později přeměněné do spraší, a na
váté písky (Kukal, 1986, Růžičková et al., 2003). Eolické sedimenty vznikají v důsledku větrné
depozice. Kromě fluida – větru - je druhým faktorem přítomnost vhodného materiálu, který je větrem
přemísťován, tzn. na jedné straně erodován, na druhé straně usazován v podobě eolických
sedimentů. V případě vátých prachů, běžně definovaných pojmem spraš nebo sprašové hlíny, které
vznikaly převážně na konci glaciálního období, jsou za zdroj považovány aluviální sedimenty velkých
řek (Smalley et al., 2009) a lokálně i mrazově rozvětraná eluvia hornin (Lisá, 2004; Lisá a Uher, 2006;
14
Lisá et al., 2009), která nebyla pokryta vegetací (in situ zvětralé horniny). Právě menší vegetační
pokryv umožnil, že se rozvětraný materiál dostal do vznosu a byl dále transportován ve větrné
suspenzi. Poté, co energie depozice poklesla, materiál ze suspenze vypadl (převážně prachová
frakce). K poklesu transportační energie dochází za překážkou, jako je například kopcovitý terén nebo
hrana říčního údolí, kde vzniká nejčastější geomorfologický tvar – závěj. Postupným zarůstáním
vegetací, která svými kořeny prachovitou frakci zpevňovala a zároveň impregnovala roztoky
bohatými na karbonáty, vznikl typ sedimentu, který nazýváme spraš. Morfologicky jsou na našem
území častější závěje. Je to dáno podložní geologií, resp. od toho se odvíjející starší geomorfologií a
s tím souvisejícím vývojem říční sítě. Kombinace směru toku našich řek (převážně S-J) a tedy i
převažujících směrů větších údolí spolu s převažujícím prouděním větru v době depozice spraší od Z –
V, případně SZ JV, JZ – SV (Lisá et al., 2005) způsobila, že vznikaly v době glaciálních maxim převážně
závěje na závětrných stranách takto orientovaných údolí. Hlavní složkou spraší je křemen, živec a
slída s příměsí uhličitanu vápenatého, vytvářejícího hrudky („cicváry“), a jílu. Barva je obvykle světle
okrová a převažující zrnitostní složka je 2 – 63 μm. Pokud váté prachy neobsahují karbonáty, jsou
obecně nazývány sprašové hlíny nebo spraším podobné sedimenty.
Návětrné strany jsou u větších řek pokryty vátými písky vynesenými dostatečnou větrnou
energií z písčitých korytových sedimentů. Zdrojem vátých písků však mohou být i starší písčité
akumulace související například s marinní nebo jezerní sedimentací. Stáří písčitých akumulací je jak
glaciální, tak holocenní a akumulace vátých písků jsou v současnosti často reaktivovány. Písčitý
materiál je obvykle transportován skákáním (saltací) nebo válením po povrchu, protože jednotlivá
zrna jsou zároveň váhově mnohem těžší, než je tomu u prachové frakce. Váté písky mohou být
vápnité nebo nevápnité v závislosti na obsahu karbonátů ve zdrojových sedimentech. Protože
jednotlivá zrna jsou různě veliká, dochází při transportu k jejich vzájemnému oděru, jehož důsledkem
je výrazné zakulacení povrchu a jeho zmatnění. Tím, jak do sebe jednotlivá zrnka písku narážejí,
vznikají na jejich povrchu malé důlky.
Váté neboli eolické sedimenty jsou na našem území druhým nejrozšířenějším typem
sedimentů. Typické spraše bychom nalezli hlavně v teplejších a sušších oblastech, jako je Polabí nebo
jižní Morava (Dyjskosvratecký a Dolnomoravský úval). Jejich výskyt je také většinou limitován
nadmořskou výškou cca 300 m n. m. Spraším podobné sedimenty, často označované jako sprašové
hlíny, tj. sedimenty, které nemají všechny parametry spraší, lze potom nalézt i ve vyšších
nadmořských výškách nebo v oblastech s vyššími srážkami (severní Morava, okraje Českomoravské
vysočiny). Mocné sprašové profily tak, jak je známe například z Kalendáře věků v Dolních Věstonicích,
však nejsou tvořeny čistě spraší. Jde o komplexní záznam posledního klimatického cyklu, kdy se
eolická sedimentace probíhající v chladnějších fázích glaciálů střídala s klidovými teplejšími a na
srážky bohatšími obdobími (interglaciály, interstadiály), během kterých se již na vytvořených spraších
začaly vytvářet půdy. Přechod mezi chladnými a teplými fázemi vývoje klimatu je typický erozními
procesy, v důsledku kterých vznikají redeponované spraše, hlínopísky nebo jiné typy svahových
sedimentů. Při bližším pohledu na sprašové profily lehce zjistíme, že se díváme na sled jednotlivých
událostí charakterizovaný různými typy sedimentů.
Jednou z dlouhodobě řešených otázek týkajících se eolických sedimentů je provenience jejich
zdrojového materiálu. Jde totiž o velmi specifický typ sedimentu, který známe převážně z období
kvartéru, a to pouze ze specifických oblastí, které nebyly překryty ledovcem. Naše republika je
jednou z takových oblastí, protože je součástí jakéhosi koridoru ze severu ohraničeného
severoevropským a z jihu alpským zaledněním. Znalost provenience eolického materiálu a způsob
jeho depozice proto vypovídá mnohé o obecných formačních procesech spojených s dynamikou
danou geomorfologií a klimatem. Metodicky jsou zde aplikovány tzv. provenienční studie, tj.
převážně mineralogické metody detekce zdrojů minerálů. Nejvhodnějšími minerály pro provenienční
metody jsou těžké minerály. Jsou to akcesorické minerály o specifické hustotě vyšší než křemen.
Výhoda těchto minerálů pro provenienční studie spočívá v tom, že se vyskytují povětšinou samotné
15
nebo pouze jejich určitá asociace, typická pro tu kterou horninu. Klasickou prací na toto téma pro
naše území, zaměřenou ovšem na provenienční studie v rámci detekce zdroje u fluviálních sedimentů
v rámci Moravského krasu, je práce Burkhartla, Šeberla (1965) a Krystka (1981). Provenience
eolických sedimentů v rámci Moravy a Slezska byla studována v rámci mé dizertační práce množstvím
provenienčních metod zaměřených jak na detekci asociací těžkých minerálů (Lisá et al., 2002;
Kvítková a Buriánek, 2005), tak například na specifické vlastnosti jednotlivých minerálů, např.
granátů (Lisá et al., 2009) nebo zirkonů (Lisá a Uher, 2006). Provenience spraší interpretovaná na
základě mikrostruktur na povrchu křemenných zrn je zhodnocena v práci Lisá (2004). Kombinace
studia provenience zirkonů spolu s měřením radioaktivity přinesla zajímavé výsledky. Zirkony typu
P23 a P24 typické pro durbachity Třebíčského masivu byly v eolických sedimentech detekovány na
vzdálenost cca 50 km od zdrojové horniny (Kvítková, 2002). A tímto se dostáváme k samotné
problematice aplikace provenienčních metod na eolické sedimenty. Těžké minerály jsou, jak již bylo
zmíněno, zastoupeny v horninách akcesoricky. To znamená, že je nutno je před samotnou analýzou
zkoncentrovat. K tomu se používá jejich specifická hustota, separace má však svá omezení a je
v podstatě ideální separovat frakci cca 63 – 2 500 μm. Vzhledem k tomu, že spraše jsou však
primárně prachový sediment, tj. obsahují maximum frakce pod 63 μm, lze tudíž provenienčními
metodami studovat provenienci pouze části materiálu a otázkou je, zda je tato část zdrojově typická
či spíše atypická. Nabízí se i studium například chemického signálu nebo studium jílových minerálů
(Adamová a Havlíček, 1996), zde však narážíme na absenci srovnávacích dat mnohdy i jejich nízkou
informační hodnotu. Další možnou metodou je již zmiňované studium mikrostruktur na povrchu
křemenných zrn (viz kapitola 2.3). Pokus o tyto studie (Lisá, 2004) však nepřinesl očekávané výsledky.
Bylo možné identifikovat zrna pocházející například ze zvětralého eluvia, fluviálních sedimentů nebo
glacigenních sedimentů, ne však v dostatečně statisticky průkazném souboru. Problém je opět
v prachové frakci. Křemenná zrna, která tvoří převážnou část spraší, jsou nejideálnějším materiálem
pro exoskopickou analýzu, protože křemenná zrna jsou dostatečně měkká na to, aby se na nich
zachytily textury vznikající během transportu, a zároveň dostatečně tvrdá na to, aby textury zůstaly
zachovány (Křížová et al., 2011). Problém je však v jejich velikosti. Pro vznik identifikovatelných
mikrostruktur je zapotřebí dostatečná energie, při které o sebe jednotlivá zrna vzájemně narážejí.
K tomu však v prachovité suspenzi dochází jen v malé míře.
Fenomén spraše je zajímavý nejen z obecného hlediska poznání provenience a dynamiky
eolického transportu, ale je také klíčový pro klimatické studie související s poznáním prostředí, které
zde panovalo v minulosti a do jisté míry ovlivňovalo možnosti pohybu lidí i zvířat v krajině, což
výrazně ovlivňovalo chování našich předků (Lisá et al. 2013a; Hošek et al., 2015; Wisniewski et al,
2015). V letech 2006 – 2009 probíhal pod záštitou University v Cambridge projekt s názvem
„Moravian Gate project“. V rámci něho byly studovány nejvýznačnější paleolitické lokality v transektu
od Dunaje směrem k Odře (Dolní Věstonice, Předmostí a Hošťálkovice). Sedimentologický záznam
podpořený dalšími environmentálními metodami se v rámci tohoto transektu výrazně liší (Lisá et al.,
2013a, 2014). Markantní je zvyšující se množství srážek směrem k severu, což byl pravděpodobně i
důvod přesouvajícího se gravetienského osídlení směrem k polským pláním (Lisá et al., 2014). Dalším
dokladem rozdílného klimatu během posledního glaciálu na území naší republiky je evidentně sušší
prostředí na jižní Moravě v kontrastu s vlhčími oceánským klimatem ovlivněnými oblastmi středních
Čech (Hošek et al., 2015). Zvyšující se zrnitost spraší ve svrchním pleniglaciálu kontrastuje
s progresivním zjemňováním zrnitostní frakce v oblastech blíže k severoevropskému zalednění. Lovci
mamutů ve svrchním pleniglaciálu se evidentně dovedli velmi dobře orientovat v krajině a přizpůsobit
se postupné změně klimatu. Přítomnost vody v krajině byla v pravěku stejně jako dnes jedním
z klíčových aspektů přežití. Voda byla vázaná v glaciálech především na údolí velkých řek a na
prameny s hlubokým oběhem, tj. na místa na tektonických zlomech. Pro orientaci v krajině využívali
gravetienští lovci pravděpodobně i přítomnost výraznějších morfologických vyvýšenin bílé barvy
v kombinaci s vodními zdroji, ať již to byly mramory (údolí Dunaje – Krems), nebo vápencová skaliska
(Dolní Věstonice, Předmostí), případně antropogenní akumulace vybělených mamutích kostí
(souhrnně v Lisá et al., 2013a).
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1.4. Glacigenní (ledovcové) procesy
Za ledovcové sedimenty jsou obecně považovány takové sedimenty, které vznikly v
souvislosti s činností ledovce. Tato definice zahrnuje sedimenty vzniklé nejen v přímé interakci se
samotným ledem, ale například i ty, které vznikly odtokem tavných vod. Podle energie formačních
procesů probíhajících v přímém kontaktu s tělesem ledovce se rozlišují typy sedimentů popsaných
jako glacigenní sediment nebo till s mnoha přívlastky označujícími další varianty prostředí. Ledovcové
sedimenty jsou nadřazeným termínem, který zahrnuje glacigenní (tilly), glacifluviální a glacilakustrinní
sedimenty. Vzhledem k tomu je jasné, že i variabilita facií bude enormní, protože odrážejí především
typ a energii transportu. Energie a typ transportu jsou z hlediska ledovcových procesů dosti rozdílné.
Shodná transportní energie může být pod ledovcem i na jeho povrchu, a přesto je typ transportu
naprosto odlišný, což se projeví v určitém typu vznikajících sedimentů. Samotný led má obrovskou
erozní schopnost a doslova odírá podložní horniny, na kterých se pohybuje. Erodovaný materiál poté
transportuje nejen ve svém vlastním tělese, ale i pod ním, na bocích a na svém čele. Vznikají tak
nevytříděné sedimenty morén. Poté, co ledovec začne tát, jeho tavné vody erodují a transportují již
jemnější materiál a usazuji ho ve formě sedimentů ne nepodobných těm fluviálním nebo jezerním.
Výsledné geomorfologické tvary ledovcových sedimentů jsou například moréna, esker, kam, kamová
terasa, v širším kontextu potom výplavová plošina nebo výplně jezer (varvy). Křemenná zrna
pocházející z glacigenního typu transportu jsou typická výskytem tzv. konchoidálních textur nebo
odlomením velkého bloku z plochy zrnka. Tyto textury vznikají třecími silami způsobenými tlakem a
střihem obvykle na bázi nebo uvnitř ledovce.
Typickým příkladem jezerních sedimentů ledovcových jezer (glacilakustrinní sedimenty)
využívaných pro datování (analogickou metodou je například dendrochronologie) jsou laminované
varvy (vrstvičky) odrážející fáze sedimentace s organickou hmotou v zimním období nebo bez
organické hmoty v letním období. Hrubší a světlejší letní vrstvička vzniká v důsledku zvýšeného
průtoku a dostupnosti kapalné vody. V období, kdy varvy vznikaly, byla léta poměrně krátká (2 – 4
měsíce) a po zámrzu jezera docházelo postupně k vypadávání jemnozrnného materiálu ze suspenze,
a to včetně planktonu, proto jsou „zimní“ vrstvičky tenčí, jemnozrnné a obsahují více organiky. Z
hlediska času se však nejedná o zimu, kdy došlo k jejich sedimentaci, ale spíše o podzim až začátek
zimy. Během zimy a jara, než došlo k roztátí jezera, prakticky žádná sedimentace neprobíhala.
Stratigrafie na základě varv je srovnatelná například s dendrochronologií.
Výskyt ledovcových sedimentů na našem území je omezen na relikty severoevropského
zalednění, které naši republiku postihlo ze severu. Mohli bychom dnes najít již jen opravdu
sedimentární zbytky bez výrazných původních morfologických prvků. Na naše území zasáhl ledovec
pravděpodobně celkem třikrát (Nývlt et al., 2011) a své sedimenty zanechal pouze v nejsevernějších
výběžcích naší republiky - ve Frýdlantském a Šluknovském výběžku, na Liberecku, v Hradecké pánvi a
na severní Moravě na Ostravsku, Opavsku a v Moravské bráně. Dalšími typy ledovcových sedimentů,
které bychom mohli na našem území nalézt, jsou malé horské ledovce, které nezávisle na
severoevropském nebo alpském zalednění fungovaly v Krkonoších a na Šumavě. Jejich relikty,
poskytující velmi dobré environmentální archivy, můžeme dnes najít v podobě výplní karů (Labský
důl, Obří důl, NP Krkonoše). Výzkum sedimentů, resp. klimatického záznamu spojeného s formačními
procesy ledovcových sedimentů (resp. malých horských zalednění) byl úspěšně aplikován
v Krkonoších (Engel et al, 2010) nebo na Šumavě (Mentlík et al., 2010). V oblasti Labského dolu
v Krkonoších byl nalezen cca 15 metrů mocný sedimentární záznam pokrývající cca posledních 30 ka.
Jedná se tak o první kontinuální záznam vegetační historie od pozdního glaciálu a holocénu až po
současnost v oblasti Sudet. Sedimentární záznam spodní části profilu ukazuje, že v době počátku
sedimentace, tj. před cca 30 ka lety (cca začátek MIS 2), byl již kar bez ledu. Klimatická křivka
reprezentující následující období je velmi variabilní, přičemž nejstudenější období připadá cca na
18 ka BP, tedy dle obecných modelů konec LGM (Last Glacial Maximum) a nástup LGT (Last Glacial
17
Terminal). Další výrazné ochlazení zjistitelné v tomto profilu je srovnatelné s mladším dryasem, tj. cca
12 ka BP. Během tohoto období byl v karu Labského dolu stálý malý ledovec, což dokládají
mikrovrstvičky ledovcových sedimentů, a zdrojová oblast pro sedimenty byla bez stromové vegetace.
Poměrně stabilní klimatické podmínky se objevují až od cca 5 ka BP. Dvě fáze zvýšené sedimentace
byly zaznamenány v období 9,2 – 7,5 ka BP a 5,8 – 5,5 ka BP. Tyto fáze odpovídají environmentálním
změnám během přechodu mezi subboreálem a atlantikem (Engel et al., 2010). Druhou podobně
studovanou oblastí byla Stará jímka na Šumavě. Sedimentární záznam v této oblasti není tak
komplexní, přesto je však zřejmé, že v porovnání se záznamem v Krkonoších je zalednění na Šumavě
mnohem více ovlivněno relativní blízkostí Alp a trvalo v této oblasti až do mladého dryasu (Mentlík et
al., 2010)
1.5. Procesy probíhající v prostředí jezer a mokřadů
Pro vznik jezerních a mokřadních sedimentů je klíčová přítomnost vody a morfologické
sníženiny. Jejich bližší charakteristika se odvíjí od rozsahu a hloubky deprese, od množství a složení
vody, která hraje zásadní roli v utváření sedimentárního záznamu. Podle toho rozlišujeme typy
prostředí: jezera, slatiny, rašeliniště, vrchoviště a tzv. backswamps, tj. prostředí opuštěných říčních
koryt v distální nivě. Jezerní neboli lakustrinní sedimenty mohou mít opět větší množství variant
podle toho, na jaké prostředí jsou navázány. Například v souvislosti s činností ledovce vznikají
glacilakustrinní sedimenty, v prostředí plošně rozsáhlých jezer s dotací vodními toky – hydrologicky
otevřených jezer vznikají odlišné sedimenty než v uzavřených bezodtokových jezerech nebo v
nádržích vázaných na prameny, dočasně hrazených jezerech a karových jezerech. Zvláštní kapitolou
je jezerní prostředí vznikající v krasových oblastech v důsledku zahlcení odvodňovacích jeskynních
systémů v krasových oblastech (polje).
Na prostředí s velkou dotací podzemní nebo srážkové vody jsou vázány organogenní
sedimenty (organozemě). Postupnou akumulací organické hmoty vznikají vrchoviště, slatiniště nebo
rašeliniště přechodového typu. Obecně tato tři prostředí můžeme charakterizovat jako mokřad nebo
bažinu se specifickým typem sedimentu. Vznikají tak organogenní a chemogenní sedimenty pouze s
malým podílem klastických sedimentů. Popisovaná prostředí se liší podle typu dotace vodou, jejího
složení a typu vegetace, která zvodnělé plochy zarůstá. Slatiniště jsou minerálně bohatá, vznikají z
trav a ostřic, nicméně na vzniku výplní se často podílí i dřevo, kůra a kořeny s malou příměsí
mechorostů. Slatiniště jsou většinou neutrální nebo jen slabě kyselá (v Polabí přecházejí na bázi až do
jezerní křídy, která zde tvoří celá ložiska vzniklá ve staroholocenních kalcitrofních jezerech). Rozšířená
jsou u nás převážně v nížinách a v nivách řek (v našem prostředí jsou nížiny obecně minerálně
bohaté, což neplatí v sousedním Polsku a Německu); reliktní zbytky nacházíme zejména ve středním
Polabí na místech, která byla ušetřena meliorace, a rozsáhlejší výskyty jsou zaznamenány v CHKO
Litovelské Pomoraví. Vrchoviště naopak nejsou minerálně bohatá, vznikají převážně z mechorostu
rašeliníku a jsou vázána na kyselé až velmi kyselé prostředí. U nás je najdeme převážně na plochých
horských pramenných pláních na minerálně chudých podkladech (např. Božídarské rašeliniště v
Krušných horách, Úpské rašeliniště v Krkonoších a tzv. slatě na Šumavě). Rašeliniště přechodového
typu se vyskytují v rozsáhlých pánevních oblastech s nepropustným podložím - u nás zejména v CHKO
Třeboňsko, ale také třeba Velké Dářko v CHKO Ždárské vrchy nebo rašeliniště Rejvíz a Skřítek v CHKO
Jeseníky – a na jejich tvorbě se podílí především rašeliník a jsou většinou kyselé.
Jedním z enigmatických jezer České republiky je Komořanské jezero, a to hned z několika
důvodů. Jednak se jedná o naše nejrozsáhlejší jezero, jednak bylo v minulém století totálně vytěženo
z důvodu těžby uhelných slojí na Mostecku. Třetí důležitý fakt je spojitost jezera s lidským osídlením,
což dokumentoval Neústupný (1985) a Neústupný et al. (2008). Komořanské jezero lze zařadit mezi
jezera říční (Hurník, 1969) a ve svém vývoji zaznamenalo všechna tři stádia vývoje typická pro jezera
18
říčního typu. První fáze, která proběhla v době ukládání anorganických sedimentů na hranici
pleistocénu a holocénu, byla oligotrofního charakteru. Druhá fáze, která probíhala během preboreálu
a zaznamenávala eutrofní období, se vyznačovala akumulací rozsivkové zeminy až gyttjy. Od období
atlantiku nastala třetí fáze vývoje jezera, které se stává distrofním a postupně přechází v močály a
rašeliniště (Hurník, 1969, Bešta, 2015). Na konci pleistocénu byla oblast jezerní pánve denudována
řekou Bílinou a jejími přítoky na úroveň sp. miocénních sedimentů mostecké pánve (Řeháková,
1986). Řeháková (1986) polemizuje s názorem, že Komořanské jezero vzniklo v důsledku sesuvů
fonolitových hornin mezi Hněvínem (408 m. n. m) a Špičákem (399 m. n. m.), které přehradily tok
řeky Bíliny v jižní části města Starý Most. Přestože okolí jezera bylo od pravěku osídleno (Neústupný
et al., 2008), jezerní sedimenty zkoumané multidisciplinárně Běštou et al. (2015) nepotvrdily výrazný
lidský impakt. Jeden z mála dokladů působení člověka na okolní prostředí je v jezerních sedimentech
Komořanského jezera zaznamenán zvýšeným množstvím pylů rodů Corylus a Populus během neolitu.
Zajímavá je například absence mikrouhlíků pro stejné období. Ta je obyčejně uváděna jako intenzivní
doklad žháření předestírající počátky zemědělství na začátku neolitu, což se v tomto případě
nepotvrdilo a ukazuje to nejspíše na již existující bezlesí na dostatečně velké ploše, která mohla být
zemědělsky obdělávána.
Dalším příkladem studia jezerních sedimentů v kontextu s lidským osídlením může být jezero
Švancemberk v Třeboňské pánvi (Hošek et al., 2014). V jezerních sedimentech zde byl detekován
záznam paleoenvironmentálních změn během pozdního pleistocénu a holocénu. Důležitost této
lokality spočívá především v tom, že jde prozatím o jedinou lokalitu v tranzitní zóně mezi oceánským
a kontinentálním klimatem. Získaná data, která lze korelovat lépe s oceánským typem klimatického
režimu, dokládají, že první polovina mladšího dryasu byla spíše humidnější oproti té druhé, relativně
sušší části. Tyto změny se výrazně projevily v okolní vegetaci, dynamice sedimentace a úrovni vodní
hladiny během přechodu mezi mladším dryasem a preboreálem. Zvýšená intenzita eroze v povodí
však mohla být také ovlivněna mezolitickým osídlením (Šída et al., 2007; Pokorný et al., 2010).
Velmi dobrý příklad využívání sezónního kolísání hladiny vodní plochy bychom našli v povodí
Nilu. Geomorfologická sníženina na okraji egyptských hrobek na okraji Saqqary a Abusíru v Káhiře se
nazývá Abusírský rybník. Je to výrazný topografický prvek spojený s „krajinou pyramid“ (Jeffreys a
Tavares, 1994; Bárta, 2005). Jezero samotné bylo využíváno v době stavitelů pyramid (cca 3 ka BC)
jako hlavní přístupová cesta k hrobkám severní a centrální Saqqary a Abusíru (Bárta, 1999). Díky
vysokému výskytu žabí populace bylo také asociováno s bohyní Hequet, staroegyptské bohyně
zrození a vzkříšení (Bárta, 1999). Voda se v této depresi objevuje často při záplavách, jde však
především o vzdutí podzemní vody, ne tak povodňové vody Nilu. Při výzkumech v roce 2007 bylo
několik desítek centimetrů pod povrchem objeveno podloží tvořené terasovými sedimenty Nilu,
které slouží jako zvodeň a na kterých bylo vytvořeno dláždění sloužící jako přístupová cesta
k hrobkám. Toto dláždění bylo evidentně v pozdějších fázích částečně zničeno při erozních fázích
typických splachy z wadi Fetekti a následně překryto vrstvami čistého písku deponovaného větrem.
Fáze eolické depozice je spojována se zvyšující se aridizací této oblasti. Přestože je tato sníženina
nazývána jezerem či rybníkem, nebyla v pravém slova smyslu pravděpodobně nikdy trvalou vodní
plochou (Cílek et al., 2010, 2012).
Záznam o minulém klimatu případně v souvislosti s antropogenním impaktem lze velmi dobře
studovat i na takových sedimentárních archivech, jakými jsou například zaniklá říční koryta.
V anglické literatuře jsou taková prostředí nazývána backswamps, tedy sníženiny často lokalizované
v distální nivě. Jedním z příkladů je studium zaniklého meandru Labe na lokalitě Chrást (Petr et al.,
2013). Sedimentární profil zachycuje časový úsek od 11 500 BP, tj. téměř od počátku holocénu. Na
bázi profilu je zachycena změna říčního koryta při přechodu konce pozdního glaciálu a holocénu.
Hlavní část sedimentárního profilu tvoří sedimenty pozdního glaciálu a středního holocénu. Jsou to
období poměrně dynamická, charakteristická extenzivní vegetací a sedimentárními změnami od
štěrků po prachovitou frakci nebo vrstvy karbonátů s množstvím schránek plžů. Nejsvrchnější část
19
profilu je tvořena sedimenty slatiny těženými a spalovanými ve středověku. Zajímavý byl nález vrstvy
dopleritu, tj. druhotně vzniklého minerálu v důsledku protékajících huminových kyselin, který byl
zpočátku makroskopicky asociován s vrstvami bohatými na železo. Jedná se však o postsedimentární
textury.
1.6. Procesy probíhající v jeskynním prostředí
Jeskyně představují zvláštní typ prostředí, ve kterém lze studovat nejrůznější typy sedimentů.
Jde však povětšinou pouze o výsledky posledního sedimentačního cyklu, pozůstatky starších
sedimentárních fází jsou relativně řídké (Bosák 2008). V podstatě se zde dají najít všechny typy a facie
terestrických sedimentačních prostředí (Bosch a White, 2004) od eolického po fluviální, lakustrinní,
gravitační a ve vstupních faciích dokonce prostředí spojené s ledovcovou činností. Typ sedimentace
odráží klimatické změny probíhající mimo jeskynní systém, měnící se provenienci sedimentů nebo
změny v hydrologickém systému. Obecně se jeskynní sedimenty dělí na dvě hlavní skupiny (Kukla a
Ložek 1958). Jednak jsou to sedimenty vnitrojeskynní facie, tj. sedimenty vznikající v důsledku
sedimentárních procesů uvnitř jeskyně, v systému, který je poměrně uzavřený od prostředí mimo
jeskyni. Kromě klastických sedimentů sem řadíme i chemogenní sedimenty – hlavně všechny typy
speleotém vznikající druhotnou krystalizací karbonátů uvnitř jeskyně. Tyto sedimenty se používají pro
izotopové paleoklimatické studie a radiometrické datování (pro shrnutí viz Ford a Williams, 2013;
Fairchild et al., 2012) a pro svůj obsah pylových zrn i pro statigrafii (např. Bastin, 1979). Druhým
typem jeskynních sedimentů jsou uloženiny vchodové facie. Ta je intenzívně studována pro
statigrafickou významnost vrstevního sledu, často v kontextu s archeologickými a paleontologickými
nálezy. Tato facie geneticky pokrývá sedimenty vznikající přímo ve vchodové části jeskyně
ovlivňované sedimentací z prostředí před jeskyní a zahrnuje i tzv. kužel vchodové facie. Kužel
vchodové facie vzniká erozí sedimentů nad vchodem jeskyně a postupným opadem do prostoru před
jeskyní. Sedimenty, které nejsou z tohoto prostoru dále erodovány do jeskyně, zůstávají mimo ni a
tvoří nejcennější stratigrafický a klimatický záznam. Rozsah sedimentace vchodové facie se odvíjí
zejména od množství faktorů, mezi základní patří morfologie jeskyně a okolního terénu.
Jeskyně jsou vázány na krasový fenomén (Bajer et al., 2015). U nás jsou povětšinou
nejznámější jeskyně, které byly v minulosti obývány člověkem. Nejstarší osídlení je dokumentováno
např. pro jeskyni Šipka u Štramberka, Javoříčské jeskyně, jeskyni Kůlna v severní části Moravského
krasu, jeskyně s tábořišti lovců sobů a dále jeskyni Pekárna nebo Švédův stůl v jižní části Moravského
krasu. Jednou z nejslavnějších jeskyní s halštatským pohřbem je jeskyně Býčí skála ve střední části
Moravského krasu.
Geoarcheologicky byla v poslední době poměrně detailně revidována výše zmiňovaná jeskyně
Kůlna (Lisá et al., 2013b). Jeskyně Kůlna je jednou z nejdůležitějších středo- a mladopaleolitických
lokalit střední Evropy, a proto jsou poznatky z této jeskyně popsány v následujícím textu detailněji.
Jeskyně Kůlna se nachází cca 45 km severně od Brna na severním okraji Moravského krasu. Je to v
podstatě 87 m dlouhý tunel s maximální výškou 25 m a šířkou 8 m (Valoch et al. 2011). Jeskyně má
dva vchody, menší orientovaný směrem na sever a větší orientovaný směrem na JJZ do Sloupského
údolí. Geomorfologie celé oblasti je zvýrazněna Sloupským údolím široce rozevřeným na sever, které
směrem k jihu přechází do úzkého Pustého žlebu. Detailní archeologický výzkum vedený K. Valochem
probíhal v jeskyni v letech 1961 – 1976 (Valoch, 1988, 2002). Nejúplnější stratigrafii popsal K. Valoch
ve vstupní části jeskyně (Valoch et al., 1969), kde postupně rozlišil celkem 14 hlavních geologických
vrstev složených především z klastických sedimentů lišících se homogenitou a zrnitostí od prachu po
brekcie tvořené devonskými vápenci či písky a štěrky. Nikdy zde však nebyl proveden detailní
sedimentologický výzkum. Revizní geoarcheologické studium sedimentů jeskyně Kůlny, které
proběhlo v letech 2010 – 2013 (Lisá et al., 2013b), přineslo následující poznatky:
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Na základě provedených analýz bylo možné definovat možné odpovědi související s dlouho
diskutovanou chronostratigrafickou situací jeskyně Kůlny. Rozdíl mezi vrstvami 5 a 6 lze identifikovat
na základě zrnitostního složení, resp. míry zvětrávání. Tyto vrstvy vznikaly pravděpodobně během
LGM pomalou soliflukcí a byly ovlivněny kontinuálním promrzáním; na základě měření hodnot
frekvenčně závislé magnetické susceptibility lze odlišit vrstvu 6a od vrstev 6 a 5. Sedimentace, která
probíhala v rámci starší fáze mladého paleolitu (EUP) byla buď značně omezená, nebo byla poškozena
pravděpodobně v důsledku kryogenních pochodů. V každém případě se v sedimentární výplni
objevuje nejméně jeden hiát, který by se měl nacházet mezi vrstvami 6a a 6. Mikrostruktury
jednotlivých vzorků v kombinaci s dalšími proxy-daty zároveň ukazují, že výrazně chladnější období
panovalo během ukládání vrstev 5–6a, 7c a 8. Naopak vrstvy 11 a 9b vykazují známky relativně
teplejšího a humidnějšího klimatu, což rámcově koresponduje s dosud uznávanou stratigrafickou
koncepcí (souhrnná chronostratigrafická tabule v práci Lisá et al., 2013b). Podobné podmínky, i když
pouze mírně teplejšího charakteru, pravděpodobně převládaly i v době ukládání vrstvy 7a. Následně
však tato vrstva byla postdepozičně mrazově postižena, což zřejmě způsobilo vertikální redepozici
archeologických nálezů (Neruda in press). Archeologicky sterilní vrstva 7b vznikla v důsledku rychlých
svahových procesů a jsou v ní zakomponovány starší sedimenty (rip-up klasty) v předchozích
výzkumech mylně Šroubkem et al. (2001) interpretované jako paleopůdy. Tato vrstva mohla vznikat
během chladnější fáze MIS 4, kdy docházelo k výrazné změně vegetace a s tím související možné
erozi. Pokud byl však důvodem eroze humidnější event, lze tuto vrstvu interpretovat spíše jako
důsledek zvýšeného srážkového úhrnu na počátku MIS 3. MIS 4 by potom mohlo být na základě
mikromorfologických pozorování kladeno spíše do vrstvy 8. Teplejší a humidnější klima, které je dle
chronostratrigrafického kontextu předpokládáno pro vrstvu 11–13, lze doložit pouze na základě
výrazně zvýšených hodnot frekvenčně závislé magnetické susceptibility a indexu zvětrávání
charakterizovaného poměrem jíl/prach.
Multidisciplinární studium vnitrojeskynních sedimentů, které odráží neuvěřitelnou variabilitu
procesů ovlivňujících jeskynní sedimenty, bylo velmi dobře v poslední době aplikováno například
v jeskyních slovinského krasu (Hajan et al., 2008). Dalším podobným příkladem je i výzkum v jeskyni
Botovskaja (Kadlec, 2009). Ta je typickým příkladem dvourozměrného labyrintu o celkové délce
dosud prozkoumaných chodeb cca 60 km. Představuje tak nejdelší jeskynní systém v Ruské federaci.
Klastické jeskynní sedimenty tvořící výplně chodeb se liší jak po stránce mineralogické, tak po stránce
magnetických vlastností a byly ukládány v různých hydrologických podmínkách. Nejstarší část
jeskynních sedimentů byla derivována z pískovců, které překrývají zkrasovělý masiv, zatímco
nejmladší výplně jsou tvořeny především redeponovanými půdami a produkty zvětrávání vznikajícími
na plató nad jeskyní. Jeskynní sedimenty prošly opakovanými depozičními událostmi a erozí během
terciéru a pleistocénu. Poslední katastrofická erozní událost je v jeskynních sedimentech
zaznamenána z doby cca před 350 ka. Voda prosakující skrz nadložní pískovce způsobuje kolapsy
pískovcových tabulí ze stropů jeskynních chodeb, a vytváří tak nejmladší jeskynní výplně.
1.7. Formační procesy v archeologickém kontextu
Do výčtu kvartérních sedimentů, respektive procesů a prostředí, ve kterých sedimenty
vznikají, by měly patřit i procesy vyvolané antropogenní činností. Můžeme je rozdělit na procesy
vyvolané zemědělstvím nebo běžnou každodenní činností člověka, která ve svém důsledku
představuje akumulaci konstrukčního a odpadního materiálu. Procesy vyvolané kultivací půdního A
horizontu nejsou na rozdíl od konkrétních archeologických struktur příliš viditelné, přestože jejich
důsledky jsou v krajině běžně přítomné. Výraznější zásahy do půdního fondu jsou známy již od
neolitu. Odlesňování a s tím spojená eroze půd byly popsány v mnoha studiích, které dokumentují
fáze uhlíkatých vrstev překrytých splachy. Splachy iniciované kultivací nejsou mnohdy na povrchu
zřetelné, protože tyto sedimenty rychle zarůstají vegetací a splývají s okolní krajinou. Pokud nejde o
21
splach nahromaděný před nějakou zábranou, není geomorfologicky příliš výrazný. Menší dočasné
potůčky (vznikají při nárazových deštích nebo při odtávajícím sněhu), které erodují ornici, mohou
vytvářet morfologicky zřetelné výplavové vějíře. Kultivace může zanechávat povrchové morfologické
změny, například při hluboké orbě zůstávají menší příkopy a akumulace. Orba prohlubuje A horizont,
zanechává „plough marks“ a hranice mezi A horizontem a B nebo C horizontem zůstává ostrá.
Kultivace může způsobovat tvorbu iluviálních horizontů nebo jinak zvýrazněných kompaktních vrstev
(impregnace FeOH). Zemědělství má na svědomí změnu chemizmu půd, což je mnohdy v přímé relaci
k zachování archeologických situací. Hnojení půd organickými a minerálními hnojivy (např. vápnem,
vápencem nebo popelem) totiž významně ovlivňuje půdní reakci. V závislosti na antropogenním
ovlivnění sedimentů a půd, a to i samotnými pohřby, se mění obsahy fosfátů, síry nebo hodnoty
magnetické susceptibility.
Lidské aktivity vždy produkují odpad. Většina preindustriálního odpadu byla organického
původu a zetlela, přesto lze odpad identifikovat, a to díky mineralizaci nebo humifikaci probíhající v
redukčních podmínkách. Mineralizace organických zbytků je celkem častá v důsledku vysoké
biologické aktivity. Může se projevovat buď jako impregnace organické hmoty oxidy železa z půdní
matrix, nebo jako pseudomorfózy CaCO3 a fosfátů po původních buněčných strukturách. Na základě
specifických znaků lze v určitých podmínkách rozpoznat v sedimentu například popel, výkaly nebo
konstrukční materiál prehistorických staveb. Industriální společnosti produkují širokou škálu odpadu,
který je však na rozdíl od těch prehistorických velmi dobře zachován díky svému složení. Jedním z
takových odpadů je struska, která má velkou výpovědní hodnotu o používaných technologiích.
Identifikace prehistorického odpadního materiálu je možná většinou za pomoci laboratorních metod
zahrnujících chemickou analýzu nebo mikromorfologii.
Další důležitá otázka při studiu formačních procesů se týká přímo stavby, využívání a zániku
archeologických objektů a s tím souvisejícího vzniku podlahových horizontů s. s. Makroskopický popis
výplní objektů často přináší jen částečnou a především pouze popisnou informaci. Detailnější studium
zahrnující mikrostratigrafickou a pedogeochemickou charakteristiku je zásadní pro identifikaci
provenience materiálu, který výplně tvoří (Milek, 2012), pro zjištění přítomnosti, typu a stavu
organické hmoty (Stoops et al., 2010), uhlíků nebo popele (Canti, 2003) a pro objevení množství a
typu pórů v jednotlivých vrstvách či texturních prvcích dokumentujících postsedimentární změny ve
studované výplni (Stoops et al., 2010). Všechny tyto informace mohou nepřímo ukazovat například
na rychlost a způsob zaplňování objektu, přítomnosti nášlapových horizontů, způsobu jejich úpravy
nebo přítomnosti přípravných či sanačních horizontů (Milek, 2012; Goldberg a MacPhail, 2006). Tato
metodika byla již v minulosti na území naší republiky úspěšně využita při zpracování několika málo
výzkumů. Jedná se například o níže detailněji popsaný výzkum dřevohliněného předhradí ve Veselí na
Moravě (Dejmal et al., 2014), výzkum raně středověkého sídliště v Roztokách u Prahy (Novák et al.,
2012; Kuna et al., 2013) nebo novověkého zahloubeného objektu v Tišnově u Brna (Lisá et al., 2010).
Jedním z mála příkladů využití multidisciplinárního výzkumu formačních procesů sedimentů
v antropogenním kontextu je, jak již bylo zmíněno výše, dlouhodobé studium dřevěného předhradí
hradu Veselí na Moravě (Plaček et. al., 2015), resp. výzkum výplně středověké stáje (Dejmal et al.,
2014). Výsledky multidisciplinárního studia sedimentární výplně středověké stáje ve Veselí nad
Moravou lze shrnout do několika základních bodů. Podlaha stáje byla průběžně ošetřována, a to
podobně, jak je tomu dnes, tj. samotná podestýlka byla po čase odstraněna a nahrazena novou.
Prostor byl po odstranění podestýlky ošetřen tzv. sanační vrstvou, která měla zároveň i akumulační
důsledek. Tato vrstva byla složena z běžného odpadu, jenž však vždy obsahoval zbytky popela z
otopných zařízení. Tímto způsobem vznikla vrstevnatá výplň stáje, která je ukončena
v sedimentárním sledu nevykydanou podestýlkou. Díky studiu této poslední vrstvy bylo zjištěno, že
podestýlka se skládala především z trávy a letorostů dřevin. Tato vegetace byla pravděpodobně i
zkrmována, zjištěny však byly i obilniny (proso a oves) a k přikrmování sloužilo i semeno konopí.
Ostatní zjištěné obilniny (pšenice, žito) se vyskytovaly pouze v nepatrném množství, snad jako zbytky
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po zkrmování zadiny. Ze získaných výsledků izotopové analýzy je zřejmé, že v době, kdy vznikala
zachovaná podestýlka – tedy v pozdním létě, bylo složení skupiny zde ustájených koní z hlediska
úrovně výživy poměrně variabilní. To nepřímo indikuje zbývající využití stáje, tj. buď stáje sloužily k
ustájení koní námezdní síly, nebo poselských či vojenských koní. V neposlední řadě byla díky studiu
výplně objektu rekonstruována i středověká nelesní vegetace zázemí lokality, která odpovídá všem
dosud v okolí lokality se vyskytujícím travnatým společenstvům – společenstvu vlhčích až mokrých
luk/pastvin (niva Moravy), mezofilním loukám a místy i suchým a velmi suchým pastvinám.
Nepřímým výsledkem analýzy je i poměrně dobrá představa o druhovém složení lesů v zázemí
lokality. Také obraz lesní vegetace se na kvalitativní úrovni příliš nelišil od recentního stavu
(převládají druhy doubrav, případně dubohabřin na různě vlhkých stanovištích). Kvantitativní stránka
rekonstrukce lesní vegetace, tedy zejména úroveň odlesnění, ale mohla být výrazně odlišná.
Samotné studium podlahových horizontů je jednou velkou kapitolou geoarcheologického
výzkumu. Množství zajímavých situací nalezených na našem území je však prozatím mnohdy
rozpracováno pouze do formy posudků a je nutné jejich studiu věnovat více času. Je to otevřené
téma s širokými možnostmi budoucího výzkumu. Tzv. podlahové horizonty jsou totiž velmi zajímavým
fenoménem. Jedná se o obecný a v praxi často zaměňovaný či naopak nerozpoznaný pojem.
Termínem „podlaha“ by měl být navázán vlastně pouze povrch, který přímo sloužil při funkci objektu.
Situace je však mnohem složitější. Často narážíme na přípravné vrstvy pro „finální podlahu“ jako
například drenáže, (Lisá et al., 2008), podlahovou omítku (Tichý et al., 2012) nebo na vrstvy
související se sanací původního povrchu (Beran et al., 2014; Dejmal et al., 1013; Jarošová et al.,
2010). Vrstvy související přímo s užíváním povrchu nejsou naopak tak často zachovány a najdeme je
především ve středověkých situacích (např. Plaček et al., 2015; Novák et al., 2012; Kuna et al., 2013).
Při archeologických výzkumech bývá někdy za podlahovou vrstvu nesprávně zaměňována vrstva
odlišující se konzistencí (často tvrdostí) od okolního prostředí. Může však jít pouze o horizont vzniklý
v důsledku postdepozičních procesů při prosakování mobilních prvků směrem do podloží (Novák et
al., 2012).
Příkladem studia podlahových horizontů v rámci středověkého sídliště v kontextu s celkovým
studiem vytváření, užívání a destrukcí objektů je lokalita Roztoky u Prahy. Sídliště kultury pražského
typu (6. – 7. stol. n. l.) v Roztokách u Prahy představuje dosud nevyřešenou archeologickou záhadu.
Obtížně interpretovatelné je zejména mimořádné množství sídlištních objektů - zahloubených domů.
Během záchranných výzkumů v letech 1980–1989, 2001 a 2006–2010, které poskytly reprezentativní
vzorek celé lokality, bylo zachyceno kolem 300 zahloubených domů; jejich celkový počet na lokalitě
lze odhadnout na 600–700. Pro srovnání uveďme, že na žádné z ostatních 160 známých lokalit
daného období v Čechách nebylo dosud nalezeno více než deset domů. Záhadnost situace umocňuje i
zvláštní poloha areálu. Lokalita o ploše kolem 20 ha leží vtěsnána na úzké dno hlubokého údolí na
levém břehu Vltavy v pásu o šířce cca 100 m a délce 1,6 km. Pouze malá část lokality byla osídlena v
pravěku a/nebo v následujících obdobích, její podstatná část naopak obsahuje archeologické doklady
pouze z počátků raného středověku. Zcela evidentně tedy právě v tomto období musel existovat
zvláštní důvod k pobytu velkého počtu lidí na daném místě, poměrně nevýhodném z hlediska
zemědělství a komunikace. Geoarcheologický výzkum přinesl následující výsledky: v domech se
uklízelo; vrstva na podlaze nepředstavuje jen doklady užívání, ale i počátek přirozeného zániku
objektu v dosud stojícím domě; po opuštění mohly domy zůstat určitou dobu prázdné; během této
doby se mohla akumulovat tmavá vrstva nad podlahou; dřevěné konstrukce domu byly po opuštění
rozebrány; spodní vrstvu výplně lze interpretovat jako přemístěnou vrstvu podloží vykopaného při
stavbě následujícího sousedního domu; přeházeným materiálem ze základů sousedního domu byla
zřejmě zaplněna celá zahloubená část opuštěného domu. Během určité doby vrstva sesedla, čímž
většinou vzniklo mísovité prohloubení ve středu; do tohoto prohloubení byl dále deponován odpad z
následující fáze vývoje sídliště; tento odpadový areál mohl být v určitém okamžiku pokryt kamenným
dlážděním. Dláždění mohlo zarovnávat propadající se terén, ale mohlo tvořit „chodníček“ (někdy
navazující na destrukci pece) usnadňující přístup k odpadovému areálu. Odpadový areál mohl být
23
užíván jako latrína; nálezy v odpadové vrstvě v horní části výplně nejsou současné s nálezy na podlaze
domu, nýbrž nejméně o jednu stavební fázi mladší (Novák et al., 2012; Kuna et al., 2013).
2. Vybrané metodické nástroje současné geoarcheologie
2.1. Koncept základního popisu
Základním principem kvalitního geoarcheologického výzkumu je nejen postupovat od makra
k mikru, ale také umět se zorientovat v již publikované literatuře. Znalost geologických a
topografických map je prvním předpokladem pro správnou interpretaci terénních situací. Druhým
předpokladem je dobrý makroskopický popis, znalost archeologického kontextu a stanovení
základních výzkumných otázek. V návaznosti na tyto kroky jsou následně odebírány vzorky
zpracované jednou z následujících metodik nebo lépe jejich kombinací. Při makroskopickém popisu je
třeba zohlednit strukturní a texturní prvky, a sice primární a sekundární. Těmi primárními prvky
(zvrstvení) se rozumí uspořádání sedimentárního materiálu uvnitř vrstvy odrážející energii a fluidum,
díky kterému sedimentace probíhala. Nejčastějším příkladem je zvrstvení horizontální, čočkovité,
šikmé nebo gradační. Sekundární prvky odrážejí postdepoziční modifikace. Nejčastějším příkladem
mohou být desikační (výsušné) pukliny, textury zvodnění, mikrotektonika, konvolutní struktury nebo
mrazové pukliny (klíny). Dalším popisným znakem je přechod do nadloží. Přechod může být jasný,
náhlý, pozvolný, difuzní, ostrý, hladký, zvlněný, nerovnoměrný nebo polámaný a odráží formační
procesy během sedimentace, pedogenních pochodů nebo druhotných porušení. Půdní typ matrix
zase odráží pedogenní vývoj vrstev a druhotně i zrnitostní složení. Vyhodnocení zrnitostní distribuce
je zásadní pro pochopení geneze sedimentu. V terénu se provádí zhodnocení promnutím mezi prsty,
případně porovnáním se zrnitostní tabulkou, okoskopicky lze určit i poměry jednotlivých frakcí.
Existuje množství klasifikací, liší se podle států nebo účelu, ke kterému byly vytvořeny (viz geologická
versus pedologická klasifikace, americká versus evropská). Pro účely hodnocení geoarcheologických
situací doporučuji používat Wentworthovu klasifikaci. Grafické vyjádření zrnitosti lze následně
provést formou kumulační nebo frekvenční křivky. Důležité je také zhodnocení vytřídění sedimentu,
obsahu a zaoblení hrubozrnných částí, přičemž limit hrubozrnnosti nebo litologický typ záleží na
autorovi popisu. Lze tak velmi dobře odhadnout například procentuální zastoupení uhlíků nebo
mazanice o dané velikosti. Míra zaoblení poukazuje na typ zvětrání nebo délku transportu. Dalším
důležitým znakem při popisu sedimentárního profilu je určení barvy. Barva sedimentu odráží půdní
procesy a obsah inkluzí; indikuje obsah organické hmoty apřítomnost oxidů železa; a určuje se
pomocí srovnávací Munsellovy škály, a to na čerstvém profilu při slunečním světle, dodatečné určení
probíhá na suchém vzorku v laboratoři. V neposlední řadě je výhodné v terénu zjistit i obsah
karbonátů. Ten lze lehce určit reakcí s 10% HCl. Zjištění pH, které obsah karbonátů nepřímo odráží,
následně pomáhá při rozhodování o odběru dalších vzorků například pro paleoekologii (zachování
pylů, makrozbytků, schránek měkkýšů; Lisá a Bajer, 2014).
2.2. Mikromorfologie v archeologickém kontextu
Metoda mikromorfologie představuje v podstatě popis vnitřní stavby sedimentu nebo půdy
podrobným studiem půdních výbrusů, tj. materiálu odebraného in situ z vysušeného, pryskyřicí
naimpregnovaného profilu, vybroušeného do tloušťky cca 30 μm. Mikromorfologie používaná
v archeologickém kontextu, která se dnes již běžně objevuje v anglosaské literatuře, je odvozena od
půdní mikromorfologie, jejímž zakladatelem byl W. L. Kubiena (1938). Prakticky se jedná o
mikroskopické studium půdních výbrusů. Lze tak získat informace o složení hrubé frakce, matrix,
množství a velikosti pórů, texturních prvcích a vzájemných vztazích. Na tomto základě lze
interpretovat například provenienci materiálu, způsob zaplňování objektu, míru pedologické aktivity,
24
vyluhování, humifikaci, vysychání a mrazové ovlivnění. Je schopná zachytit přítomnost
mikroartefaktů, exkrementů i mikrouhlíků či rozeznat spálené úlomky kostí od těch, které prošly
trávicím traktem, spálenou organickou hmotu od dlouhodobě oxidované. Mikromorfologická analýza
se odlišuje od ostatních geoarcheologických metod ve čtyřech základních aspektech. Zaprvé
produkuje set jak kvalitativních (deskriptivních), tak kvantitativních (numerických) dat a interpretace
kvalitativních dat se opírá o standardní terminologii, barevnou fotodokumentaci a vizuální srovnání
s ostatními vzorky a s referenční sbírkou. Zadruhé, protože není reálné odebírat mikromorfologické
vzorky v systematické síti, tj. každých 0,5 – 1 m2
, není možné na výsledky z mikromorfologie aplikovat
kvantitativní analýzu, jako například prostorovou analýzu nebo obecný interpolační prostorový
model. Jakkoli se toto může zdát limitující, zdá se, že mikromorfologie má mnohem větší
interpretační potenciál, protože vzorky jsou odebírány z originálního stratigrafického kontextu
v neporušeném stavu a různé prvky, které sediment tvoří (minerály, matrix, organická hmota,
postdepoziční akumulace atd.), lze pozorovat simultánně a interpretovat v mnohem specifičtějším
kontextu (exkrementy, podestýlka atd.). Ačkoli techniky, jako je například multi-elementární analýza
a ztráta žíháním, poskytují kvantitativní informaci o jednotlivých prvcích a organické hmotě, tyto
mohou mít mnoho různých zdrojů, které lze snáze identifikovat právě mikromorfologickou analýzou.
V neposlední řadě je velkou výhodou mikromorfologie před ostatními geoarcheologickými metodami
fakt, že poskytuje informace o procesech, kterými archeologický sediment vzniká a je případně
následně modifikován.
Příkladů aplikace mikromorfologické analýzy na interpretaci archeologické situace bylo již
v předchozím textu uvedeno několik. Za všechny je v následujícím textu popsána příkladová studie ze
zkoumání podlahového komplexu odkrytého v objektu v Modřicích u Brna, který byl následně
interpretován jako středověká kovárna (Beran et al., 2014). Svou datací (11. stol. n. l.) se tento nález
řadí k jedněm z nejstarších zachovaných výrobních objektů tohoto typu na našem území. Kovářské
zpracování železa představovalo v raném středověku zdroj základního sortimentu nástrojů pro
zemědělskou výrobu, a tedy důležitý prvek nutný pro přežití vesnických komunit. Přesto jsou dosud
poznatky o podobě a organizaci výroby značně útržkovité, často se zaměřením především na
centrální aglomerace kolem hradišť. Objekt z Modřic představuje zajímavý příklad vesnické kovárny.
Přestože výplň objektu nezahrnovala kovářské výrobky, odpad, který se zde nalezl, dokládá
kovářskou výrobu a díky výskytu globulárních okují spolehlivě i kovářské svařování. Konkrétní podoba
kovárny je vzhledem ke způsobu zániku jen obtížně rekonstruovatelná, přesto lze na základě
informací získaných metodou mikromorfologie ze setu podlahových horizontů spolehlivě doložit
způsoby úpravy interiéru. Většinu těchto horizontů lze interpretovat jako specifické podlahové
úpravy střídající se s typickými nášlapovými horizonty (Goldberg a Macphail, 2006), které jsou v
tomto případě silně prosycené uhlíky, což je logické vzhledem k přítomnosti výhně a nutnosti
využívat dřevěné uhlí. Časté obnovování úprav podlahy sanačními vrstvami by mohlo souviset i se
sezónním využíváním dílny, neboť je poměrně pravděpodobné, že kovář nepředstavoval plně
specializovaného výrobce. Pokud nebyl objekt využíván stále, mohlo být nutné před jeho
znovuzprovozněním zamezit vzlínání vody a nově upravit podlahu. Pozoruhodná je ovšem tenká
průběžná vrstva tvořená organickým odpadem, nejspíše zvířecími exkrementy. Vzhledem k jejímu
charakteru nejde o doklad příležitostného ustájení zvířat, ale spíše o další, velmi specifickou úpravu
podlahy. Vyšší obsah fosfátů se znovu objevuje, i když pouze jako prosycení písčité složky, v několika
opakujících se nadložních vrstvách. Celkově by bylo možné interpretovat takové obohacení fosfáty v
důsledku cílené depozice moči, v případě prvně zmiňované vrstvičky dokonce kejdy. Ta byla
považována za prostředek s desinfekčním účinkem. Vedle sporné speciální funkce takovéhoto
výmazu lze hypoteticky uvažovat i o jeho neprofánním významu, neboť kováři vždy představovali
osoby spojované s magickými praktikami širokého rozsahu (Frolec, 2003). Po zániku funkce byl objekt
spíše záměrně zaplněn, o čemž svědčí absence dokladů zarůstání vegetací ve finálním zásypu.
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2.3. Povrchová morfologie křemenných zrn
Metodu exoskopické analýzy uvedl v roce 1935 A. Cailleux pod názvem Morfoskopie písku.
Princip metody spočívá ve studiu křemenných zrn, která během transportu prodělala signifikantní
změny na svém povrchu (Křížová et al., 2011). Typ fluida, rychlost a délka transportu určují množství
vzniklých texturních prvků a zároveň možnosti interpretace procesů, jimiž křemenná zrna během
transportu prošla (Le Ribault, 2003a). Povrch křemenných zrn je pozorován pod binokulárním a
následně elektronovým mikroskopem při vícenásobném zvětšení. Ideální velikostní frakce zrn pro
tuto analýzu je 300 až 500 μm, protože na zrnech této velikosti se nejlépe projevují mechanické i
chemické vlivy (Le Ribault, 1975; Censier a Tourenq, 1986; Cremer a Legigan, 1989), jejichž
procentuální zastoupení u jemnozrnných sedimentů není zcela jasné (Lisá, 2004). Na povrchu zrn se
setkáváme se znaky mechanického nebo chemického původu. Lze rozlišit stupeň lesklosti (lesklý až
matný) a skulpturní znaky (rýhování, poškrábání, nárazová deprese, vtisky aj.). Matný povrch
křemenných zrn písčité frakce bývá většinou spojován s eolickými pochody, lesklý vzniká nejčastěji
dlouhým transportem ve vodním prostředí řek nebo vývojem v mořském prostředí. V pouštních
podmínkách je lesklý povrch vysvětlován tenkým povlakem pouštního laku chemogenního původu
(Petránek, 1963; Le Ribault, 2003b). Geneze sedimentů určovaná metodou exoskopie odvisí od
výskytu charakteristických mikrotextur či jejich souborů na povrchu zrn (sensu Le Ribault, 1975).
Jedná se o takové mikrotextury, které vznikly při zvětrávání, transportu a sedimentaci materiálu a
jejichž procentuální zastoupení většinou nepřevyšuje 60 % (Mahaney et al., 2001). V rámci jednoho
prostředí mohou být křemenná zrna ovlivněna několika geneticky odlišnými procesy (Alkaseeva,
2005), avšak nejzřetelnější tvary na křemenných zrnech jsou většinou takové, které vznikly během
posledního transportu. Kromě procesu, který se podílel na posledním typu transportu, dokáže
exoskopie odhalit na jediném zrnu až 8 epizod vývoje (Le Ribault, 1975). Vztahy mezi eluviálními,
fluviálními a eolickými prvky se mění se změnami klimatických podmínek. Vliv procesů na mikroreliéf
zrna závisí také na trvání transportu a energii transportního média. Intenzita chemické transformace
povrchů křemenných zrn je závislá na době působení chemických procesů, klimatu, textuře
sedimentů, velikosti zrn minerálů a na pozici v půdním profilu a v reliéfu (Alkaseeva, 2005). Při
zkoumání vzorků je třeba mít na zřeteli, že zrna různých genetických typů mohla být během svého
transportu smíchána (Mahaney a Kalm, 2000).
Aplikovatelnost této metody byla testována na našem území v Krkonoších (Křížová et al,
2011). Kopanými sondami byly získány sedimenty z vybraných geneticky různorodých skupin tvarů, tj.
z glacigenních, fluviálních, svahových a eolických. Odběr byl proveden na relativně malé ploše s
obdobnými geologickými a fyzickogeografickými podmínkami i s podobnou historií vývoje reliéfu.
Výjimku tvoří jen eolické sedimenty, které se v Krkonoších nenacházejí a pro jejichž odběr byla
vybrána poloha eolických sedimentů na pražském Klárově. Uvedená metoda exoskopie povrchu
křemenných zrn umožňuje stanovit způsob transportu, a tedy i genezi sedimentu, respektive daného
tvaru, který je jím budován. U vzorků pocházejících z velmi podobného prostředí však nemusejí být
výsledky zcela jasné a je zapotřebí použít více vzorků. Také je nutné znát samotné prostředí, kde byl
vzorek odebrán, včetně jeho okolí, aby byly procesy formující povrch zrn správně přiřazeny k
jednotlivým genetickým skupinám. Pro rozlišení genetických typů sedimentů nelze vždy přesně určit
sadu vyskytujících se mikrotextur, spíše lze hovořit o určitých frekvencích výskytu, při kterých by se
znak stal charakteristickým. Tyto frekvence výskytu však nejsou pro všechny znaky stejné. Důležitou
roli pro frekvenci výskytu představuje rychlost transportu v prostředí. Lasturnatý lom vzniká zejména
po prudkých nárazech a odlomení částice od částice větší, což může nastat v kterémkoli prostředí,
zároveň může ale také vzniknout mrazovým zvětráváním. Tyto nárazy jsou ale ve fluviálním prostředí
tlumeny, charakteristická je tedy spíše nepřítomnost lasturnatého lomu pro fluviální sedimenty. Tilly
jsou charakteristické naopak velmi vysokou četností lasturnatého lomu, což znamená, že tento znak
se u nich vyskytuje alespoň ze zhruba 70 %. U jiných znaků však stačí menší procentuální podíl
výskytu k tomu, aby byly označeny za charakteristické. Zdaleka ne vždy lze ale vysledovat toto
26
přibližné hraniční procento a je potřeba počítat s polohou, s probíhajícími procesy v prostředí, ze
kterého vzorky pochází, a s nalezenými mikrotexturami. Musíme např. uvažovat nad tím, zda byl
sediment donesen z vyšších poloh a jaké procesy v těchto vyšších polohách probíhaly, protože zrno
nese na svém povrchu v různé míře zachování i starší struktury. Podobně i Mahaney (2002) a Le
Ribault (1975) upozorňují na to, že zrna si nesou mikrotextury z dřívějších prostředí. Ze znalosti
geomorfologie (např. sklonitosti terénu) jsme schopni odhadnout, v jakých rychlostech zdejší procesy
probíhají – v exoskopii např. V-jamky, srpkovité textury a mísovité jamky (Le Ribault, 1975) vypovídají
o rychlostech média, kterým je sediment unášen – a tím lépe pochopit výsledky exoskopie a určit,
kde je přibližná hranice vysokého a nízkého výskytu jednotlivých mikrotextur. Křemenná zrna
glacigenních sedimentů jsou charakteristická výskytem lasturnatých lomů (či štěpných plátků, které
jsou typicky vyvinuté na menších zrnech), stupňovitých tvarů, puklinovými plochami a přilnavými
částicemi. Eolické sedimenty jsou charakteristické výskytem V-jamek, mísovitých jamek a vyšším
zaoblením zrn. Pro deluvium jsou typické lasturnaté lomy, stupňovité tvary, brázdy a zejména abraze
hran. Křemenná zrna murových sedimentů byla charakteristická lasturnatými lomy, stupňovitými
tvary, brázdami a křemičitými sraženinami. Fluviální sedimenty mají oproti ostatním vzorkům celkově
nízkou četnost mikrotextur a typický je pro ně nízký reliéf s vyšší zaobleností zrn a křemičité
sraženiny, zvláště křemičité povlaky.
2.4. Zrnitostní analýza
Granulometrie čili zrnitostní analýza je kvantifikační metoda, při které je stanoven
procentuální podíl jednotlivých frakcí, obvykle rozčleněných na jíl, prach a písek. Hranice mezi těmito
frakcemi se mnohdy liší podle toho, zda se používá geologický, geologicko-inženýrský nebo
pedologický systém, obecně je však hranice jíl/prach stanovena na 2 mikrometry (4 μm ve
Wenworthově geologické klasifikaci) a hranice prach/písek na 50 nebo 65 μm (rozdíl mezi britským a
americkým klasifikačním systémem; Goldberg a Machpail, 2006). Způsoby, jakými lze stanovit
zrnitostní distribuci, jsou poměrně široké a závisejí v první řadě na makroskopicky odhadnutelné
zrnitosti. Využití stanovení granulometrie je v environmentálních vědách široké, ba dokonce je
použití této metody v mnoha případech naprosto nezbytné. Znalost zrnitostní distribuce a
vytříděnosti materiálu je důležitá pro identifikaci provenience studovaného materiálu a pro
identifikaci formačních procesů, na jejichž základě sediment vznikl.
Velmi jemné frakce je vhodné stanovovat pomocí laserového granulometru; rozsahy těchto
přístrojů se většinou pohybují od 0,04 μm do 2 mm. Měření probíhá ve vodní suspenzi, do které je
pipetován dispergovaný vzorek. Přes zakalenou suspenzi následně procházejí laserové paprsky,
pomocí nichž je možné detekovat hustotu suspenze a velikost jednotlivých zrn. Manipulace s
laserovými granulometry je většinou jednoduchá a úspěšnost výsledku závisí na míře ideální
dispergace studovaného materiálu. Obvykle je používaná dispergace v KOH podpořená ultrazvukem.
Tzv. totální dispergace zahrnuje následné odstranění karbonátové a organické složky sedimentu. Ty
by se totiž mohly do sedimentu dostat druhotně, a neodrážet tak primární sedimentační podmínky.
Vše je však nutné posuzovat v závislosti na konkrétních kontextech. Pro laserovou granulometrii jsou
vhodné jílovité a prachovité sedimenty, protože množství měřeného materiálu se pohybuje v
gramech. Standardní je tzv. pipetovací metoda podle Andreasena, při které se využívá Stokesův
zákon. Vzorek je dispergován ve válci a začíná se usazovat na jeho dně. Hrubozrnný materiál padá ke
dnu rychleji, zatímco jemnozrnný jíl zůstává delší dobu ve vznosu. Rychlost usazování je závislá na
teplotě. Ve specifickém intervalu (obvykle 30 sekund až 8 hodin) je sediment odebírán z určité
hloubky sloupce, vysušen a zvážen a následně jsou kalkulovány procentuální obsahy jednotlivých
frakcí. Princip chování sedimentu v suspenzi podle Stokesova zákona lze také využít pro měření
hustoty suspenze v různých časových úsecích. Jde o způsob měření tzv. hustoměrnou
(aerometrickou) metodou podle Cassagrandy. V časovém odstupu je hustoměrem měřena suspenze
27
a získané hodnoty jsou poté přepočítávány na procentuální obsahy jednotlivých zrnitostních frakcí.
Pokud je třeba stanovit zrnitostní distribuci u materiálu písčité nebo štěrkovité frakce, je vhodné
suché nebo mokré síťování. Při této metodě je potřebné větší množství materiálu, obvykle tak 1 kg.
Vzorek je po vysušení zvážen a umístěn na systém sít, přičemž síta jsou naskládaná na sobě podle
klesající velikosti standardizovaných ok. Materiál je poté buď promýván vodou, nebo vyklepáván,
přičemž na povrchu jednotlivých zrn se usadí tzv. nadsítná frakce. Následným opětovným zvážením
jednotlivých frakcí lze stanovit váhová procenta.
Znalost zrnitostního rozložení se často používá jako proxy při studiu sprašových
environmentálních archivů, často v kontextu s magnetickou susceptibilitou (Lisá et al., 2013a, 2014;
Antoine et al., 2013; Hošek et al., 2015). Ze srovnávacího studia environmentální informace ve
sprašových sedimentech na Moravě, resp. v transektu napříč Moravou a Slezskem, bylo zřejmé, že
všechny lokality vykazovaly podobný trend kolísání zrnitostního rozložení. Směrem k začátku
holocénu dochází k pozvolnému hrubnutí. Podobný trend je sledovatelný i směrem od jihu k severu,
směrem k severoevropskému zalednění. Lokalita Dolní Věstonice má nejlépe zachovaný sedimentární
záznam a současně i výskyt zrnitostně nejjemnějších sedimentů. Zřetelný byl zároveň nárůst jílové
frakce v závislosti na přítomnosti tmavších interstadiálních nebo interglaciálních horizontů. Tím
pádem byla zřetelná i korelace mezi magnetickou susceptibilitou a nárůstem jílové frakce.
2.5. Environmentální magnetismus
Environmentální magnetismus je klasickým metodickým nástrojem dnes již nezbytným pro
paleoenvironmentální studie. Nejčastěji je využívána magnetická susceptibilita a frekvenčně závislá
magnetická susceptibilita (Thompson a Oldfield, 1986). Magnetická susceptibilita (MS) je hodnota
měřená v indukovaném magnetickém poli se stanovenou frekvencí a je vyjádřena jednotkami Si –
jinak řečeno: je to schopnost minerálů namagnetizovat se v určitém indukovaném magnetickém poli.
Podle toho, jak se materiál v magnetickém poli chová, tj. podle intenzity signálu, je možné rozdělit
materiál do tří skupin: diamagnetický, paramagnetický a feromagnetický. Diamagnetický materiál má
zápornou hodnotu susceptibility, paramagnetický reaguje jen po dobu blízkosti silného magnetického
pole a feromagnetický má velmi silnou odezvu na vnější magnetické pole. Magnetickou susceptibilitu
půd a sedimentů ovlivňují dva hlavní faktory. Prvním je přítomnost oxidů železa, jako je hematit
(αFe2O3), maghemit (γFe2O3) a magnetit (Fe3O4), a druhým je stupeň antropogenního ovlivnění.
Hodnoty magnetické susceptibility jsou často odezvou signálu odrážejícího více faktorů. Ovlivňuje je
jak množství, tak i velikost magnetických minerálů, proto může být interpretace založená pouze na
těchto datech mnohdy zavádějící a je účelné používat magnetickou susceptibilitu pouze jako jedno
z vodítek pro finální interpretace. Frekvenčně závislá magnetická susceptibilita je veličina závislá na
zrnitosti a vzniklá výpočtem z minimálně dvou měření, přičemž pokaždé je vzorek vystavován
magnetickému poli s odlišnou frekvencí (Dearing et al, 1996). Výhoda frekvenčně závislé magnetické
susceptibility je v tom, že odráží množství superparamagnetických minerálů, které vznikají převážně
při pedogenních pochodech (Evans and Heller, 2003).
Jedna z metodických studií zaměřená na vztah mezi magnetickými parametry a ostatními
proxy, jako je například zrnitost nebo obsah organické hmoty, byla provedena na aluviálních
sedimentech Nilu v prostoru Sabaloky a šestého Nilského kataraktu (Lisá et al., 2012), kde bylo na
základě těchto proxy vyčleněno celkem 9 různých facií. Nuanci mezi těmito faciemi odpovídají změny
v energii depozice a lidský impakt. Tato studie je již částečně zmiňována výše (kap. 1.2.), proto zde
uvedu jen přímé vztahy mezi magnetickými a ostatními proxy. Zvýšená magnetická susceptibilita byla
detekována především v sedimentech ukládaných s vysokou energií. Tyto sedimenty však obsahují i
množství diamagnetického křemene, proto bylo zvýšení susceptibility přímo závislé především na
přítomnosti prachové frakce, případně na obsahu makroskopicky rozpoznatelných akumulací těžkých
28
minerálů, které zde vytvářely černé čočky. Zvýšení frekvenčně závislé magnetické susceptibility bylo
naopak vázáno především na prostředí nízkoenergetické depozice a přímo korelovalo se zvýšenými
hodnotami prachové a jílové frakce. Pokud ovšem sediment obsahoval zároveň zvýšené množství
organické hmoty, zůstávaly hodnoty magnetické susceptibility nízké a hodnoty frekvenčně závislé
magnetické susceptibility vykazovaly zvýšený trend.
2.6. Geochemie
V rámci předkládané práce není reálné uchopit kapitolu s názvem Geochemie příliš detailně,
protože škála geochemických nebo pedogeochemických metod využívaných při studiu
environmentálního záznamu a formačních procesů je příliš široká. Množství z těchto metodických
přístupů bylo zmíněno již v předcházejícím textu, proto zde uvádím jen velmi stručný přehled
možnosti stanovení silikátové analýzy, kationtové výměnné kapacity a obsahu organické hmoty
doplněné jednou krátkou případovou studií.
Silikátová analýza je metoda, jejíž pomocí lze zjistit mokrou cestou, tedy rozpuštěním vzorku
v daném rozpouštědle (nejčastěji zředěné kyselině chlorovodíkové) a oddělením nerozpustného
vzorku, obsah jednotlivých prvků. Typ rozpouštědla, které je použito, zásadně ovlivňuje konkrétní
analytická data, na což je třeba brát zřetel při srovnávacích studiích. Nejčastěji jsou tímto způsobem
stanovovány obsahy rozpustného oxidu křemičitého (SiO2), oxidu vápenatého (CaO) a hořečnatého
(MgO), seskvioxidů (Al2O3, Fe2O3) a oxidů dalších kovů. Stanovení obsahu jednotlivých prvků se
následně provádí například z ICP spektrometrické analýzy. Poslední dobou je čím dál tím častěji
používán přenosný XRF spektrofotometr. Pro stanovení kationtové výměnné kapacity (CEC) se
používá celá řada metod. Hlavní rozdíly jsou v používaných rozpouštědlech. Například rozpouštědlem
Mehlich III. lze získat informace o živinách přístupných pro rostliny. Každopádně získáváme informace
jen o specifické části měřeného materiálu, což nám dává možnost přesnějších interpretací, ale na
druhou stranu nám nedovoluje obecnější popis sedimentu. V případě metody měření Melichem III.
lze získat data, která mohou být porovnávána s již známými databázemi půdního chemizmu. Tato
informace je často klíčová pro posouzení stáří a geneze půd nebo pro schopnost rozlišení půd
vzniklých in situ nebo svahovými pochody (Bajer, 2003). Pro stanovení obsahu organické hmoty se
obvykle používá větší množství metodických přístupů. Relativně nejlevnějším je tzv. LOI (loss on
ignition), tedy ztráta žíháním. Tato metoda je však vhodná pouze pro sedimenty, které obsahují velké
množství organické hmoty. Z dalších přesnějších metod se používá stanovení Cox (oxidovatelný uhlík).
V zahraniční literatuře se často jako ekvivalent Cox objevuje TOC (total organic carbon) stanovený
stejnou nebo podobnou metodikou.
Příkladem využití znalosti chemického složení jako jednoho ze střípků mozaiky může být
výzkum výplně halštatské zemnice v Modřicích u Brna (Jarošová, 2010). Chemické analýzy sedimentů
zahrnovaly však v tomto případě pouze fosfátovou analýzu. Dalšími analýzami, které jsou
v předchozím textu popsány pouze částečně, byly stanovení pH, ztráta žíháním, ze které byly
následně přepočtem zjištěny obsahy organické hmoty a karbonátů, a měření magnetické
susceptibility. Závislosti jednotlivých měřených veličin byly interpretovány v návaznosti na
mikromorfologii a makroskopický popis sedimentů. Laminovaná, asi 1 m mocná výplň zemnice byla
na základě statigrafie a mikrostratigrafie vysvětlena jako systém podlahových vrstev s přídavnými
sanitárními polohami, které zamezují šíření pachu či vlhkosti z rozkladu organické hmoty. Změny ve
výplni tvořené vrstvičkami organické hmoty přemístěné spraší, popelovitými vrstvami a uhlíky, se
odráží také v hodnotách magnetické susceptibility, obsahu karbonátů, fosforu či organické hmoty.
Monotónní hodnoty pH potvrzují stabilitu fosfátů, které jsou vázány především na částečně
rozloženou organickou hmotu. Přínos pedogenně ovlivněného materiálu, tzn. pravděpodobná fáze
počínajícího zániku zemnice, kdy dojde k destrukci stěn, odkrytí prostoru a do zemnice se začíná
29
přirozenou gravitací zanášet půda z okolí, je zřetelný ve svrchní části výplně. Tato domněnka je
podpořena nejen mikrostratigraficky, ale i zvyšujícími se obsahy frekvenčně závislé magnetické
susceptibility, které nekorelují se susceptibilitou měřenou při jedné frekvenci. Zároveň s rostoucími
hodnotami frekvenčně závislé magnetické susceptibility roste obsah silikátového residua, tj. klesá
obsah karbonátů a organické hmoty. Nárůsty obsahů organické hmoty a fosforečnanů korespondují s
nárůstem obsahu karbonátů, což je dáno především hustotou vzorkování a následným zkresleným
signálem. Sanitární vrstvy tvořené především karbonátovou složkou ze spraše se v tomto případě mísí
s vrstvami organické hmoty, která zároveň dotuje hodnoty fosfátů. Mikromorfologie má v tomto
případě mnohem větší vypovídací hodnotu.
30
31
5. Vlastní práce
32
33
5.1. Svahové procesy
Lisa, L., Komoroczy, B., Vlach, M., Válek, D., Bajer, A., Kovárník, J., Rajtár, J., Hüssen, C.M.,
Šumberová, R. (2015): How were the ditches filled? Sedimentological and
micromorphological classification of formation processes within graben-like
archaeological objects. Quaternary International, 370, 66-76.
Lisa, L., Hosek, J., Bajer, A., Matys Grygar T., Vandenberghe D. (2014): Geoarchaeology of
Upper Palaeolithic loess sites located within a transect through Moravian valleys,
Czech Republic.- Quaternary International, 351, 25-37.
34
How were the ditches filled? Sedimentological and
micromorphological classification of formation processes within
graben-like archaeological objects
L. Lisa a, *
, B. Komoroczy b
, M. Vlach b
, D. Valek c
, A. Bajer d
, J. Kovarník e
, J. Rajtar f
,
C.M. Hüssen g
, R. Sumberova h
a
Institute of Geology ASCR, Rozvojova 269, Prague 6 165 00, Czech Republic
b
Institute of Archaeology ASCR Brno, v. v. i., Kralovopolska 147, 612 00 Brno, Czech Republic
c
Institute of Archaeology and Museology, Faculty of Arts, Masaryk University, Arna Novaka 1, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic
d
Institute of Geology and Pedology, FFWT MENDELU, Zemedelska 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
e
Department of Archaeology, Philosophical Faculty, University of Hradec Kralove, Rokitanskeho 62, 500 03 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
f
Institute of Archaeology of Nitra, Akademicka 2, 949 21 Nitra, Slovakia
g
R€omisch-Germanische Kommission DAI Frankfurt am Main, Palmengartenstrabe 10-12, 60325 Frakfurt am Main, Germany
h
Institute of Archaeology ASCR Praha, v. v. i., Letenska 2, Prague, Czech Republic
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Available online 31 December 2014
Keywords:
Formation processes
Sedimentology
Micromorphology
V-shaped ditch
Neolithic rondel structures
Roman ditch
a b s t r a c t
The ways of infilling archaeological objects are among the most common questions given to geoarchaeologists.
Convenient subjects for the study of formation processes of archaeological terrain features
(contexts) are V-shaped ditches. Their infilling is usually lithologicaly and texturally considerably
variable with regular morphology and special archaeological context. The V-shaped ditches are known
only from two chronologically, culturally distinctive periods. In first case there are ditches of “rondels”
from the Late Neolithic Period, in the second case we are dealing with the fortification ditches of the
Roman temporary camps.
On the basis of sedimentological and consequently micromophological study, processes were differentiated
in the formation of studied infillings. In Neolithic rondels, two parts of infillings were noted. The
lower one typically has straight thin bedded layers, originating due to processes connected with vegetation
ingrowth and erosion of the rampart. The upper part of the infilling is usually homogenous, and
originated during the human caused grading of the surrounding area. During this phase, remains of
rampart constructions were most probably destroyed. The basic type of deposition e especially visible in
case of rondels e is lateral planar wash with phases of bioturbation, running pedogenesis on the edges of
ditches, or stagnating water. The second main featuring process is mass movement slumping, particularly
of upper faces of sloped sides. This process often happens naturally, mainly due to erosion, presence of
water, and vegetation. The most distinctive postsedimentary processes determined within the rondel
infilling were bioturbation, accumulation of carbonates and movement of clay minerals caused by soil
leaching. In the V-shaped ditches of the Roman temporary camps, it was possible to microscopically trace
similar records documenting coarse particle sedimentation at the base of ditches, although this layer is
not continuous thought the whole width. It indicates the direction from which it was transported. They
are remains of intentionally redeposited ramparts. The upper parts are marked by increasing humification
and bioturbation as a result of ditch infilling emergence. However, it is possible to trace similar
formation processes in both groups of studied V-shaped ditches and to define a basic classification.
Prevailing textural and structural features are distinctively different between the groups, due to
geological subsoil conditions, hydrological regime and depth of the ditches.
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lisa@gli.cas.cz (L. Lisa).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Quaternary International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/quaint
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.11.049
1040-6182/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
Quaternary International 370 (2015) 66e76
1. Introduction
The way that archaeological objects were infilled is a frequent
question, but usually also hard to answer if the infilling does not
contain typical textural features. One of the useful methodological
tools which might explain more about the formation processes is
micromorphology (Goldberg et al., 1993; Barham and Macphail,
1995; Matthews et al., 1997; Courty, 2001). This approach can
also answer various questions such as connections with the past
climate or human impact on the landscape (Goldberg and
Macphail, 2006; Macphail and Goldberg, 2010; Leopold et al.,
2011; Milek, 2012). The graben-like ditch infillings are usually
lithologicaly and texturally considerably variable, and have regular
shapes and relatively specific archaeological context, which was the
reason why this type of archaeological structure was chosen for this
study dealing mainly with formation processes detected by
micromorphology.
Graben-like ditches in the context of Central Europe alluvial
landscapes represent a type of archaeological structure typical only
for two cultural periods. The older one represents the Central European
Neolithic period, especially its later phases (4900e4500 BC)
represented by STK e Stroked pottery culture. The most typical
monumental subsurface feature of this period is called a “rondel” in
the Czech environment (Pavlu, 1982; Podborský, 1988, 1999; terms
used in the literature include Kreisgrabenanlage, circular ditches,
circular enclosures, and woodhenges). Those objects are typically
situated on the edges of river valleys. A “classic” Late Neolithic
rondel is typically considered as a complex of one or several, more
or less round ditches with a characteristic sharp profile, and one or
more circular concentric channels inside the space demarcated by
the ditch with the smallest diameter (Fig. 1). Maximum diameter of
such objects is 30e240 m, the width of ditches varies between 1.5
and 14 m, and their depth is usually between 1 and 4.5 m (Rídký
et al., 2012). The sedimentary infillings of rondel ditches usually
look similar (Fig. 2). The lower part is in most cases bedded, with
the thickness of individual thin layers varying from mm to cm,
while the upper part of the infilling is more or less homogenous
(Zeman and Havlícek,1988). Valek et al. (2013) and Lisa et al. (2013)
suggested the main formation processes of the rondel infillings
were mainly washouts for the lower part of the infillings and
collapse induced by humans for the upper part of the infilling. The
large volumes of material excavated from the ditch suggests the
presence of earthwork near the ditch, which might be a source of
the material for the infilling (Kovarník and Mangel, 2013; Lenneis,
1977; Modderman, 1983; Nemejcova-Pavúkova, 1986;
Neugebauer, 1986; Oliva, 2004; Valek et al., 2013; Lisa et al.,
2013), but there are also authors suggesting that earthworks were
not present (Trnka, 1986; Podborský, 1988). Kovarník and Mangel
(2013) and Vokolek (1963) described one of the rondel structures
near Trebovetice with preserved earthworks located particularly on
the outer side of the ditch. Earthwork ramparts' presence inside the
rondel or outside the ditches, as well as processes in the origin of
the ditch infillings, are still discussed (Lisa et al., 2013).
The second group of the archaeological features within the region
of interest, where the V-shaped ditches are a typical phenomenon,
represent camps of the Roman army. The V-shaped
ditches, the so-called “Spitzgraben” (Fig. 3), are a symptomatic
Fig. 1. Typical example of the rondel structure and its ditch infilling; Tesetice-Kyjovice, Southern Moravia.
Fig. 2. Infilling of the rondel ditch with the micromorphology sampling positions;
Tesetice-Kyjovice, Southern Moravia (Photo P. Lisý).
L. Lisa et al. / Quaternary International 370 (2015) 66e76 67
form of the Roman fortification architecture and are regularly
documented in all the types of military installations of the whole
Roman Empire (see Fischer, 2012, 253e259). The specificity of the
objects in our scope dwells in the fact that they represent temporary
military objects in enemy territory. Terminologically, such installations
are called “camps”, in contrast to the stable long-term
types called “forts” and “fortlets”, localized in the Roman environment
(on terminology see e.g. Webster, 1985; Welfare and
Swan, 1995; Jones, 2011, 2012). This fact has significant influence
on the infilling development in each case, while it is obvious that
the temporary camps, used only for weeks or months, do not
contain evidence of further building activities within their stratigraphic
units. The Roman temporary camps (incorrectly called
“marching camps” in the past) are, beside numerous evidence from
Britain (e. g. Welfare/Swan 1995; Jones, 2011, 2012), known also
from regions inhabited by the Germanic tribes of Slovakia, Lower
Austria, and Moravia. In these regions, they are generally considered
to be evidence of the Roman military activities during the
period of the Marcomannic wars between 172 and 180 AD and are
characterized by the apparent absence of stable build-up areas and
limited archaeological finds. On the subject of the Roman temporary
camp structure, there also exists evidence in the ancient
written sources, whereas the most comprehensively conceived is
the work Gromatici Liber de Munitionibus Castrorum by Hyginus
(for summary of sources see Jones, 2011, 5e12). This military
handbook states clearly that a camp has to be established in vicinity
of a river or water source and requires construction of defensive
ditches and ramparts. Hyginus mentions two types of defensive
ditches, including specified dimensions (Webster, 1985, 172). His
basic description of so-called “fossa fastigata” and “fossa Punica”
with asymmetrical ditch faces states also mentions small channels
in the very bottom of ditches, which might have had served for
drying purposes (compared to the mistaken assumption of moatlike
use; Fischer, 2012, 255; Jones, 1975, 107; Welfare and Swan,
1995, 17). Material extracted during digging of ditches was used
for construction of the core of the rampart (Jones, 1975, 32;
Johnson, 1987, 7e10; Fischer, 2012, 253). Concerning the formation
processes which probably took a place during the origin of the ditch
infilling, Balek and Sedo (1998) suggested various mechanisms
(gradual deposition process or intentional filling; collapse or slip of
rampart into ditch; etc.). More detailed observations acquired
during the terrain research of the complex fortification system of
the central military base located on the hilltop Burgstall at Musov
(Fig. 4), which clearly cannot be considered as a temporary camp
(Komoroczy, 2008, 2009a), established that within the ditch
infillings sedimentary units containing dried bricks regularly
appear, which are reliably associated with the frontal parts of the
rampart structure (e.g. Tejral, 2008; Komoroczy, 2008).
The main aim of this paper is to suggest the classification of the
formation processes which took place during the formation of the
ditch infillings, especially the infillings of graben-like ditches. The
classification is based on macroscopic and micromorphologic
observations.
2. Methods
The ditch infillings of six localities (three localities with
Neolithic rondel ditches and three localities with ditches belonging
to the Roman camps) were studied during the last three years on
different occasions. The data interpreted in this paper come from
different geological and hydrological backgrounds, and the original
Fig. 3. Typical example of the Roman camp structure and its ditch infillings; Pasohlavky, Southern Moravia.
Fig. 4. Infilling or the Roman camp ditch with the visible typical internal structure of
the coarse grained layer documenting the destroyed body of rampart, Musov (Photo P.
Lisý).
L. Lisa et al. / Quaternary International 370 (2015) 66e7668
micromorphological descriptions were already published mainly as
reports or local papers. Archaeological excavations of the TeseticeKyjovice
rondel were conducted by Masaryk University; the rondel
structure in Kolín was excavated during the rescue excavations of
the Institute of Archaeology of Academy of Sciences in Prague. The
third Neolithic rondel structure situated in Plotiste n. L was excavated
by the Philosophical Faculty of the University in Hradec
Kralove. Roman ditches situated in Vrable (Slovakia) and Pribice
and Musov-Neurissen (Southern Moravia) were excavated under
the Institute of Archaeology of Academy of Sciences, Brno, Institute
of Archaeology of Slovak Academy of Sciences Nitra, Austrian
Institute of Archaeology Vienna and R€omisch-Germanische Kommission
DAI Franfkurt am Main.
Cleaned sections were in all cases sedimentologically described
and documented. The classification of formation processes suggested
in this paper is based on 85 samples which were taken at 6
localities with different geological and cultural backgrounds, from
the infillings of graben ditches with different depths. Micromorphological
samples usually have dimensions of 120 Â 70 or
90 Â 50 mm, except at Plotiste n. L. I. Five samples come from the
ditch in Tesetice-Kyjovice, 52 samples come from four ditches of
Kolín rondel, and 10 samples of the small format 3 Â 4 cm come
from Plotiste nad Labem I. The Roman ditches in Musov were
studied from two sections, and 5 samples were taken there. The
locality of Pribice was studied from 8 samples taken from four
ditches. At Vrable, two sections were studied, and 5 samples were
taken.
The samples were taken in situ in Kubiena boxes, slowly dried
and impregnated in the Laboratory of Geoarchaeology, Institute of
Geology, Academy of Sciences in Prague. Thin sections of
120 Â 70 mm were completed by Julie Boreham in Reach (www.
earthslides.com) and then studied under a binocular and polarising
microscope (PPL, XPL and OIL) at magnifications in the range
of 1e400x. Micromorphological description and interpretations
followed mainly Bullock et al. (1985), Stoops (2003), and Stoops
et al. (2010).
3. Site description
3.1. Archaeology and general sedimentological context of rondel
sites Tesetice, Kolín and Plotiste
All the rondel sites are located in relatively close vicinity of the
river network in elevated areas, with good views to the river. The
Tesetice-Kyjovice Neolithic rondel (Fig. 2) is located on the southeasterly
oriented slope in the area of Sutny I, southwest Moravia
(Fig. 1). Sutny I was the most important part of local settlement
activities dated to the older stage of Moravian painted ware culture
(phase Ia). The rondel itself is composed of one concentric ditch
with a diameter of 60 m (Podborský, 1988). The geological background
is composed of loess with a Bt interstadial soil horizon at a
depth of 3 m. Valek et al. (2013) recently made the revision of the
ditch infilling and defined two main horizons developed under
different formation processes. The lower part of the infilling shows
macroscopic bedding, composed of a set of layers which are more
or less continuous. The thickness of those layers varies from mm to
tens of centimetres. The upper part of the infilling is composed of a
homogenous dark brown matrix with no visible textural features
pointing to the possible formation processes. The detailed macroscopical
and micromorphological description was published in Lisa
et al. (2013).
The largest rondel in the Czech Republic (Sumberova, 2012) was
found during construction works in the western part of Kolín city
(Fig. 1). The rondel itself is made of four concentric ditches, the
outer one with a diameter of 210 m, and the inner one with a
diameter of 140 m (Sumberova, 2012). On the basis of the archaeological
material from its infilling, the rondel is dated to the Late
Neolithic (the later phase of Stroke-Ornamented Pottery culture).
The geological background of this area is composed of loess.
Macroscopically, the infilling of the ditch is quite similar to the
infilling of Tesetice-Kyjovice rondel ditch, i.e. the lower part shows
significant lamination with the thickness of the lighter and darker
horizons varying form mm to tens of cm, while the upper part of
infilling is quite homogenous. The micromorphological observations
were done in all studied ditches and a detailed micromorphological
description documenting the main features is partly
published in Lisa et al. (2013).
Two-thirds of the rondel structure in Plotiste is located within
the village urban area near Hradec Kralove, on the right terrace of
the Elbe River, approximately 5e7 m above the inundation line. The
rondel structure is composed of three circular ditches, with the
diameter of the outer one of 117 m. The depth of the inner ditch is
240 cm. The rondel structure was dated to the Stroked Pottery
Culture (Kovarník, 2012, 2014, in press; Kovarník and Mangel,
2013). The geological background in which the ditches were dug
in is composed of alluvial deposits, but the lowermost part of the
ditch touched in every case the fluvial deposits located below the
alluvium. The sedimentary structure of Plotiste nad Labem I. rondel
does not differ significantly from those documented in Tesetice
Kyjovice and Kolín. There is a significant presence of bedded more
or less continuous horizons of thickness varying in mm and tens of
cm in the lower two-thirds of the rondel. The geological background
of the locality shows thin lamination due to grain size differentiations
resulting from the alluvial process. Two thirds of the
infilling contained an erosion layer containing quartz pebbles, with
the original provenance in terrace sediments documented below
the ditch. These sediments were excavated during the last phase of
the ditch construction and deposited on the rampart. The fact that
these were observed in the upper part of the recent infilling shows
that the rampart was destroyed a long time after the rondel
abandonment, probably during the phase of the landscape use for
agricultural purposes. The layer of pebble rich aggregate seems to
be redeposited from the other side of the ditch (Kovarník, 2013).
3.2. Archaeology and general sedimentological context of Roman
fortification ditches Vrable, Pribice and Musov Burgstahl
All the studied sites are located in vicinity of the river networks
in strategic positions in the landscape. Compared with the rondel
ditches, those related to the Roman camps are much more shallow
and narrower (except the Vrable site), and the internal structure is
different. A comprehensive archaeological component complex is
situated near Vrable (location Velke Lehemby) in the northern part
of the Danubian Upland (Hrnciarova et al., 2002) on the left bank
terrace of the river Zitava (Fig. 3). The first evidence of the Roman
temporary camps was provided by extensive geophysical prospections
in 2009 and 2010. Since 2012, the camps have been
investigated in terrain within the framework of inter-institutional
project cooperation of the Institute of Archaeology of SAS Nitra
and R€omisch-Germanische Kommission DAI Frankfurt am Main
(Hüssen et al. in press). The larger of two camps has known dimensions
of 740 by 400 m and the total extent is estimated as
roughly 30 ha. In the longer eastern side of the camp fortification,
two titulum type gates have been identified. The smaller camp,
located on the edge of terrace of the river Zitava, was fortified by a
double line of ditches. Its known dimensions are 400 by 255 m,
enclosing an estimated area of more than 10 ha. The geological
background consists of loess. The micromorphology samples were
acquired from small-scale trench excavation in the eastern fortification
line, to the north of the northern gate. The terrain situation
L. Lisa et al. / Quaternary International 370 (2015) 66e76 69
revealed superposition of two Roman V-shaped ditches with specific
soil structures in their infillings. The infilling of the main ditch
differs from the infillings of Neolithic rondels, in spite of the fact
that the depth and the geological background are comparable. The
continuous thin layers we know from Neolithic rondels are missing.
The three temporary camps of the Roman army discovered in
Pribice in South Moravia (Fig. 3) count amongst those initially
discovered at the beginning of the 1990s, and belong to the best
known military installations of this type in Moravia (Balek et al.,
1994; Balek and Sedo, 1998; Tejral, 1999; Komoroczy, 2009a,
2009b; Komoroczy and Vlach, 2010). The camps are located
roughly 8 km to the north of the central fortification of Burgstall at
Musov, on the left bank of the river Jihlava. Two spacious camps
designated as Pribice I (~28 ha) and III (~40 ha) are supplemented
by the small camp Pribice II (~1 ha), located below the terrace at the
edge of alluvial landscape. Camp I also is present within this area.
Fortification ditches have been investigated through the limited
trench excavations since their discovery (Balek et al., 1994),
although more detailed analyses of fortification ditch infillings have
not been conducted. On the basis of the inter-institutional cooperation,
selective geophysical prospection of the camps I and II and
consequent small-scale trench excavations were accomplished in
2012 and 2013. An excavated area of the eastern gate of the camp I
provided suitable conditions for micromorphological sampling.
Further excavations aimed to more precisely document the camp II
fortification, inaccessible for geophysical prospection. The geological
conditions in the excavated gate area consist of fine pebbles of
the Jihlava River terrace.
The third ditch is located in the central part of SE slopes of the
hilltop Burgstall in South Moravia (Figs. 3 and 4). This ditch was
examined within inter-institutional cooperation in 2013. According
to its location and archaeological contexts it seems that the structure
belongs to an unknown course of the fortification system of the
central military base (e.g. Komoroczy, 2006, 2008, 2009a,b). Dating
into the frame of the Marcomanniac wars is corroborated also by
archaeological finds from particular sections of the infillings. Subsoil
of the excavated terrain consisted of fine Cenozoic sandyeclay
sediments of the Carpathian Foredeep altering with strata of river
Fig. 5. Micromorphological documentation of natural processes and processes caused by humans observed within infillings of Neolithic ditches and Roman camp ditches; A e
layers of material composed of subrounded quartz silt alternating with the layers composed of humus rich aggregates documenting natural colluvial processes, Kolín rondel, ditch
3A, lower part (PPL); B e matrix composed of silty material as well as humic aggregates. The quartz grains show weak orientation along the slope which is result of slow natural
colluviation, Tesetice-Kyjovice rondel, central part (XPL); C e rip up clasts composed of clayey aggregates of interglacial soil documenting high energy natural colluviation, TeseticeKyjovice
rondel, lower part (PPL); D e soil crusts with positive gradation as a result of naturally caused phases of standing water, Kolín rondel, ditch 1, central part (XPL); E e
material of human-made mudbrick which were used to consolidate the rampart, Roman camp in Musov (PPL); F e mechanically deformed material of calcareous claystones, Roman
camp in Musov, (PPL). The length of the scale is 2 mm.
L. Lisa et al. / Quaternary International 370 (2015) 66e7670
cobblestones and pebbles. Besides numerous archaeological finds,
dried bricks (mudbricks) are present in the frontal face of the
above-ground part of the fortification. Certain positions of the ditch
infillings showed evidence of activity of the local Germanic population
after the Roman withdrawal from the region.
4. Macroscopic and micromorphological observations
4.1. Sedimentological and micromorphological features of rondel
infillings
Rondel infillings show similar trends in the lithological variability.
The uppermost part is usually homogenous and shows signs
of pedogenesis. This part of infilling was deposited intentionally
(mass movement) and the main reason was probably the levelling
of the surface for agriculture. There is a typical lack of primary
sedimentary structures occurring during the mass movement and
the matrix looks quite homogenous except for bioturbation
(Fig. 5A) or postsedimentary textural features, including depletion
zones (Fig. 6F), calcium carbonate accumulations (Fig. 6B), or the
origin of redoximorphic features (Fig. 6D).
The lower and central parts of the Neolithic rondel infillings are
commonly composed not only of thin layers, but also of intercalated
massive deposits. These horizons show that the most significant
process which took place in formation of the infillings of rondel
ditches is the natural deposition under the slope. Features related
to the slope processes are visible not only micromorphologically
but also macroscopically as thin layers approximately 1e5 cm thick
or layers with oriented clasts (Fig. 5A,B). Deposition reflecting high
to average energy of sheet wash was documented in the Kolín site
by the presence of rip-up clasts (Fig. 5C). The colour and lithological
(mainly grain size) difference between single layers detected in
lower part of the ditch infilling (Fig. 5A) depends on the type of
material deposited into the ditch. Dark layers are composed of
redeposited A horizon, partly stabilised by vegetation or bioturbated
in situ (Fig. 6A). The stabilisation is documented not only
by the presence of bioturbation, but also by the appearance of
calcified root cells, carbonate coating, and hypocoating (Fig. 6B).
During relatively quick deposition, due to the disruption of the
surface of source area, loess material from the walls was partly
eroded, and therefore the roundness of soil clasts is due to gravitational
movement. On the other hand, the light material detected
Fig. 6. Micromorphological documentation of postdepositional processes observed within infillings of Neolithic ditches and Roman camp ditches; A e bioturbated matrix by
mesofauna, Kolín rondel, ditch 3A, upper part (PPL); B e calcium carbonate coating and hypocoating of void, ditch of Vrable Roman camp, central part (PPL); C e channels with
iluviated clay coating, Plotiste rondel, lower part (XPL); D e ferroximorphic nodule documenting redoximorphic conditions of the upper part of Tesetice-Kyjovice rondel infilling
(PPL); E e platy microstructure documented within the central part of Kolín rondel, ditch 3A, central part (PPL); F e Depleated part of matrix documented in the infilling of Musov
Roman camp (PPL). The length of the scale is 2 mm.
L. Lisa et al. / Quaternary International 370 (2015) 66e76 71
within this part of the infilling represents the product of degradation
of loess or alluvium walls or earthwork near the ditch due to
rainsplash, lately influenced by seasonal frost action and producing
platy to lenticular microstructure (Fig. 6E). An interesting feature
observed in the Kolín site documenting the mechanical destruction
of once deposited material under calm humid conditions are soil
crusts (Fig. 5D), which are in some cases deposited with negative
grading. This feature may suggest previous cleaning of the ditch
infilling and the presence of the rampart situated close to the ditch
as a source of material. The most significant formation process
detected micromorphologically in the Plotiste site and nearly
missing in the other studied cases was the postdepositional redeposition
of clay material and formation of clay coatings and infillings
(Fig. 6C). The source of clay in this case comes from the
background alluvial sediments. Moderately sorted silt contains a
number of channels and vesicles, and the clay coatings in the inner
part composes a porostriated B fabric (Fig. 6C). The intensity of the
clay coating does not vary with the depth of the section and was
probably formed shortly after the deposition of the infilling.
The very bottom of the rondel ditch infilling is usually composed
of bedded colluvium and composed of individual layers predominantly
1e2 mm thick and quite homogenous in composition. Their
colour depends on the amount of fine-grained organic matter
(humus). In Tesetice, this part of the infilling contained subrounded
clasts of the redeposited B horizon of the Eemian luvisol as rip-up
clasts (Karkanas and Goldberg, 2013) (Fig. 5C). The B horizon of
Eemian Interstadial paleosol is well developed in the background
geology of the ditch and was excavated in the final part of the ditch
construction. This material was probably translocated to the upper
part of the rampart, and therefore was the first to be redeposited to
the infilling of the ditch by high energy rainsplash.
4.2. Sedimentological and micromorphological features of Roman
fortification ditch infillings
The infillings of Roman fortification ditches do not contain the
thin layers and bedding typical for rondel infillings. The layers
recognizable macroscopically within the infilling are not usually
continuous, and the shape suggests that those layers were deposited
in different stages from both sides of the ditch. It is usually
possible to recognize 3e4 lithologically different layers which differ
by grain size and colour. Usually the bottom of the ditch is more fine
grained and homogenous, followed by the unsorted, coarse grained
thick layer. This layer has signs of rapid mass movement and may
suggest the erosion of a rampart hardened by coarse grained material.
The direction of erosion is from the inner to outer part of the
camp. The outer part of the ditch is commonly filled by more fine
grained material eroded from the walls of the ditch. The uppermost
part of the infilling is composed by darker bioturbated arable soil.
No primary structures showing sheet wash deposition were
documented, and the macroscopical shape of the layers suggests
that the main formation process was rapid mass movement
induced by human activity. The typical parts of the observed sediments
are aggregates of humus rich particles with subrounded
quartz grains. The humification process was minimal before
deposition. The most common micromorphological feature is bioturbation.
This is probably indicated by the fact that the infillings
are quite shallow and the groundwater level is usually quite high.
Surprisingly, this feature is usually missing or rare in the lower
parts of the infilling, which suggests that the infilling was rapid.
Another postsedimentary feature which was observed in all samples
of one ditch in Pribice is clay mineral illuviation (Generally
Fig. 6C). Clay accumulations are stipple-speckled. The infilling of
one ditch located in Musov e Burgstall in the upper part of the
same slope has quite different parameters from the other studied
sites, because the geological background is in this case composed of
calcareous clays of the Carpathian Foredeep. The lower part of the
infilling is composed of rip-up clasts (Fig. 5F) of different shapes
and sizes. This material had to be eroded from the excavated
original background of the ditch and then was probably deposited
into the ditch by mass movement. Some clasts contain partly
decomposed organic matter and show signs of mechanical
arrangement (Fig. 5E). Such features might be interpreted as a relic
of dried mud bricks. In every case, the bioturbation is quite rare, so
the formation process of those layers was probably quite quick and
might be interpreted as mass movement. The uppermost part of the
infilling is rich in bioturbation (Fig. 5A) and also contain signs of
human impact in the form of partly burned matrix and charcoal.
The lack of primary sedimentary features, relatively good sorting of
the sediment, and high degree of bioturbation might suggest slow
deposition by sheet wash followed by pedogenetic processes.
The Vrable site differs from the other studied sites because of
the different geological background and its depth. Some of the
macro and micro parameters of observed layers are at first glance
more similar to rondel infillings, but the internal structure of the
infilling as a whole is very similar to the other fortification ditches
in this study. The most typical feature of the Vrable site is bioturbation,
represented by change of fabric or by the presence of
channels. The channels were sometime infilled by very porous
microaggregates of excrement. Besides bioturbation, the second
most significant postsedimentary features are impregnations
(Fig. 6B,D) and depletions (Fig. 6F) which originated due to the
changes in the water regime, soil humidity, and the presence of
plants. Also, temperature which is along with humidity one of the
main factor influencing vegetation cover, had to play a role. Water
saturated sediment rich in carbonate is quite susceptible to changes
of internal structure. The origin of vughy microstructure is probably
caused by the escaping air from the pores (Stoops et al., 2010),
which was partly replaced by carbonate rich solutions. These solutions
are reflected by strong hypocoatings (Fig. 6B). The presence
of water in the sediment is also reflected by the origin of different
types of Fe rich nodules (Fig. 6D) (Stoops et al., 2010). Micromorphological
observation confirmed that the darker layers are
composed of subrounded and rounded clasts of humus rich matrix.
These clasts were described as rip-up clasts (Fig. 5C) in the sense of
Karkanas and Goldberg (2013), the result of high energy deposition.
The humus rich aggregates might have come from turf hardening of
some kind of rampart, which is generally suggested for the structure
of Roman ditches. On the other hand, the humus rich matrix
might have originated in humid conditions with rich vegetation
quite quickly, so the possibility that these rip-up clasts were
derived from newly originated soil cover near the ditch cannot be
ruled out. Important information was also derived from the passage
features which occurred in some samples. Passage features documented
in the infilling originated by macro or mesofauna of the
omnivore or carnivore type, because phosphatic nodules were
observed within the infilling of passages. Also, fragments of humus
rich matrix of the A soil horizon and B horizon of luvisol were
detected. These clasts are probably the relicts of former soil cover
and may be compared with classical krotovinas.
5. Interpretation and discussion
On one hand, it was possible to identify substantial differences
between Neolithic rondel ditch infillings and infillings of ditches
surrounding the Roman camps. On the other hand, there are still
some similarities in the formation processes of infillings which
might be classified visually and in detail by micromorphological
observations. Natural or anthropogenic processes which took place
during the filling history of archaeological objects, especially
L. Lisa et al. / Quaternary International 370 (2015) 66e7672
rondels, have not been categorised and systematically classified in
spite of the fact that there are papers discussing the formation
processes in archaeological contexts (Goldberg et al., 1993;
Goldberg and Macphail, 2006; Macphail and Goldberg, 2010;
Leopold et al., 2011; Milek, 2012). Loishandl-Weisz and Peticzka
(2011) noted the processes which might have taken place during
the infilling formation of Neolithic rondels in Steinabrunn.
Karkanas and Goldberg (2013) have tried to summarize the
microscopic features produced by major natural depositional processes
acting within a cave environment. These processes are
associated mainly with changes in the geomorphic system, climate
and the presence of humans, so the classification of both cave and
archaeological objects might be very similar. According to Davidson
et al. (1992), three main categories of features visible within
archaeological objects can be discerned: those related to the source
of the sediment, those revealing something about the soil formation
processes, and those produced or modified by humans, either
deliberately or accidentally. Analyses of soils and sediments can
also provide data on long-term processes of deposition and erosion
(Renfrew and Bahn, 2000). We propose that the formation processes
which took the place in the graben-like ditches might be
interpreted as a result of natural deposition, deposition forced by
humans, and by the processes which took the place after the primary
deposition and might be forced naturally or by humans.
5.1. Natural deposition
The most common type of natural deposits identified macroscopically
as well as micromorphologically within the studied
infillings are slope deposits. Processes were identified in all studied
objects according to the shape and context of sedimentary bodies.
Surprisingly, signs of primary sedimentary processes were identified
only in the case of Neolithic rondel infillings. Mücher et al.
(2010) divided the slope deposits into two main types. The first
one cover slope wash, hill wash or rain wash including soil erosion
on agricultural land, which seem to be the most typical processes
for the lower parts of Neolithic rondels and probably also for the
upper parts of Roman ditches. The second type of slope deposition
pointed out by Mücher et al. (2010) results in mass deposits. This
type includes solifluction, landslides, and debris flow deposits as
well as rock fall, dry grain flow, and avalanching. The natural
landslides were documented in lower and central parts of Neolithic
rondel ditches, while mass movement caused probably by humans
was interpreted commonly for the lower part of the Roman ditch
infillings. Processes of the slope wash type resulted in Neolithic
rondel ditch infillings. Mücher (1974) described the origin of
bedded colluvium developed in loess material. Similar sedimentary
features were described also by Bertran and Texier (1999) and
interpreted as overland flow. As the loess material composes the
background of the studied rondel, features of this type are a characteristic
result of natural deposition and correspond to the
described phenomenon. Surprisingly, these features have not been
observed in the Vrable Roman ditch infilling, which is also excavated
in loess material. This fact is probably connected with the
method of infilling. While the role of humans in case of Neolithic
rondel ditch infillings is minimal and the source of loess material
might be derived from eroded walls of the ditch as well as from the
nearby rampart (if presented), in the Roman ditch infillings the
lower part of the ditch was filled by the destroyed rampart
deposited intentionally. The possible source of material was
therefore minimalized. The bedded colluvium detected in the
lowermost parts of the Neolithic rondel ditch infillings might be,
according to the field observations (Mücher, 1974), related to the
formation during heavy rainstorms when rill erosion occurred on
fallow arable land, or on arable land partly covered by crops, which
fail to protect the soil from rain splash impact. In deep ditches with
steep slopes, the walls composed of easily erodible loess with
removed vegetation might be the source of such material (Weicz
and Peticzka, 2011; Lisa et al., 2013).
The origin of massive deposits which appear in lower and central
parts of the Neolithic rondel might be, according to Bertran
et al. (1997), interpreted as overland flow deposits resulting in
lenses with lamination or bedding and evidence of sorting. Those
deposits originated due to vertical or lateral accretion by rapid or
dilute flows (Bertran and Texier, 1999). Karkansas and Golberg
(2013) also divided types of slow deposits depending on the
amount of energy within cave environments. Lower-energy flows
produce less sorted and more crudely bedded microstructures
which correspond to the more massive yellow layers of the studied
rondel ditch infillings. Sometimes, are layers of rondel ditch infillings
composed of rounded aggregates with different degrees of
sorting. Mücher et al. (1981) interpreted the appearance of rounded
aggregates as a result of disruption caused by running water over
subsoil horizons, mostly Bt horizons, which are rather stable during
transportation by water. Karkanas and Goldberg (2013) described
this type of deposit as a common phenomenon in cave environments.
Angular to subangular clay clast layers alternating with
finely bedded clays have been accordingly interpreted as the results
of episodic high-flow events. Such features were observed within
the studied sections only rarely, probably also due to the lack of
clayey material typical for rip-up clasts. According to Karkanas and
Goldberg (2010), the lower energy process results in microscopically
stratified deposits with angular clasts characterised by inclined
preferred orientation to the slope are interpreted as flow of
liquefied sediments (debris flow). These features were observed
commonly in the lowermost part of Tesetice-Kyjovice rondel ditch
infilling and within the infillings of some Roman ditches at Musov.
Massive yellow or dark layers without internal bedding might
have also originated from slumping, which is a typical result of
mass deposition. According to Karkanas and Goldberg (2013), the
slump deposits have a sharp erosional contact with the underlying
substrate, and some of the aggregates have a more concave
configuration toward the direction of flow. These sediments are in
the case of Neolithic rondel ditch infillings as well as in the case of
infillings of Roman ditches easily interpretable from a macroscopic
point of view, as they form tongue like accumulations. In the
Neolithic rondel ditch infillings, these accumulations are usually
less thick and more bioturbated than in the Roman ditches. Leopold
et al. (2011) call these back-fill sediments.
Another sedimentary process detected only in the infilling of
Neolithic rondel ditches are phases of standing water resulting in
soil crusts. These graded facies are usually between 0.3 and 4 mm
thick, and they are commonly disrupted, which might be caused by
bioturbation or drying and swelling processes after sedimentation.
This might be a good indicator of repeated redeposition of the ditch
infilling (Lisa et al., 2013). These graded facies consisting of repetitive
fining upward sequences of sand, silt, and clay usually less
than a few millimetres in thickness might be the result of storm
events bringing enough water to form temporary small bodies
(pools) inside the ditch.
5.2. Deposition caused by humans
The deposition caused by humans can be divided according to
two different views. The first one is the explanation of appearance
of material which was influenced by humans, i.e. the appearance of
charred material as charcoal or daub, by appearance of lithics, or by
the appearance of fine grained material obviously mechanically
influenced by humans. Identification of these features was well
described in many papers (Stoops et al., 2010). Surprisingly, the
L. Lisa et al. / Quaternary International 370 (2015) 66e76 73
amount of artefacts or ecofacts is, in the case of Neolithic rondel
ditch infillings, distinctively low except in the uppermost parts of
infillings. The prevailing anthropogenic material consists of fine
grained charcoal. On the other hand, the infillings of Roman ditches
revealed influence of humans, identified not only as charcoal, but
also abode bricks in case of Musov. These bricks are in some cases
well preserved and visible also macroscopically (Komoroczy, 2008;
Tejral, 2008), but in most cases are quite degraded, but still visible
in thin sections (Friesem et al., 2011, 2014). A thin section is a thin
film of the sediment and therefor might catch only the most
common features (Stoops, 2003).
Human influence seems more important in the way the objects
were filled in. A typical feature of the lower part of the infillings of
Roman ditches is the result of mass movement which is macroscopically
visible as coarse grained lenses with tongue like sharp
edges. The bodies of this material were not influenced by bioturbation
which indicates that they were deposited quickly,
covered by another material and the vegetation did not have time
to influence them by rooting. This might be explained by the
archaeological context. In the Neolithic ditch infillings, mass
deposition forced by humans is suggested for the uppermost part of
the infilling where the bioturbation is still present. One have to take
into account that the material deposited into the ditch was influenced
for a long time by vegetation and therefore is rich in organic
matter, which was the subject of bioturbation even in deeper parts
of the horizon.
5.3. Postdepositional processes
The most typical postdepositional process identified was bioturbation.
Macroscopic burrows were rare and occurred mainly in
the uppermost part of the infillings. Mesofauna burrows and root
bioturbation were more commonly observed. Mesofauna burrows
are usually filled with softer material than the surrounding matrix
and have loose, heterogeneous and aggregated fabric (Goldberg
and Bar-Yosef, 1998). In the case of the studied rondels, the bioturbation
is present continually all over the section, but some layers
have distinctly higher bioturbation intensity. Such layers are usually
also rich in fine-grained organic matter. All microorganisms
feed in essence on soil organic matter (Brussaard and Juma, 1996),
so their increased activity is quite obvious there. The presence of
active soil fauna population is often into relationship with the
formation of soil horizons (Davidson et al., 2002). Whole soil horizons
can be bioturbated or completely transformed into fine
grained particles (Kooistra et al., 1990; Schaefer, 2001). The process
of rondel ditch infilling formation as a whole was quite slow, so the
bioturbation by plants and mesofauna was more or less continuous.
In contrast, the bioturbation of the Roman ditches was usually
mainly restricted to the more fine grained material located above
the lenses of coarser material relocated by mass deposition.
Another process connected commonly with root bioturbation and
with relocation of calcium rich solutions is calcium carbonate accumulations
and depletions. The types and identification of different
type of calcitic features were described by Durand et al. (2010). Such
features are most common in cases where the background substrate
is composed of loess, i.e. in Kolín and Tesetice rondels and Vrable
Roman ditch, as the presence of carbonate coatings, hypocoatings,
infillings, and accumulations is quite common in loess material,
because calcium carbonate is easily moved by percolating water in
connectionwith growing vegetation. The root related featuresare the
most common features in case of Neolithic rondel ditches located in
loess substrate, while the carbonate infillings are the most common
features in Roman ditches located on carbonate claystones. The state
of calcium concentrations depends therefore not only on the formation
processes, but mainly on the type of geological background
and the hydrological conditions connected with the location and the
depth of the ditch. Another soluble material which occurs within the
studied horizons is clay. Illuvial clay coating, hypocoating, and
infillings were reported mainly in the Plotiste rondel and also in the
two Roman ditches from Pribice. Pressure facies or neoformation of
clay has not been identified, and clays come from the background
geology and were deposited by percolating water (Kühn et al., 2010).
Their appearance depends mainly on the presence of possible source
of clay fractions because the neoformation of clay was not observed,
and on hydrological conditions, because the clay matrix is supposed
to be deposited by percolating water (Kühn et al., 2010). The third
pedofeature connected with water solutions is the presence of
redoximorphic features. The recognition of different types of
redoximorphic features and their interpretation was described in
many papers and recently summarised by Lindbo et al. (2010). These
features were detected only in Roman ditches and the reason is
probably the proximity to water, i.e. high level of underground water.
One postsedimentary or nearly synsedimentary processes
detected in Neolithic rondel ditch infillings is the development of
horizontal pores. These features are quite rare, but were presented
in brighter as well as in darker horizons and might be probably
interpreted as phases of freezing (Van Vliert-Lano€e, 2010), which
does not have to be necessarily connected with climate change. The
explanation of its possible origin is quite simple. Uncovered soil is
more accessible to frost action and such features might originate
during one or two seasons.
5.4. Interpretation of archaeological context
The fundamental questions of the formation processes are
usually connected with the presence of source of material. On one
hand, the relatively high amount of material excavated during the
ditch construction might be a possible source of material. The
deposition of excavated material from the ditch in the form of some
kind of earthwork or rampart is on the other hand an important
geomorphological feature for the interpretation of the archaeological
context. While the ramparts along the Roman ditches are
already corroborated by written sources (Webster, 1985), for the
Neolithic rondels the presence of ramparts is only suggested on the
base of type of sedimentary infillings or on the base of aerial
archaeology (Kovarník and Mangel, 2013; Lenneis, 1977;
Modderman, 1983; Nemejcova-Pavúkova, 1986; Neugebauer,
1986; Oliva, 2004; Valek et al., 2013; Lisa et al., 2013). The presence
of a possible rampart close to the Neolithic ditches was also in
some cases rejected (Trnka, 1986; Podborský, 1988). The presence
of human influenced materials (stones, sands, and mudbricks)
implies that the rampart was present in all archaeological structures
discussed in this paper. If the earthworks were not present,
then the question is where the lithologically varied material
transported into the ditch came from. A part of it might have been
eroded from the walls of the ditch and from the surrounding area,
but the absence of a wide source area for soil material suggests the
presence of earthwork which would produce such material.
Approximately the lower two-thirds of the infillings of Neolithic
rondels origin naturally mainly by slope processes with different
intensity, as visible from the textural features and micromorphological
descriptions. The upper parts of Neolithic rondel infillings
are quite homogenous and considerably bioturbated due to the
high amount of humus rich matrix, so the tracking of the original
formation processes is quite difficult. We suggest that the material
came from the surrounding surface and the deposition took place
as a part of landscape levelling for agricultural purposes.
In the Roman ditches the presence of rampart is not discussed,
because the building of this structure is well documented in historical
sources (Webster, 1985) and also archaeologically confirmed
L. Lisa et al. / Quaternary International 370 (2015) 66e7674
(Komoroczy, 2008; Tejral, 2008). In spite of this fact, the formation
processes detected within the infilling of Roman ditches differ. The
bottom of the ditch is composed in most cases by a homogenous
mass with no internal clast orientation. Leopold et al. (2011)
described similar deposits as backfill deposits, but in this case
due to the geomorphological and archaeological context it is
obvious that these sedimentary bodies were deposited intentionally
by humans. Moreover, in some cases those sedimentary bodies
contain material which probably hardened the outer layers of the
rampart. Although the upper part of the infilling does not display
any preferred clast orientation, we suggest that it was deposited
naturally, and the possible layering was destroyed by bioturbation.
The question is whether the destruction of the rampart was
intentionally done by Roman Army when withdrawing, or by the
local German population after the camps were abandoned.
6. Conclusions
The results led to the following interpretations:
1. The infillings of Neolithic rondels consist of two main types. The
bedded part of the body composed approximately two-thirds of
the lower infilling, whereas generally massive material
composed the uppermost part of the infilling. There are
macroscopically and micromorphologically visible differences
in these two main types of sedimentary bodies. While the
massive infill within the uppermost part of the infilling was
deposited by human activities, the lower bedded part is mainly
the result of natural processes and geomorphological and climatic
conditions. The main formation process was colluvial
deposition of different intensity, but the low energy formation
processes including deposition from standing water took place.
It was also possible to detect strong postsedimentary processes
including bioturbation, clay illuviation, calcium carbonate concentrations,
or freezing processes.
2. The infillings of Roman ditches differ significantly from the
Neolithic rondel ditches, although the depth and geological
background may be the same. There are thick lenses with sharp
edges and tongue-like shapes at the very bottom of the ditch.
Their bodies do not contain bioturbation features and also may
contain relicts of mudbricks. The material is frequently bioturbated
and was deposited naturally. The main formation factor
is colluviation. In the Roman ditch infillings phases of
standing water or freezing processes have not been detected,
indicating, that the infilling process was much quicker than for
the Neolithic rondels. Besides bioturbation, the postsedimentary
processes include also clay illuviation, formation of
calcium carbonate features, and redoximorphic features. The
latter is connected with the geomorphological position, the
depth of the ditch, and the presence of underground water.
3. The rampart located near the ditch was the source of material in
both types of studied structures. In the Neolithic rondels, the
lower parts of the infillings were deposited naturally, and the
rampart served as a source of material for a long time. In the
Roman ditches, the body of the rampart was destroyd and
deposited into the ditches quickly by humans.
Acknowledgements
The contribution was funded by Masaryk University (MUNI/21/
VAL/2011), by Grant Agency of Czech Republic (project no. P405/11/
1590 e Neolithic rondels from the perspective of micromorphology
and formative analysis), by the internal program of Institute of
Geology ASCR in Prague RVO 67985831 by the project of the Faculty
of Arts of the University Hradec Kralove 2013/03/11: The triple
rondel of the people with the Stroked Pottery Culture Plotiste nad
Labem II. Contribution to the knowledge of construction and
function of rondels in the Late Neolithic I and by the Project Platform
for landscape formation Reg. No. CZ.1.07/2.4.00/31.0032.). The
paper also originated within the frame of the project of the Institute
of Archaeology of the Academy of Sciences, Brno and the Austrian
Institute of Archaeology, Vienna, no. M300011201. The results of
scientific and terrain researches published here are also based on
the framework cooperation of the Institute of Archaeology AS CZ
Brno, Institute of Archaeology SAS Nitra and R€omisch-Germanische
Kommission DAI Frankfurt am Main.
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L. Lisa et al. / Quaternary International 370 (2015) 66e7676
An integrated rock-magnetic and geochemical approach to loess/paleosol
sequences from Bohemia and Moravia (Czech Republic): Implications for
the Upper Pleistocene paleoenvironment in central Europe
Jan Hošek a,g,
⁎, Ulrich Hambach b
, Lenka Lisá c
, Tomáš Matys Grygar d
, Ivan Horáček e
,
Sascha Meszner f
, Ilja Knésl a
a
Czech Geological Survey, Klárov 3, Prague 1, Czech Republic
b
BayCEER & Chair of Geomorphology, University of Bayreuth, D-95440 Bayreuth, Germany
c
Institute of Geology of Czech Academy of Science, Rozvojová 269, Prague 6, Czech Republic
d
Institute of Inorganic Chemistry of Czech Academy of Science, Řež 1001, Czech Republic
e
Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, Prague 2, Czech Republic
f
Dresden University of Technology, Institute of Geography, Mommsenstrasse 7, Dresden, Germany
g
Institute of Geology and Paleontology, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Albertov 6, Prague 2, Czech Republic
a b s t r a c ta r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 18 June 2014
Received in revised form 27 November 2014
Accepted 30 November 2014
Available online 9 December 2014
Keywords:
Loess/paleosols sequences
Rock-magnetism
Geochemical proxies
Upper Pleistocene
Paleoclimate
Central Europe
Two central European loess/paleosol sequences (MIS 6-2), from central Bohemia (Zeměchy) and southern
Moravia (Dobšice), situated in the important climatic transition zone between the oceanic (Atlantic) and continental
climate regimes, were investigated for rock magnetism, geochemistry, grain size and micromorphology. In
both sites the magnetic profile shows good agreement with the standard model of magnetic enhancement in
paleosols as established in the Chinese loess. The magnetic signal is dominated by the presence of fine-grained
magnetite and maghemite, formed in-situ and controlled by the intensity of soil formation. Magnetic proxies
corresponded to proxies of chemical weathering and leaching intensity such as the Chemical Index of Alteration
(CIA), the Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) and the Rb/Sr ratio (correlation coefficient r = ∼0.6–0.93) during the
whole Lower Weichselian (MIS 5d–5a) and, in general, also during the Pleniglacial (MIS 4-2). Nevertheless, for
the Eemian period (MIS 5e) this relationship was not always valid, either due to weak magnetic enhancement
(at Dobšice) or even weak depletion of the magnetic minerals with soil formation (at Zeměchy). The presented
data demonstrate that magnetic signals can be overprinted more easily than chemical proxies during later diagenetic
events, and are hence not in all cases reliable for deciphering paleoclimate changes during all periods of the
studied time interval. Rock-magnetic, geochemical and micromorphological results suggest drier conditions in
southern Moravia compared to central Bohemia during the Weichselian Glacial, probably due to the more continental
climate in southern Moravia.
© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Loess/paleosols sequences (LPSs) of the last climate cycle kaleidoscopically
cover wide areas of the European continent and provide a
valuable archive of the Upper Pleistocene paleoenvironment there. Yet,
as indicated by many large scale geographic comparisons (e.g. Kukla
1977; Pye, 1987; Derbyshire et al, 1988; Bronger and Heinkele, 1989;
Pécsi, 1990; Haesaerts and Mestdagh, 2000; Marković et al., 2008; Jary
and Ciszek, 2013), European LPSs are marked by regional differences
and pronounced facies variability in their pedosedimentary records
that complicate finer super-regional correlations (Kemp, 2001).
Such complications are especially evident in a transect from suboceanic
(Atlantic) regions towards more continental areas, apparently
due to the influence of the different climate regimes. Detailed
studies of geographic and environmental variation in regional responses
to general climate trends during the Upper Pleistocene are therefore of
high priority for Quaternary science in Europe. A dense network of
reliably-dated, high-resolution records from different geographic locations
is a basic prerequisite for such spatial analyses (Frechen, 2011;
Muhs, 2013).
For a particular LPS, a detailed history of the paleoenvironmental circumstances
responsible for the pedogenetic and diagenetic processes
(Zhang et al., 2007; Bloemendal et al., 2008) can be reliably reconstructed
using instrumental mineral-magnetic and geochemical analyses
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 418 (2015) 344–358
⁎ Corresponding author at: Czech Geological Survey, Klárov 3, Prague 1, 118 00; Czech
Republic. Tel.: +420 731 905 752.
E-mail addresses: johan.hosek@gmail.com (J. Hošek), ulrich.hambach@uni-bayreuth.de
(U. Hambach), lisa@gli.cas.cz (L. Lisá), grygar@iic.cas.cz (T.M. Grygar),
ivan.horacek@natur.cuni.cz (I. Horáček), sascha.meszner@tu-dresden.de (S. Meszner).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2014.11.024
0031-0182/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/palaeo
(Wang et al., 2012). However, in order to reflect the different ways of
mineral-magnetic enhancement in sediments and soils (the Chinese
vs. Alaskan-Siberian scenario), or the post-depositional loss of ferromagnetic
particles (e.g. Begét et al., 1990; Bogucki et al., 1995;
Vodyanitskii et al., 2007; Liu et al., 2007; Bábek et al., 2011; Baumgart
et al., 2013; Buggle et al., 2013a; Gocke et al., 2014), combining the magnetic
and geochemical analyses is quite important. Thus the direct paleoclimatic
interpretation of the rock-magnetic record can be
corrected and/or improved (Evans and Heller, 2003; Maher et al., 2003).
In European loess research, a large number of studies combining geochemical,
rock magnetic and sedimentological approaches have appeared
during the last decade. These provide a relatively dense network of continuous
LPS records that cover the area of north-western Germany, southern
and eastern Poland, western Ukraine and the Danube catchment
(e.g., Antoine et al., 2010; Panaiotu et al., 2001; Marković et al., 2006;
Kravchinsky et al., 2008; Jordanova et al., 2011; Buggle et al., 2009;
Bokhorst et al., 2009; Fitzsimmons et al., 2012; Fischer et al., 2012; Jary
and Ciszek, 2013; Baumgart et al., 2013; Vandenberghe, 2013; Rolf
et al., 2014; Schatz et al., 2014; Gocke et al., 2014; Újvári et al., 2014). Together,
these studies provide a reliable platform for transregional comparisons
of climate development during the Upper Pleistocene.
Within the territory of the Czech Republic a range of key loess sites
have been investigated (e.g. Dolní Věstonice, Prague-Sedlec, Kutná
Hora or Červený Kopec in Brno). These sites have provided detailed paleoclimatic
and pedoecological records based on mollusk and vertebrate
assemblages (Ložek, 1964; Horáček and Ložek, 1988); pollen data
(Urban, 1984); paleopedological analyses (Smolíková, 1982); and
archeological findings (e.g. Klíma et al., 1962; Svoboda et al., 1996).
Nevertheless, except from the extensive multi-proxy studies of the profile
at Dolní Věstonice (Oches and Banerjee, 1996; Bábek et al., 2011;
Fuchs et al., 2013; Antoine et al., 2013; Lisá et al., 2014), and the
multi-parameter magnetic characterization of the profile at Znojmo
(Zhu et al., 2001), representative analytical paleoenvironmental data
are still not available for the vast majority of loess series in the Czech
Republic.
The present paper reports rock magnetic, geochemical, grain size
and micromorphology data for two, until now, poorly-studied Upper
Pleistocene series located in the Bohemian and Moravian parts of the
Czech Republic more than 200 km apart. The study sites are situated
in a relatively dry loess area, in the important transitional zone between
Atlantic and continental macro-climatic settings. Regarding their geographical
location and the methodological approach, this study helps
to fill a gap in European loess research and, furthermore, helps towards
a better understanding of the relationship between loess magnetism,
chemical weathering and pedogenic intensity.
2. Geological settings
Both study sites are located within a dry loess zone, between north
European and Alpine glaciations during glacial periods (Fig. 1). From a
paleopedological point of view, both series conform to the standard succession
of Upper Pleistocene soil development that is characteristic for
this central European zone, as has been established for the area of former
Czechoslovakia (Ložek, 1968; Demek and Kukla, 1969) and Upper
Austria (Fink and Kukla, 1977; Zöller et al, 1994; Frechen, 2011). The
indexing components of the succession, termed pedocomplexes (PK)
by Kukla (1961), reveal specific sequences of paleosols, loess and loess
derivates that form obvious lithostratigraphic units representing particular
stages of climate development. In short, there is a good correlation
between particular lithostratigraphic units of loess sequences (PKs) and
units of the global climatostratigraphic scale (Marine and Oxygen Isotopic
Stages — MIS/OIS). In the region under study, this is also well supported
by their numerical dating in many sites throughout central
Europe using different means: luminescence techniques (e.g. Musson
and Wintle, 1994; Zöller et al., 1994; Frechen et al., 1999; Fuchs et al.,
2013); amino-acid racemization chronology (Oches et al., 1996); and
radiocarbon dating (e.g. Klíma et al., 1962; Hatté et al., 2001; Lang
et al., 2003; Antoine et al., 2013; Kadereit et al., 2013; Újvári et al.,
2014). The Upper Pleistocene sequence covers the pedocomplexes: PK
III (corresponding to MIS 5e), represented usually by a Bt (zone of clay
accumulation in the middle part of a soil) and BC horizons of the Eemian
forest brown soil (parabraunerde, luvisol), and an overlying steppe
chernozem; PK II (corresponding to MIS 5a and 5c) — two horizons of
chernozem separated by colluvial loess sediments (pellet sands sensu
Kukla, 1961) (MIS 5b); and PK I (a pedogenetic unit representing MIS
3), which is typically a weak brownish truncated soil of cambisol type .
The descriptions of soils and sediments of the studied sections are
based on field observations and micromorphological studies. An overview
scheme of the sections and sampled profiles are shown in Figs. 2
and 3.
2.1. Zeměchy
The Zeměchy-section outcrops in a loess gully situated 30 km north
of Prague, near the Vltava River. Although the site has become a popular
stop of many international field excursions, it has never been studied in
detail. Beyond some basic lithological descriptions published as part of
excursion guides (Tyráček, 1995; Hošek et al., 2012), or as regional geological
reports (Cílek, 1996; Ložek, 1995), only the magnetic susceptibility
of the Lower Weichselian part was previously measured (Forster
et al., 1996), and five OSL dates were acquired from the Pleniglacial
part of the sedimentary record (Zander et al., 2000). The gully is a result
of recent erosion; it is 350 m long and 10–15 m wide, incised up to 19 m
into a W–E oriented loess “dune” (greda). The pre-Quaternary geological
bedrock is composed of weathered carboniferous arkoses. The fluvial
gravels and sands accumulated by the Knovíz stream on the bedrock are
overlaid by sandy loess corresponding to the Saalian (Riss) glacial (MIS
6, unit number Z 15 in Fig. 3).
A reddish-brown prismatic Bt1(2)-horizon and BC horizon of a forest
luvisol (parabraunerde) (layer Z14 in Fig. 3) represents the Eemian Interglacial.
This horizon, together with brownish pellet sands sensu
Kukla (1961) (Z13) and the overlaying chernozem horizon (Z12), represents
the 170-cm-thick pedocomplex PK III. A thin layer of coarse
sandy loess (Z11) on the surface of PK III may be correlated with the
loess marker sensu Kukla (1975). This layer probably represents a
phase of strong storm events and has been reported elsewhere in central,
western and eastern Europe (Kukla, 1975; Kukla and Cílek, 1996;
Antoine et al., 2010; Rousseau et al., 2013). The PK III is overlain by a
90-cm-thick layer of pellet sands (sensu Kukla, 1961) (Z10) and an initial
weak brown soil (Z9) developed on colluvial sediment. The 160-cmthick
PK II is composed of a lower dark-gray chernozem (Z8) penetrated
by frost wedges and an upper dark to black chernozem (Z6) rich in charcoal.
The chernozem soils are separated by brownish pellet sands (Z7)
with krotovinas in the uppermost part. The top of PK II is covered by a
thin layer of coarse sandy loess (Z5) (marker II) and disturbed by biogenic
activity. The described pedocomplexes are overlain by a 6-mthick
accumulation of sandy loess corresponding to the Pleniglacial period
(Z4, Z2). The PK I pedocomplex (Z3) from the Middle Pleniglacial
(part of MIS 3) is difficult to recognize in the field. It has developed
only as a thin, light-brownish layer with a whitish (Ca) horizon below.
A gravel layer on the surface of the soil horizon suggests erosional
events that may have removed the upper part of the paleosol and, potentially,
also some of the overlaying loess. The erosion events probably
occurred during warming phases of the MIS 3 interstadial that enhanced
the seasonal degradation of the permafrost active layer leading
to solifluction-related deformation and alteration of the thin gley horizon
(Z2b) preserved above the interstadial soil. The assumption of intensive
erosion is also supported by OSL dating (Zander et al., 2000;
see Fig. 2). Samples for OSL dating, taken at a distance of 110 cm from
the loess above and below the gravel layer (original sample names
ZE14 and ZE15, respectively) suggest a considerable hiatus in relatively
continuous sedimentation (see OSL ages 51 ky and 22.1 ky). Above the
345J. Hošek et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 418 (2015) 344–358
position of PK I, Late Pleniglacial loess has accumulated, showing intercalations
of several thin gley horizons. The Holocene soil (Z1) is represented
by a thin horizon of dark gray, agriculturally-influenced,
chernozem soil with a Ca horizon.
2.2. Dobšice
The Dobšice section is situated on the north-western edge of the
Pannonian Basin, in the area of surficial contact between the Bohemian
Massif and the Carpathian foredeep (Fig. 1). Besides a malacological
study of selected horizons (Ložek, 1968), so far only a lithological description,
including a micromorphological study, has been published
(Havlíček and Smolíková, 1995). The 15-m-thick loess/paleosol sequence
has become exposed in the industrial complex of a former brickyard.
The sequence overlays a Middle Pleistocene terrace of the Dyje
River. The geological bedrock of the area consists of metamorphic
rocks of the Bohemian Massif and of Neogene sediments of the Vienna
Basin (mainly clay and sands). In general, the pedosedimentary record
shows many similarities with the above-described record of Zeměchy.
Markers sensu Kukla (1975) are present (unit numbers D12, D7 in
Fig. 3) covering both PK III and PK II. The Eemian soil (D14) is developed
as a full mature Bt horizon and BC horizon of a luvisol, which is covered
by a chernozem horizon (D13). Based on micromorphological analysis
(Havlíček and Smolíková, 1995), both soils of the Eemian complex
were found to be genetically independent. In comparison with Zeměchy,
the chernozems of PK II (D8, D11) are more brownish (in soil taxonomy
close to the chernozem/kastanozem transition) and contain higher
amounts of silt. In the pellet sands (D9), separating the chernozems of
PK II, and also in the Pleniglacial loess (D6), the mollusk Chondrula
tridens was identified by Ložek (1968). The Dobšice site mostly differs
from Zeměchy in its development and preservation of the PK I soil
(D5), which corresponds here more to a pararendzina (with cambic features).
In the underlying loess (D6), numerous krotovinas are present. In
the unit D3, signs of an initial pseudogley process were found. The Holocene
soil, similar to that in Zeměchy, is represented by a gray,
anthropogenically-influenced soil (D1).
Fig. 2. Lithostratigraphical scheme of the studied sites. *OSL dates (Zander et al., 2000).
Fig. 1. Location of sites.
346 J. Hošek et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 418 (2015) 344–358
3. Methods
3.1. Rock magnetic measurements
Unoriented samples were collected at 3–5 cm intervals from cleaned
profiles. The low frequency magnetic susceptibility (χlf, here referred to
as χ) was measured at 0.976 kHz, and high frequency magnetic susceptibility
(χhf) at 3.904 kHz, using kappabridges MFK1 and KLY-4 (AGICO,
Brno). The difference between the two measurements gives the
frequency-dependent susceptibility expressed here as a percentage of
χfd: χfd% = (χlf − χhf) / (χlf) × 100. The anhysteretic remanent magnetization
(ARM) was measured using a LDA-3 demagnetizer with a
peak alternating field of 100 mT and a DC biasing field of 0.5 mT.
Values of saturated isothermal remanent magnetization (SIRM)
were imparted with a MMPM 10 pulse magnetizer using a field of
2.5 T, and back field remanence measurements were made at 200 mT.
The S-ratio was calculated as IRM_0.2 T/IRM 2.5T.
All remanence measurements were made using a JR6-A spinner
magnetometer with a noise level of 0.1 × 10−8
A m2
.
The temperature-dependence of the susceptibility (TDS, χ − T) from
room temperature up to 700 °C and back to room temperature was
measured continuously with a furnace-equipped KLY-3 Kappa-bridge.
The powdered whole-material specimens for both loess and paleosol
were heated and cooled in an argon atmosphere to prevent possible
oxidation.
Frequency dependent susceptibility measurements were carried out
at the laboratory of AGICO, s.r.o. in Brno. Magnetic susceptibility of samples
from the Dolní Věstonice brickyard (taken in 5 cm intervals) was
acquired using a KLY-2 Kappa-bridge (AGICO, Brno) in the Paleomagnetic
laboratory of Cologne University within the framework of a project
led by one of us in the mid-1990s. Additional rock magnetic
measurements were carried out at the Laboratory for Palaeo- and
Enviromagnetism of the University of Bayreuth.
3.2. Geochemical and grain size analyses
Element analyses were performed on an X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
spectrometer MiniPal4.0 with an Rh tube, maximal primary X-ray energy
of 30 keV and a Peltier-cooled ED detector. The XRF signals of some
20 elements were determined, but only the results for Ca, Sr, Rb and K
are discussed in this paper.
For selected samples (n = 25 in Zěměchy; n = 22 in Dobšice) conventional
silicate analyses after wet decomposition were also carried out. Selected
components were used for calculation of the Chemical Index of
Alteration (CIA) and as verification of the accuracy of XRF data. The CIA
was calculated as CIA = [Al2O3 / (Al2O3 + Na2O + CaO* + K2O)]
Fig. 3. Magnetic and geochemical proxies of the studied sites together with the lithostratigraphy of the sampled profiles.
347J. Hošek et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 418 (2015) 344–358
× 100. CaO*, referring to silicatic Ca (after Nesbitt and Young, 1982), was
obtained by subtracting acid-soluble Ca (in CaCO3) from total Ca content.
The cation exchange capacity (CEC) was determined using a procedure
proposed by Meier and Kahr (1999) for pure clay mineral specimens
and then optimized for sediments and soils (Grygar et al., 2009).
[Cu(trien)]2+
solution was obtained from CuSO4·5H2O (Penta, Czech
Republic) and trien, triethylenetetramine (1,4,7,10-tetraazadekane,
Sigma-Aldrich), and then to the final concentration 0.01 M with potentiometric
control of the constant ligand-to-metal ratio.
The solutions were analyzed by Atomic absorption spectroscopy —
AAS (Cu and Mg) and Atomic emission spectroscopy — AES (Ca and
Na). The sample weight for analysis was adjusted depending on its actual
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) in order to consume about 50% of
[Cu(trien)]2+
using the routine described by Grygar et al. (2009).
After removal of carbonate and organic matter by H2O2 and HCl respectively,
the particle size distribution was measured using a laser
granulometer CILAS 1190 LD that provides a measurement range from
0.04 to 2500 μm. For the correlation of magnetic and geochemical parameters
the Pearson's correlation coefficient r was used.
3.3. Micromorphology
Oriented soil samples were taken in small Kubiena boxes (dimensions
3 × 5 cm) from each lithological layer. Upon slow drying followed
by impregnation with resin, thin sections were produced from samples
in the laboratory of the Czech Geological Survey (equivalent to Bullock
et al., 1985; Stoops, 2003). The thin sections were studied under polarizing
and binocular microscopes in the Institute of Geology ASCR, v. v. i.,
in Prague at a magnification of 16–800× and interpreted according to
Stoops et al. (2010).
4. Results and interpretation
4.1. Magnetic properties
4.1.1. Concentration related magnetic parameters
The rock magnetic records correlate well with the lithology and
show many similarities in both sections (Fig. 3). In general, the paleosols
are characterized by an enhancement of the magnetic signal compared
to loess units and pellet sands.
The values of χ (in 10−7
m3
kg−1
) vary from 2.6 to 8.1 in Zeměchy
(Z) and from 1.2 to 6.4 in Dobšice (D). In Zeměchy, maximum χ values
(8.1) occur in the lower chernozem of PKII (layer Z9), whereas in Dobšice
these occur in the chernozem of PKIII (6.4, D13). In both sections, minimum
values occur in Saalian and Weichselian-Pleniglacial loess
(χ about 1–5 in Z; 1–2 in D), chernozems showing higher values of χ
than luvisols, where the magnetic enhancement occurs just in the upper
part (Bt-horizon), whereas the underlying BC horizon is characterized
by lower values of χ. This is very likely caused by the following process:
in a Bt horizon the precipitation of iron oxides occur and consequently a
higher amount of pedogenetic magnetite in comparison with the BC horizon
can be observed (e.g. Rivas et al., 2006; Torrent et al., 2006; Jordanova
et al., 2013). The χ-values of the lower and middle part of luvisols range
between 4 and 5 in Zeměchy and 2 and 6 in Dobšice, representing approximately
intermediate values between unweathered loess and chernozem
paleosols. Pellet sands have higher χ values than loess, probably depending
on the amount of top-soil particles in the reworked sediment. The
pleniglacial parts of the records exhibit continually-decreasing χ values
on the way up to the Holocene soil at both sites. The pararendzina of PK
I in Dobšice (D5) show slightly higher values than the over- and underlying
loess units (D2, 5) and the pseudogley horizon (D3), whereas the
horizon corresponding to the weak brown soil in Zeměchy (Z3) did not
show any differences to the loess itself.
The values of SIRM, ARM and χ often represent concentration and
grain size-dependent parameters (Evans and Heller, 2003). SIRM gives
information about the total (ferro-) magnetic mineral concentration
with grain size larger than the superparamagnetic (SP)/single domain
(SD) threshold (∼0.02 μm). Unlike χ, SIRM is not influenced by the
presence of para- and dia-magnetic minerals such as phyllosilicates, carbonates
or quartz (Thompson and Oldfield, 1986). χfd indicates the proportion
of fine viscous magnetic grains just below the SP/SD boundary
(∼0.02 μm; Thompson and Oldfield, 1986), while ARM is sensitive to single
domain (SD, ∼0.02–0.06 μm) grains of magnetically “soft” minerals
like magnetite and maghemite (Maher et al., 1986). Both grain size fractions
are preferably formed during pedogenesis (Heller and Evans, 1995).
Generally, ARM and SIRM values, as well as the χfd, follow the χ signal
pattern in both sections. Again, values are uniformly low in loess,
and enhancement can be observed in chernozems and the upper part
of luvisols. Intermediate values are observed in reworked sediments derived
from loess and soils. The correlation between χ and remanence
parameters (see the highest correlation coefficients between χ and
ARM in Table 1) strongly suggests that the magnetic signal of both sections
is mainly controlled by the presence of single domain magnetic
minerals. In contrast to Zeměchy, the Dobšice section shows less differences
of χfd-values between pellet sands and chernozems, suggesting a
higher content of SP/SD (pedogenetic) magnetic grains in the sediment.
The plot of χfd and χ is shown in Fig. 4. The increasing χfd and χ values
follow the model of magnetic enhancement (i.e. the neoformation of ultrafine
magnetite during pedogenesis) proposed, for example, by Heller
et al. (1993), whereas decreasing χ with increasing χfd values point to
magnetic depletion during low-temperature oxidation of magnetite, likewise
leading to a shift of the magnetic domain assemblage towards SP
domains. in Zeměchy magnetic enhancement was obvious in all horizons;
however, in the upper (Pleniglacial) part of Dobšice signs of depletion
of primary MD and SD grains relative to SP particles were found,
probably due to the effect of water-logging (initial pseudogley horizons).
Similar processes in the Pleniglacial loess have been observed elsewhere,
for example in Saxony (eastern Germany) (Baumgart et al., 2013) in the
Kraichgau area (western Germany) (Taylor et al., 2014), in Poland, and
Western Ukraine (Nawrocki et al., 1996).
In Zeměchy, much higher absolute amounts of ferrimagnetic minerals
are present than in Dobšice, resulting in higher ARM and SIRM
values (Z: 37.7–227.1 10−3
A/m; 4.7–13.9 10−3
A/m; D: 9.6–165.2
10−3
A/m; 1.2–5.3 10−3
A/m). Similarly, χfd is much lower in Dobšice
(∼0.3–3.5%) than that in Zeměchy (∼1.3–8.8%), suggesting that SP
grains in chernozems of Bohemian sections are more common than in
the equivalent/corresponding Moravian horizons.
4.1.2. Magnetic mineralogy and particle size
The S-ratio is, like the χfd, a concentration-independent proxy indicative
of the relative abundance of ferrimagnetic to antiferromagnetic
minerals (Maher, 1986; Wang et al., 2012). Elevated values reflect the
dominance of magnetite (or maghemite), while lower values represent
Table 1
The correlation of magnetic and geochemical parameters.
χ ARM χfd SIRM Rb/Sr Rb/K CEC CIA
Dobšice χ 0.99 0.89 0.97 0.5 0.63 0.63 0.53
ARM 0.99 0.87 0.98 0.58 0.56 0.62 0.52
χfd 0.89 0.87 0.84 0.56 0.61 0.56 0.51
SIRM 0.97 0.98 0.84 0.62 0.67 0.6 0.5
Rb/Sr 0.5 0.58 0.56 0.62 0.78 0.89 0.76
Rb/K 0.63 0.56 0.61 0.67 0.78 0.74 0.76
CEC 0.63 0.62 0.56 0.6 0.89 0.74 0.85
CIA 0.53 0.52 0.51 0.5 0.93 0.76 0.85
Zeměchy χ 0.92 0.7 0.9 0.59 0.77 0.7 0.49
ARM 0.92 0.78 0.79 0.57 0.79 0.63 0.48
χfd 0.7 0.78 0.42 0.78 0.63 0.44 0.48
SIRM 0.9 0.79 0.42 0.43 0.67 0.79 0.43
Rb/Sr 0.59 0.57 0.78 0.43 0.65 0.65 0.78
Rb/K 0.77 0.79 0.63 0.67 0.65 0.74 0.71
CEC 0.7 0.63 0.44 0.79 0.65 0.74 0.73
CIA 0.49 0.48 0.48 0.43 0.78 0.71 0.73
348 J. Hošek et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 418 (2015) 344–358
increasing contributions from antiferromagnetic minerals, i.e. hematite
or goethite. In both sites the S-ratio ranges between 0.85 and 0.9 in
chernozem soils and in the upper part of luvisols, thus reflecting the
high concentration of ferrimagnetics in the soil horizons. In both sections,
the pleniglacial part of the record typically shows lower values
of the S-ratio (0.62–0.8 in Zeměchy, 0.65–0.75 in Dobšice) and a descending
trend (more visible in Dobšice) mainly in the loess between
PK II and PK I soils. Nevertheless, the relatively uniform values close to
1 through both profiles suggest the dominance of ferrimagnetic
minerals and little mineralogical variation. This interpretation is supported
by temperature-dependent susceptibility (χ–T; Fig. 6).
Typical χ–T curves for the lower part of chernozems, the middle part
of luvisols and Pleniglacial loess are shown in Fig. 6. In chernozems, as
well as in loess, there are two major peaks for heating curves around
300 and 510–520 °C, while in luvisols only one peak occurs around
300 °C. The ‘rise’ in the heating curves at about 300 °C possibly indicates
the transition of weakly-magnetic Fe-hydroxides (e.g., lepidocrocite) to
maghemite (Oches and Banerjee, 1996). The increase of susceptibility
Fig. 4. Scatter plots of χ versus χFD..
Fig. 5. Correlation of the Dolní Věstonice profile and the studied sections, based on the magnetic susceptibility.
*OSL dates adopted from Fuchs et al. (2013).
349J. Hošek et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 418 (2015) 344–358
between 250 and 300 °C (found in luvisols and loess) was interpreted
by Liu et al. (2005) as a result of the gradual unblocking of finegrained
SD particles, which are multidomain (MD) at room temperature.
The susceptibility drop between ∼ 300–450 °C (almost absent for loess
samples) has been interpreted as the inversion of maghemite to hematite
(Sun et al., 1995; Oches and Banerjee, 1996; Liu et al., 2005). Liu
et al. (2005) suggest that only the fine-grained pedogenic particles can efficiently
be converted to hematite between 300 and 400 °C during
heating. The rapid increase of susceptibility within the temperature interval
of 450–520 °C (absent for luvisols) shows the formation of a new
ferromagnetic mineral. This observation can be caused by the reduction
of low susceptibility hematite to high susceptibility magnetite in an
oxygen-free environment (Hunt et al., 1995). The sharp loss of susceptibility
of all samples above 520 °C indicates the presence of magnetite,
with its Curie point of 585 °C, being apparently a major magnetic mineral
of the loess/paleosol sequences. A Curie temperature of about
580–585 °C can be observed in all samples. Unlike the warming curves,
the cooling curves (not shown here) are dominated by newly-formed
magnetite at ∼500–400 °C.
In the luvisol of Zeměchy, we found a minor peak of susceptibility at
120 °C and a sharp loss between 120 and 180 °C, which may indicate the
presence of goethite with a Curie temperature of around 120 °C (Liu
et al., 2012).
In general, χ–T experiments suggest magnetite and maghemite enhancement
of chernozem horizons as well as partially of pellet sands,
while in the middle part of luvisols the enhancement only occurred to
a limited extent — and by maghemite rather than magnetite formation.
The higher concentrations of hematite in chernozems than in brown
soils, and the presence of goethite in brown soils, is in accordance
with previous results obtained by diffuse reflectance spectroscopy measured
in Dolní Věstonice (Bábek et al., 2011).
Because the SIRM values had no contribution from SP grains, the low
values of ARM/SIRM suggest a higher proportion of soft MD or SD magnetic
grains, while high values correspond to the presence of stable single
domain (SSD) magnetic grains (Evans and Heller, 2003). In
Zeměchy, the course of ARM/SIRM with depth suggests the presence
of SSD magnetic grains mainly in the upper part of the chernozems,
whereas in luvisols, pellet sands and loess horizons larger grains dominated.
This is in accordance with the results of the χ–T measurements.
In Dobšice, however, the differences between paleosols and loess horizons
are not very pronounced; the generally higher amount of SSD
grains having been induced by the colluvial sediments. Hence, one almost
continuous increase of magnetic parameters can be observed
throughout the whole Lower Weichselian. In the Pleniglacial loess (including
the weak interstadial soils), a stagnant trend is apparent at
both sites. The ARM/χ ratio has been used to investigate the relative
contributions of SP and SD grains to the bulk signal (e.g. Zeeden et al.,
2010). In general, this record follows the pattern of χfd, proving the contributions
of SP/SD grains to the magnetic signal.
The analyses presented above show that the samples contain mainly
ferrimagnetic minerals (magnetite and maghemite) and partially antiferromagnetic
minerals (goethite, hematite). The chernozem soil horizons
are characterized by more fine-grained ferrimagnetic minerals in
contrast to loess and luvisols. All these characteristics are, in general,
consistent with previous studies of loess/paleosols sequences situated
in central Europe (Oches and Banerjee, 1996; Forster et al., 1996; Zhu
et al., 2001) and neighboring areas (Süttö, Hungary — Rolf et al., 2014;
Lower Austria — Hambach, 2010).
4.2. Chronology of studied sections
The trends of χ with stratigraphy for both investigated sites correspond
well to the litho-/pedo-stratigraphical and magnetic susceptibility
record obtained from the Dolní Věstonice (DV) brickyard (Fig. 5). We
employed the magnetic susceptibility data from DV as a tool to transfer
the numerical ages (Fuchs et al., 2013) from DV to the sections under investigation
(Fig. 5). For the Pleniglacial part of the record in Zeměchy,
OSL dates by Zander et al. (2000) (Fig. 2) were also used to constrain
the chronology. As a result, we obtained a composite chronology of all
sections, based on OSL and correlation of the χ signals, which was corroborated
by direct correlation of the Rb/Sr-weathering index to the
global δ18
O record on its time scale (Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005).
4.3. Results of geochemical investigations
The results of geochemical analyses are summarized in Fig. 3. During
chemical weathering, dissolved ions are transported through the sequences
with percolating rainwater, depending mainly on their solubility
and ability to be retained by clay (Perel'man, 1977). The weathering
process can be divided into the early Ca and Sr removal stage, the intermediate
K removal stage and the last Si removal stage (Nesbitt et al.,
1980). Therefore, simple ratios of mobile (such as Sr and Ca) to relatively
stable (such as Rb, Ti, and K) elements are used. This approach has
Fig. 6. Temperature dependent magnetic susceptibility of selected horizons. The values
were standardized to a variation between zero and one.
350 J. Hošek et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 418 (2015) 344–358
been widely adopted as an appropriate measure for the degree of chemical
weathering and leaching intensity in sediments (Gallet et al., 1996;
Nesbitt et al., 1996; Chen et al., 1999; Ding et al., 2001; Muhs et al., 2001;
Bokhorst et al., 2009). For the evaluation of the weathering intensity of
the silicate component, we used the Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA)
(Nesbitt et al., 1980). The interpretation syllogism of the geochemical
results is included.
The Rb/Sr ratio of both sections shows maximum values in luvisols
and chernozems, being only slightly increased in Middle Pleniglacial
weak soils (PK I) and with minimum values in loess. In Dobšice, much
less pronounced peaks in the chernozems of PK II occurs compared to
Zeměchy. In both sections, a moderate/good correlation was found between
Rb/Sr and magnetic parameters (Table 1); however, this did
not hold for the luvisol horizons (see Table 1). Rb is usually enriched
in K-rich minerals such as muscovite, biotite, K-feldspar and K-rich
micas and illite. Furthermore, this element is unaffected by sediment
diagenesis and by precipitation and concentrations of Fe and Mn oxihydroxides.
It is strongly retained in the weathering zone due to its adsorption
or exchange onto clay minerals (Nesbitt et al., 1980). Rubidium
fixation in soils is a tracer of the transformation process affecting the 2:1
clay minerals in the acid brown earth-pod's (Herbauts, 1982)
weathering sequence: kaolinite, illite, chlorite, vermiculite and smectite.
Unlike Rb, Sr is a mobile element bound in Ca-feldspars and primary
carbonates; it is easily soluble during leaching and chemical weathering
processes. Because Rb is bounded to the clay particles, the resulting ratio
is grain-size dependent. Nevertheless the clay in the LPS is mostly a
product of the pedogenesis and weathering of the primary (silty) material
and hence the Rb/Sr ratio is a sound indicator of loess chemical
weathering (Gallet et al., 1996; Chen et al., 1999; Bloemendal et al.,
2008; Bábek et al., 2011). It also seems to be a valuable indicator of
the Late Glacial paleoenvironmental changes in a lake catchment, as
was proved by analysis of non-calcareous lake sediments in Southern
Bohemia (Hošek et al., 2014).
Unlike the Rb/Sr ratio, Rb/K shows lower values in the luvisols in
both sites, whereas in the upper parts of the profiles the ratio increases
again in paleosols and decreases in loess, clearly independent of the dilution
by carbonates. This behavior indicates secondary clay enrichment,
because Rb substitutes for K in K-feldspars and mica and
becomes enriched during weathering, whereas K is more mobile and
preferentially leached under moderate/strong chemical weathering
(Nesbitt et al., 1980; Zech et al., 2008). The variability of K in the investigated
profiles is in agreement with the various correlations between
CEC and the elemental signatures that are discussed below. Further, a
surprisingly high correlation coefficient between the Rb/K ratio and
χfd was found throughout the profiles (see Table 1), suggesting that
SD/SP magnetic grain enhancement/depletion in the sediment and
soils throughout the profiles, and potassium mobility, may be both driven
by related processes.
The highest Sr/Ca ratio is found in the interglacial luvisols in both
sections. In Zeměchy, an increase of this ratio also occurs in the lower
part of the PK II chernozems, whereas these events are not present in
Dobšice. Slightly higher values of the ratio are recorded in the PK I
soils of both sites. Ca, as well as Sr, is mainly present in primary carbonates
and in relatively soluble carbonate minerals and is hence depleted
in the weathering zone (Gallet et al., 1996; Bloemendal et al., 2008).
Nevertheless, due to its size, Ca is adsorbed less strongly to clay structures
than Sr, and more Ca reprecipitates as secondary carbonates relative
to Sr. The vegetation may also play a role in the retention of Ca from
wash-out, as the biogenic coefficient of Ca is much higher (0.17) than of
Sr (0.06) (Perel'man, 1977). The ratio of Sr/Ca primarily reflects carbonate
dissolution and hence mostly increases with increased leaching intensity,
during more humid conditions (Bloemendal et al., 2008;
Bokhorst et al., 2009). The low correlation between the CIA with Sr/Ca
(Pearson correlation coefficient r = 0.2 and 0.4, data not shown in
Table 1) in both sites suggests that carbonate dissolution was not necessarily
accompanied by silicate and feldspar weathering. At Zeměchy, a
strong negative correlation (r = −0.78) was found between the Sr/Ca
ratio and ARM in soil horizons, suggesting that the leaching process
also affected fine-grained (0.02–0.06 μm) magnetic particles.
The Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) gives information about feldspar
weathering by relating Al, which is enriched in weathering residues,
to Na, Ca and K. Na and K are assumed to be removed from a soil
profile in the course of plagioclase and K-feldspar weathering (Nesbitt
and Young, 1982). In recent years, this proxy has been relatively frequently
used as a suitable tool for the quantitative expression of chemical
weathering in loess (e.g. Chen et al., 1999; Buggle et al., 2008; Újvári
et al., 2008). The index is referred to as an “Na type” of weathering,
whereas the above-described Rb/Sr ratio is considered as a “Sr-type”
weathering index (Buggle et al., 2011).
4.4. Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
During the chemical weathering of loess, there occurs an ion exchange
and transformation of clay minerals. The [Cu(trien)]2+
ion is selectively
adsorbed to expandable clay minerals. Increased CEC values
obtained by [Cu(trien)]2+
can thus be mainly attributed to a higher concentration
of the most common expandable clay structure, i.e. smectite
(Grygar et al., 2009; Bábek et al., 2011). Expandable clay minerals are
characterized by the presence of loosely-bound cations and layers of
water-bearing, polarized, organic molecules between the structural
sheets. This type of structure is thus typical for more humid environments
and their relatively low presence in the sediment suggests that
conditions in these sections were most likely arid (and acidic), as they
have been largely depleted or at least altered. Illite-type clays are
formed under high pH conditions, mostly from weathering of K- and
Al-rich minerals such as muscovite and feldspar. The illite/smectite
ratio in the loess series thus provides a promising proxy strongly related
to soil humidity and its seasonality (Li et al., 2007; Varga et al., 2011;
Újvári et al., 2014)
Although CEC has rarely been used for loess/paleosol sequences, several
studies have suggested that CEC can be correlated with other indicators
of weathering intensity related to precipitation, indicators such as
magnetic susceptibility, diffuse reflectance spectroscopy and element
ratios of Rb, Ca and Sr (Maher, 1998; Bokhorst et al., 2009; Bábek
et al., 2011).
At both sites, the CEC follows the proxies of weathering/pedogenesis
intensity; elevated values (interpreted as higher amounts of smectite)
coincide with soils, and the highest values correspond with luvisol horizons,
for which the most intensive chemical weathering can be expected.
In Dobšice, in comparison with Zeměchy, lower values are recorded
in chernozems of PK II, especially in the upper one. The middle
Pleniglacial soils (PK I) of both sites shows relatively high values, whereas
in the overlying loess a gradual decrease occurs. CEC was positively
correlated with the Rb/K ratio (r = 0.74), which can indicate the conversion
of illite to expandable clay minerals (a process accompanied
by a partial loss of K+
ions) and this suggests the presence of K in muscovite
and feldspar. The highest correlation between CEC and magnetic
parameters was found in the case of χ and SIRM.
4.5. Grain-size analyses
Fig. 7 shows selected grain size distribution parameters of the sediment.
Both sites are characterized by a higher content of the clay fraction
(b4 μm) in soil horizons (∼20%) compared to pellet sands and loess
(∼10%). The highest enrichment of clay is recorded in the upper parts
of the luvisol (Bt horizons) and the overlaying chernozem (PK III) in
both sites. A relatively high clay content is also recorded in the middle
Pleniglacial part (PK I) of both sites. In general, the amount of clay in
the sediment shows a similar pattern to that of the magnetic susceptibility
record and proxies of chemical weathering such as Rb/Sr and Rb/K ratios
(see Fig. 3), probably due to the pedogenic modification that has
changed the grain size composition of the non-quartz component of
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the original dust. This is in accordance with the correlation between clayey
humic soil horizons, magnetic susceptibility or organic carbon content
that has been observed in Upper Pleistocene soil complexes from many
European sites (e.g. Antoine et al., 1999, 2009, 2013).
The silt fraction (4–63 μm) dominate throughout both profiles (∼60–
90%). Maxima are typical for upper Pleniglacial loess (above PK I). The
sand concentration (N63 μm) ranges from ∼1–30%; higher amounts of
sand are typical for colluvial sediments (pellet sands) and the upper
Pleniglacial loess, as well as for marker horizons (marker I). In general,
the amount of sand in Zeměchy is higher than in Dobšice, probably
due to a nearby outcrop of carboniferous arkoses, whereas At Dobšice
sand originates from Pleistocene fluvial terraces of the Dyje River.
4.6. Micromorphology
Micromorphological features of the main horizons are summarized
in Table 2, the characteristics reflecting the local soil and environmental
development. While the horizon representing the interglacial luvisol is
preserved only by the Bt horizon, with the A horizon missing, the
chernozem-like pedo-horizons are characterized by well-developed humified
A horizons. During the development of chernozem-type soils, the
accumulation of organic matter by humification is the dominant pedogenetic
process. For luvisols, besides the strong in-situ weathering, the
main pedogenetic process is the translocation of clays down the section.
Thus the characteristic feature of such soils is the clay-enriched Bt horizon.
The thickness of such horizons usually reflects the intensity and/or
temporal duration of the pedogenetic processes. Higher humidity and/or
water-logging might be causes for the pedogenetical processes connected
with gley formation. Pronounced differences between the sections
were found in some horizons, especially in the Lower Weichselian part
of profiles (PK II); however, in this respect Dobšice differed from
Zeměchy by having a markedly lower level of polygenesis. Secondary
redoximorphic features (pseudogley processes) are here present just
in the horizon of PK I (D3). Dobšice is also interesting from a pedozoological
point of view because, besides the activity of earthworms
(Lumbricidae) occurring throughout, the activity of Enchytraeidae
(potworms) occurred, or even dominated (D10), in all the paleosols including
the pararendzina of PK I.
5. Discussion
5.1. Rock-magnetic and geochemical results and their predictive value as
paleoclimate indicators
The rock-magnetic investigation results (Fig. 3) suggest that the
magnetic signal at both sites is mostly influenced by fine-grained (SP
and SD) magnetite and partially also by maghemite. These components
are typically formed during loess weathering and pedogenesis in a relatively
warm and humid climate with a pronounced dry season (Fontes
and Weed, 1991; Maher, 1998; van Velzen and Dekkers, 1999;
Oldfield, 2007; Torrent et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2007; Buggle et al.,
2013a).
The good correlation between magnetic and geochemical proxies
through the Weichselian parts of the studied profiles (Fig. 3) suggests
that fine-grained magnetite/maghemite formation was accompanied
by a more intensive weathering of minerogenic components, and a
higher element mobility and clay mineral (trans)formation. For example,
the formation of magnetic grains close to the SP/SD boundary
(ARM/ χ) clearly correlated with the feldspar weathering and consequently
with potassium mobility (Rb/K ratio, CEC). This is probably because,
similar to that in pedogenetic bacteria activity, K mobility in soils
and sediments (and its availability and diffuse flux for plant uptake) is
strongly influenced by soil moisture (Zeng and Brown, 2000). On the
other hand, the dissolution and leaching of Sr-rich carbonate minerals
(Rb/Sr ratio) did not show such a direct link to magnetic enhancement.
Fig. 7. Results of grain size analyses of the discussed sites.
352 J. Hošek et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 418 (2015) 344–358
On the contrary, the strong carbonate dissolution may have lead to the
loss of fine-grained magnetic particles during the leaching processes.
In contrast to the interstadial chernozem soils, interglacial
luvisols showed lower values of magnetic concentration-dependent
parameters, as well as weaker magnetite/maghemite enhancement
as shown by the χ–T measurements (Fig. 6). This is in contrast to
the LPSs from the Pannonian Basin, where a strong magnetic enhancement
also occurred within the lower part of the paleosolcomplex
(S1) corresponding to the Last Interglacial, and where magnetic
concentrations were more than twice as high than that for the
loess horizons (Marković et al., 2008, 2009; Buggle et al., 2013a). In
both sites the Interstadial soils of PK I also exhibited a pronounced
maxima of CEC and clay content, and a minima of calcite concentration,
that are clear signs of a relatively intensive pedogenesis. However,
in the case of Zeměchy, the PK I horizon was not detected by
its magnetic measurements (see Fig. 3).
For the last interglacial in central Europe, the malacological, palynological
and pedological data generally indicated more humid and warmer
conditions (even compared to the Holocene). This favorable climate
was replaced during the Lower Weichselian by rather cold and arid conditions
with three interstadial oscillations characterized by a warmer,
but still relatively dry, climate (Ložek, 1964; Smolíková, 1982; Urban,
1984; Caspers and Freund, 2001). The clear discrepancy between
these statements and the above-mentioned surveyed rock magnetic record
suggests a non-linear relationship of magnetic parameters with climatic
change. This finding should constitute a point of special interest
and is further discussed here in more detail.
The influence of climate on a magnetic signal (particularly the magnetic
susceptibility) in LPSs and modern soils has already been extensively
discussed in many studies (e.g. Heller et al., 1993; Maher et al.,
2003; Liu et al, 2007; Buggle et al., 2013a). Nevertheless, the relationships
between the state of magnetic variables and the course of the
Pleistocene climate are far from being interpreted as linear (Han et al.,
1996). This means that some climate changes, clearly documented by
well understood proxies – such as pedological or geochemical indicators
(Liu et al., 1995; Guo et al., 2001) and malacology (Rousseau and Wu,
1997) – are not necessarily reflected by expected changes in the magnetic
susceptibility.
The above-mentioned magnetic enhancement of the studied sequences
is mostly the influence of pedogenetic processes (i.e. a China
scenario). Thus, it could be expected that the non-linearity of the record
with climatic (pedogenetic) development has been probably caused by
a post-sedimentary loss of the magnetic signal. We suggest two main
reasons for the observed bias between the predicted paleoclimatic development
and the recorded magnetic parameters:
(1) Erosion of the humic Ah horizon in the case of PK III
According to the micromorphological studies (see Table 2), the
luvisol and overlaying chernozem (PK III) are geneticallyindependent
soils at both sites (proved by the absence of
braunlehm plasma in the chernozem horizons). In the case of
Zeměchy, they are separated by a thin layer of colluvial sediments
(Figs. 2 and 3). These colluvial and/or aeolian sediments
are typically present in the PK III of many sites. This documents
the higher erosion rate immediately after the climate deterioration
at the end of the interglacial. In the case of Zeměchy, the colluvial
layer (Z13) contains a small amount (up to 3%) of weak
decomposed organic detritus, which might represent the rest of
the reworked humic topsoil. Rock-magnetic studies of the Holocene
luvisol from the loess area (e.g. Jordanova et al., 2013;
Huang et al., 2011) suggest a high concentration of pedogenetic
ferrimagnets, as in the humic Ah horizon and in the upper part
of the Bt horizon, whereas middle and lower parts of the Bt horizon
show significant lower magnetic enhancement. In contrast,
geochemical parameters (such as CEC or the ratio of immobile/
mobile elements) yield relatively comparable values in both the
Table 2
Micromorphological characterization of the significant lithological horizons.
Layer Micromorphological features Interpretation
Dobšice
D3 Crack microstructure, sandy loam, crystalitic B fabric, decomposed organic matter — rare, bioturbation,
CaCO3 coating — rare, FeOH nodules (pseudogley concretions).
Weakly developed pseudogley (PK I)
D5 Granular to crack microstructure, sandy loam, crystalitic B fabric, CaCO3 coating and infillings, Mn coating
and nodules
Weakly developed pararendzina with A and CaCO3 horizon
(PK I)
D8 Spongy to granular microstructure, sandy loam, crystalitic B fabric, decomposed organic matter,
bioturbation, CaCO3 coating and infillings, excrements, phytoliths.
Upper chernozem (A and CaCO3hor) of PK II
D9 Subangular blocky microstructure, sandy loam, crystalitic B fabric, humous concentratios — aggregates,
CaCO3 coating and infilling.
Loess/reworked loess
D10 Spongy to granular microstructure, sandy loam, crystalitic B fabric, decomposed organic matter, partly
decomposed wood fragments, bioturbation, CaCO3 and Mn coating and infillings, excrements.
Lower calcareous chernozem (A and CaCO3hor) of PK II
D12 Subangular blocky microstructure, crystalitic B fabric, sandy loam (quartz and feldspar, fragments of
granite and quartzite up to 2 mm; obvious positive gradation), CaCO3 and Mn coating and infillings.
Marker loess sensu Kukla (1975)
D14 Spongy to granular microstructure, sandy loam, porostriatic B fabric, partly decomposed wood fragments,
charcoal, bioturbation, CaCO3 and Mn coating and infillings, humic concretions — common, excrements.
Luvisol (Parabraunerde) (Bt and CaCO3 horizon) of PK III
Zeměchy
Z3 Spongy microstructure, enaulic related distribution, 30% micro and mesovoids, vughs and compound
packing voids, moderately sorted silt, crystallitic B fabric, light brown matrix, very fine grained black
opaque decomposed organic matter (up to 10%), FeOH nodules present (up to 3%).
Weak brown soil (PK I)
Z8 Inter grain vesicular pore microstructure, enaulic related distribution, 30–50% micro and mesovoids, vughs
and compound packing voids, moderately sorted silt, crystalitic B fabric, dark brown, fine grained black
opaque decomposed organic matter (up to 30–50%),
Lower chernozem of PK II
Z11 Channel microstructure, enaulicrelated distribution, 50% micro and mesovoids, channels, vughs and compound
packing voids, moderately sorted silt, crystallitic B fabric, brown, fine grained black opaque decomposed organic
matter (up to 10%), charcoal fragments, three phases of calcium carbonate pedofeatures origin: 1.) crystallic
pseudomorphoses of root cells due to bioturbation; 2.) hypocoating of channels; 3.) infillings of channels by
crystallitic carbonates.
marker loess sensu Kukla (1975)
Z14 Intergrain channel microstructure, enaulic related distribution, 30% micro and mesovoids, channels and
vughs, moderately sorted silt to fine sand, porostriatic B fabric, light brown to orange, very fine grained
black opaque decomposed organic matter (up to 30%).
Luvisol (Parabraunerde) (Bt and CaCO3 horizon) of PK III
353J. Hošek et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 418 (2015) 344–358
Bt and Ah horizons (Duan et al., 2002). Having an Ah horizon
missing would therefore be more relevant for an interpretation
based on magnetic rather than geochemical proxies.
(2) Leaching and transformation of ferrimagnets in the Bt horizon
As mentioned above, an increase of percolating water could have
a major impact on the concentration of ultrafine magnetic particles.
Direct leaching can influence magnetic particles, mostly
fine-grained, as is suggested by the negative correlation between
ARM and the Sr/Ca ratio. Another reason for the χ decrease could
be excessive moisture during the Interglacial (as supported by
geochemical proxies) that could have caused a transformation
of magnetite/maghemite into goethite/limonite (Liu et al.,
2007, 2012). This interpretation is supported by the occurrence
of goethite in the luvisol as proven by χ–T measurements.
The proxies of chemical weathering (particularly Rb/Sr ratio, CIA and
CEC) of the studied profiles (Fig. 3) show the highest values in interglacial
soil and they are also enriched in the interstadial paleosol layers relative
to the loess (including the PK I soil in Zeměchy which did not even
register in the magnetic signal at all, probably due to the erosion of
the upper part of the soil horizon, enriched by magnetic minerals —
similar to that in the interglacial luvisols). The Rb/Sr ratio and CIA
have been used to reflect paleoclimate changes in the loess of
north-central China (Chen et al., 1999; Ding et al., 2001), the Danube
region (Buggle et al., 2011; Bokhorst et al., 2009; Varga et al., 2011;
Újvári et al., 2014) and Germany (Fischer et al., 2012) — in terms of
their systematic variations in loess/paleosol sequences. Furthermore,
in the Bohemian and Moravian loess/paleosol sequences
these proxies reveal in an exemplary way the degree of chemical
weathering and reflect the general course of climate development
of the Upper Pleistocene — as is apparent through the correlation
with deep sea oxygen isotopic records indicating the global climate
changes (Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005; Fig. 8).
Despite the correlation between the Rb/Sr ratio and the global benthic
δ18
O record being based on a visual comparison, we have several
reasons to consider this correlation a reliable one: many lines of evidence
indicate that the pedocomplexes PK III and PK II can be assigned
to marine oxygen isotope stages MIS 5e–5a and PK I to MIS 3 (e.g.
Kukla, 1975; Musson and Wintle, 1994; Zöller et al., 1994; Forster
et al., 1996; Frechen et al., 1999; Fuchs et al., 2013). The welldetermined
pedostratigraphy of the last climatic cycle was mostly
established based on detailed studies of the profile Dolní Věstonice
(DV) brickyard and thus the successful correlation of the χ and lithopedostratigraphical
records of DV with the studied sections (Fig. 5)
have allowed us to compare the obtained proxy records with the global
climatic scale. This kind of correlation is supported by OSL dates adopted
from DV which in turn can be correlated unambiguously to the sections
under study. Yet, it is to be remembered that, in general, an accurate
synchronization of land and ocean records and reliable stratigraphic correlation
between them is still an unresolved task for several reasons.
This also applied to LPSs, where the sedimentary record is often incomplete
(as discussed above) and the absolute chronology, based on the
OSL dating, is uncertain to often ∼5–10 ky. Moreover, as suggested by
studies comparing biological and geochemical proxy-records of welldated
varved lake sediments or speleothems with benthic and Greenland
δ18
O, synchronity often cannot be proven, and these records may
not be exactly synchronous (e.g. Sánchez-Goňi et al., 1999; Shackleton
et al., 2003; Drysdale et al., 2007; Boch et al., 2011).
In this study we used a simplistic explanation for the correlation between
peaks and troughs of the Rb/Sr ratio on one hand and the global
benthic δ18
O record on the other hand: benthic foraminiferal marine
δ18
O records are directly linked to deep sea water temperature and to
global ice volume. Such records may be used as a proxy for the water
content of the atmosphere and consequently also for the mainly precipitation
controlled climatic humidity on continents. The humidity, in
turn, controls weathering and soil formation and therefore the geochemical
and magnetic proxies seems to be generally in-phase with
the δ18
O records. This assumption has been the basis for a number of
studies which have demonstrated a close correspondence of magnetic
and geochemical variations within LPSs to signatures of past global climatic
change derived from oceanic benthic δ18
O records (e.g. Heller
and Liu, 1984; Kukla, 1975; Kukla et al., 1988; Bloemendal et al., 1995;
Chen et al., 1997; Heslop et al., 2000; Yang et al., 2004; Buggle et al.,
2009; Basarin et al., 2014).
5.2. Paleoenvironmental implications and paleogeographic context
The rock-magnetic and geochemical records (Fig. 3) visually divide
both studied sequences into two parts: (1) the lower parts (corresponding
to MIS 5), with higher values and fluctuations; and (2) the upper
part (interpreted as MIS 4-2), characterized by their lower values and
a trend of further decreases towards the top of the sequences. The records
reflect the main features of climate development and allow us to
correlate these individual profiles.
Sea surface temperature reconstruction for the North Atlantic
(Imbrie et al., 1992) or globally benthic δ18
O records (Lisiecki and
Raymo, 2005; see also Fig. 8), and also proxy data from Greenland
(North Greenland Ice Core Project (NGRIP) Members, 2004), indicates
that the beginning of the Weichselian (MIS 5d–a) was on average not
dramatically cooler than the Eemian interglacial (MIS 5e). However,
this period was characterized by large-amplitude oscillations and with
the abrupt appearance of rather drier conditions, which is also widely
suggested by the regional biological evidence (Ložek, 1964; Woillard,
1978; Urban, 1984; Behre, 1989; Guiot, 1990; Kühl et al., 2007) and geochemical
and sedimentological records (Caspers and Freund, 2001;
Sirocko et al., 2005; Rousseau et al., 2006; Drysdale et al., 2007) from
the land. In Europe, climate desiccation was most pronounced in continental
areas, whereas the region influenced by the Atlantic was considerably
wetter (Kühl et al., 2007). This is also reflected in the (paleo)
pedological evidence: the east central European soils generally indicate
somewhat drier and therefore less favorable conditions for leaching
than more westerly areas (Haesaerts and Mestdagh, 2000). Along a
transect from northwestern Europe towards the east and south-east,
redoximorphic features and pseudogley characteristics in soils
(known, for example, from Gleyic Chernozems and Gleyic or Stagnic
Phaeozems) decrease and vanish in the Pannonian Basin. Typical steppe
chernozem/kastanozem soils become predominant (Eckmeier et al.,
2007; Marković et al., 2008; Gozhik et al., 2013).
Our studied LPSs are situated in eastern central Europe in a transitional
area of high value for reconstructing past regional atmospheric
conditions and their interaction with North Atlantic/continental climate
systems (e.g. Kukla, 1977; Rousseau et al., 2013).
In this respect, the situation in the Central Bohemian section
Zeměchy shows aspects of the Atlantic part of Europe more clearly
than the South Moravian Dobšice section situated on the northwestern
edge of the Pannonian Basin. The Pannonian Basin is marked in the
Upper Pleistocene by continuous dry continental climate conditions,
under the effects of a temperate sub-Mediterranean climatic influence
(Sümegi and Krolopp, 2002).
The differences in the proxy records between the two sites can be
clearly linked to geographical differences influencing chemical
weathering processes. For example, whereas in Zeměchy all interstadial
soils show (from the micromorphological point of view) quite pronounced
pseudogley features and recalcification processes, in Dobšice
these features are only very weakly developed (see Table 2). Regarding
the rock-magnetic and geochemical results, the most pronounced differences
were found in the lower Weichselian parts of the pedosedimentary
records.
A lower Sr/Ca ratio, as well as almost featureless variations of Rb/Sr or
CEC in the PK II of Dobšice, indicates weaker pedogenic carbonate dissolution
and feldspar weathering, as well as weaker formation/
354 J. Hošek et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 418 (2015) 344–358
transformation of clay minerals in the Moravian section compared to the
Bohemian (Fig. 3). A stronger leaching process in Zeměchy is also supported
by lower concentrations of Ca and Sr, indicating a considerable
higher variability of these elements, a leaching of upper soil layers, and
the formation of Ca-enriched horizons. In total, the relative concentrations
of fine grained ferromagnets (χfd, ARM) are markedly higher in
Zeměchy than in Dobšice, suggesting that pedogenic processes were
more intense and/or bacterial production of magnetite (and/or
maghemite) was higher. An increase in moisture has been found to be
the key factor for stronger magnetic enhancement of many LPSs, as
long as the soils are not affected by water-logging (e.g. Buggle et al.,
2013a).
Regarding the geographical location of the studied sections, we suggest
that the pronounced differences in chemical weathering and magnetic
enhancement of the pedosedimentary sequences may be caused
by differences in the amount of percolating water, which may be representative
of the precipitation. Drier conditions during the Pleistocene, or
at least a different seasonality with a pronounced dry season in the
Pannonian Basin compared to other European regions, are widely supported
by geochemical, pedological and biological approaches (Allen
et al., 1999; Buggle et al., 2009, 2013b; Bokhorst et al., 2009; Zech
et al., 2013; Újvári et al., 2014).
Our findings suggest that the transitional zone between the two climate
regions, or the two different modes, of the Upper Pleistocene climate
in central Europe could be quite narrow. Yet, to confirm this
hypothesis, further data – in a transect from sites towards the Atlantic
Ocean and further into the continental area – are required, either
confirming or challenging the presented findings.
6. Conclusions
Loess/paleosols sequences from central Bohemia and south Moravia
(eastern-central Europe) provide a suitable archive for a detailed study
of the Upper Pleistocene paleoenvironmental changes in a transition
zone between the oceanic and continental climate regimes. Using a
multi-proxy approach combining sedimentological, rock-magnetic,
geochemical and micromorphological methods — we demonstrate that:
(i) The stratigraphy of the studied sections conforms well to the
general pattern of the Upper Pleistocene loess/paleosol successions
in the relatively dry loess of central Europe. This is demonstrated
by the correlation of the magnetic susceptibility record
with the well-investigated section at Dolní Věstonice.
(ii) The magnetic signal of the studied sediments is dominated
by the presence of fine grained (SP/SD) magnetite, and partially
maghemite. The origin of these minerals in soils and
loess is probably mainly pedogenetic. This is in accordance
with the “China scenario” model of magnetic enhancement
by pedogenesis.
(iii) Compared to chernozems, the distribution of magnetic minerals
throughout the interglacial (MIS 5e) luvisol (para-brown soil)
and interstadial (MIS 3) cambisol is nonlinear, probably due to
Fig. 8. Correlation of the Rb/Sr ratios from Dobšice and Zeměchy to the δ18
O record from the deep sea (LR04; Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005). OSL dates (color boxes) adopted from Fig. 4.
355J. Hošek et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 418 (2015) 344–358
the erosion of the Ah horizons and later leaching of fine-grained
magnetic grains. Rock-magnetic properties are thus not always a
reliable proxy for deciphering paleoclimatic changes in the study
area for the complete last climate cycle.
By contrast, proxies of chemical weathering – such as Rb/Sr ratio,
CIA or CEC – reflect the main pattern of climate development
through the whole Upper Pleistocene surprisingly well and
they promise to provide a suitable correlation tool on the
super-regional, or even hemispheric, scale.
(iv) The multi-proxy study reported in this paper revealed wellpronounced
interegional differences in the leaching intensity of
the loess/paleosols sequences. This suggests more humid conditions
in central Bohemia than in south Moravia during the Upper
Pleistocene, most probably due to the Moravian site's position
close to the Pannonian Basin, where drier conditions during the
Pleistocene predominated (in comparison to areas more to the
north and west that are more exposed to the North Atlantic
Ocean).
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the Deutscher Akademischer
Austausch Dienst (DAAD), Project no. 13-08169S of the Grant Agency
of the Czech Republic (GAČR) and internal program of Institute of Geology
ASCR in Prague RVO 67985831. We also thank AGICO Brno, s.r.o (especially
Martin Chadima) for providing access to measuring equipment.
Daniela Valentová is acknowledged for performing the grain-size analysis
and Steve Ridgill for improving our English. Christian Zeeden and
Gábor Újvári are thanked for their constructive comments, which
helped to improve the manuscript enormously.
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5.2.Fluviální procesy
Lisá, L., Lisý, P., Chadima, M., Čejchan, P., Bajer, A., Cílek, V., Suková, L. and Schnabl, P.
(2012): Microfacies description linked to the magnetic and non-magnetic proxy as
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62
Microfacies description linked to the magnetic and non-magnetic proxy as
a promising environmental tool: Case study from alluvial deposits of the Nile river
L. Lisa a,*, P. Lisy a
, M. Chadima a,b
, P. Cejchan a
, A. Bajer c
, V. Cilek a
, L. Sukova d
, P. Schnabl a
a
Institute of Geology, AS CR, v.v.i., Rozvojová 269, 165 00 Praha 6, Czech Republic
b
Agico, Inc., Jecná 29a, 621 00 Brno, Czech Republic
c
Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University, Zemedelská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
d
Czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Celetná 20, 110 00 Praha 1, Czech Republic
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Available online 12 June 2011
a b s t r a c t
Alluvial deposits within the Sabaloka Gorge and the Sixth Cataract, the Nile River, Sudan, represent a set
of deposits with a high lithological variability. This is due to the geomorphology and short-time and
intensive flood events resulting in aggradation and erosion of the alluvial zone. Human maintenance of
the alluvial zone also plays a role. Therefore, these sediments seem to be ideal for a methodological case
study to show how the lithological facies differ depending on the sedimentary dynamics of the river.
Non-magnetic proxies together with TOC values depend on magnetic properties characterized by
magnetic susceptibility and its frequency dependence.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Fluvial sedimentation and erosion in the Nile River Valley is,
according to Butzer and Hansen (1968), Williams and Adamson
(1982), and Garzanti et al. (2006), driven mainly by flood
hydrology and sediment yield of the major headwater catchments
which are strongly influenced by Holocene climate changes
(Woodward et al., 2001). The sediment source of the Nile River
alluvium is usually detected by heavy mineral suites (Butzer and
Hansen, 1968; Foucault and Stanley, 1989; Mahmoud and
Hamdan, 2002), but recently, new methodologies, such as Sr
isotopic measurements (Krom et al., 1999, 2002; Talbot et al., 2000;
Weldeab et al., 2002; Stanley et al., 2003), Nd isotopic measurements
(Freydier et al., 2001; Weldeab et al., 2002; Scrivner et al.,
2004; Padoan et al., 2009), and stable carbon and oxygen isotopic
measurements (Williams et al., 2000) have also been applied.
Measurements of magnetic susceptibility, a widely used method for
the assessment of environmental history and human impact on
alluvial plains (Oldfield et al., 1979; Foster et al., 1998; Jordanova
et al., 2003; Grygar et al., 2010), has been applied to the Nile
alluvial record only rarely (El Fattah and Frihy, 1988).
Most of the work done on the Nile alluvial sediments has
concentrated on the Egyptian part of the river. In spite of the fact
that one of the first geomorphological and sedimentological works
on the Nile River in Sudan was published in 1968 (Berry and
Whiteman, 1968), the sedimentological record in the recent Holocene
floodplain and the long-term behavior of the Sudanese
Saharan Nile are still imperfectly known (Williams et al., 2000,
2010; Woodward et al., 2001).
Authigenic formations of new ferromagnetic minerals in soils,
most frequently magnetite, maghemite or greigite, often lead to the
enhancement of soil magnetism. As Evans and Heller (2003)
pointed out, it should be kept in mind that these strongly
magnetic minerals carry only a minor proportion of iron available
in soils. With respect to magnetic enhancement, there are several
possibilities how the magnetic signal can be influenced. The
following five major processes are currently believed to be
responsible (Dearing et al., 1996; Evans and Heller, 2003): 1.) The
enhancement of magnetic susceptibility signal can be influenced by
detrital input provided from the atmospheric fallout of fossil fuelburning,
metallurgical industries and cement factories. After
landing, the particles penetrate into the soil profile and accumulate
mostly in the uppermost fermentation and humic subhorizons. In
this case, magnetic susceptibility will show very little frequency
dependence because of the large particle size (Evans and Heller,
2003). 2.) Natural fires or crop burning may cause thermal transformation
of magnetic minerals (Kletetschka and Banerjee, 1995).
Fires affect the topmost soil layers and the degree of magnetic
enhancement is highly variable. 3.) Inorganic in situ formation of
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: lisa@gli.cas.cz (L. Lisa), lisy@gli.cas.cz (P. Lisy), chadima@sci.
muni.cz (M. Chadima), cej@gli.cas.cz (P. Cejchan), bajer@mendelu.cz (A. Bajer),
cilek@gli.cas.cz (V. Cilek), sukova.lenka@gmail.com (L. Sukova).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Quaternary International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/quaint
1040-6182/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.05.030
Quaternary International 266 (2012) 25e33
ultrafine-grained magnetite was described mainly for the environment
with changing soil moisture and aeration in climate
sequences. 4.) The enhancement of magnetic susceptibility in soils
is also commonly interpreted as a presence of soil microorganisms
which produce very small superparamagnetic minerals (Fassbinder
et al., 1990). However, their low population densities in modern
topsoils do not seem to provide a substantial contribution to the
enhancement of magnetic susceptibility in soils. Frequencydependent
magnetic susceptibility, which is very sensitive to the
presence of superparamagnetic grains, may be a useful tool for
determining the relative amount of microorganic contribution to
the magnetic enhancement of soils. 5.) The weathering of ironbearing
minerals during soil wetting and drying cycles, that is,
a change in pedoenvironmental factors such as temperature, soil
water activity, pH, organic matter content, and release rate of iron,
may produce Fe2þ
solutions that are oxidized and favored by the
presence of organic matter form ferrihydrite when critical
concentrations are achieved (Evans and Heller, 2003). The reduction
of ferrihydrite in high Eh conditions under the short-lived
periods of anaerobicity in well drained soils can be followed by
the so-called fermentation when iron-reducing bacteria produce
soluble Fe2þ
ions in soils (Schwertmann, 1988). A partial dehydration
and reduction of ferrihydrite to magnetite will finally take
place in the presence of excess Fe2þ
giving rise to the enhancement
of soil magnetic properties (Evans and Heller, 2003).
Considering the last mentioned possible reason for magnetic
susceptibility enhancement, the total amount of organic carbon
(TOC) has to be taken into account. The organic carbon content and
grain-size distribution may serve as proxies for, e.g., the intensity of
pedogenesis, weathering and palaeowind strength. The possible
correlation of magnetic susceptibility with TOC was used by Schatz
et al. (in press) and Brachfeld and Banerjee (2000). Organic matter
is one of the most important soil components because it influences
the physical and chemical properties of soils far out of proportion to
the small quantities present. The TOC generally provides information
about the amount of organic matter in a sample. Furthermore,
organic matter supplies energy and body-building constituents for
most of the microorganisms (Brady, 1990).
The aim of this paper is to introduce the highly variable sedimentological
record of the Holocene alluvial plain of the Nile River
within the Sabaloka Gorge and near the Sixth Cataract in Sudan
(Fig. 1), and to show how such high lithological variability can be
correlated with the variation in magnetic properties and other
factors, such as lithology, micromorphology, grain-size distribution,
or the amount of total organic carbon (TOC).
2. Sampling and geological setting
In 2009, the Czech Institute of Egyptology, Charles University in
Prague, and the Institute of Geology, Academy of Sciences of the
Czech Republic, carried out geoarchaeological research within the
area of Sabaloka and the Sixth Nile Cataract in Sudan (Fig. 1). The
objective of this research was to attain a better understanding of
the history of the Nile, climatic changes in the Holocene, and their
impact both on the landscape and the human society. One of the
main tasks of the geoarchaeological research was to study the
sedimentary record of the Nile alluvial zone.
The area included in this studycovers approximately 25 km of the
Nile River banks within the Sabaloka Gorge and near the Sixth
Cataract (Fig. 1). The present surface of the alluvial plain within the
gorge lies generally 5 m above the water level. To date, no sedimentological
studies concerning the Holocene alluvial plain within
the Sabaloka Gorge have been reported. The background geology
is represented by the so-called Sabaloka Igneous Complex.
Fig. 1. Location of study area in the context of North Africa together with the location of the studied sections within the Sabaloka Gorge and near the Sixth Cataract. Source: Google
Earth 2010.
L. Lisa et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 25e3326
It represents one of the best exposed granitic complexes in Sudan,
and has been dated to the Proterozoic or early Paleozoic. The granite
complex is overlain by volcanic rocks and circumscribed by
a polygonal zone of ring-fracturing. The fracture system was
intruded by a ring dyke of porphyritic microgranite and e at about
the same time e mica granite with associated tinetungsten mineralization
was injected into the subsided block (Almond,1979,1980).
During the investigation, three, approximately 5-m-high
sections (Sections BeD; Fig. 2) were excavated into the exposed
banks of the Nile River. These sections were described from the
viewpoint of sedimentology and sampled for magnetic, geochemical
and grain-size studies at intervals of 10 cm or less when
significant lithological or grain-size change occurred. In order to
confirm or exclude any possible pedogenic processes, magnetic
susceptibility values were correlated with grain-size analyses and
the total amount of organic carbon (TOC), and, finally, compared
with the results of micromorphological analyses. Additional
samples were taken for dating purposes.
3. Methodology
Magnetic susceptibility was measured using an Agico MFK1-FA
Kappabridge at two different operating frequencies, f1 ¼ 976 Hz and
f3 ¼ 15 616 Hz; amplitude of AC field was 200 A/m, peak value.
Using this instrument, the variation in the frequency dependence
on the order of 1% is well reproducible and the measurements can
be interpreted in terms of magnetic granulometry even in weakly
magnetic materials (Hrouda and Pokorny, in press). Unconsolidated
samples were measured in plastic bags; measured susceptibility
was normalized by the mass of each sample and expressed as mass
susceptibility [m3
/kg].
Frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility, ƛFD, is characterized
by the following commonly accepted parameter (Dearing et al.,1996):
ƛFD ¼ 100 Â

ƛf1 À ƛf3
.
ƛf1½%Š
where ƛf1 and ƛf3 are susceptibilities at frequency f1 (976 Hz) and
frequency f3 (15 616 Hz), respectively.
Additional magnetic parameters were measured for each of
facies divided on the base of micromorphology. S-parameter is the
absolute value of backfield IRM (bIRM) divided by SIRM, which is
a dimensionless quantity between 0 and 1. This parameter was
calculated for two backfields 100 mT and 300mt. ARM/SIRM ratio is
a dimensionless quantity as well. HIRM value was calculated as
SIRM value minus absolute value of bIRM(300). Units of this
parameter are A/m. Those additional parameters were measured in
Paleomagnetic laboratory GLI AS CR, v. v. i. in Pruhonice, Prague.
Grain-size distribution was measured using the Mastersizer
laser granulometer, and five grain-size categories were distinguished:
0.1e2 mm (sand); 0.05e0.1 mm (fine sand); 0.01e0.05
(silt); 0.05e0.002 mm (very fine silt); <0.002 (clay). The dependence
between magnetic susceptibility, frequency-dependent
susceptibility, and grain-size was calculated by means of correspondence
analysis.
Total carbon (TC) concentrations (in weight percent) were
obtained for subsamples of dry sediment of known weight (w0.5 g)
using a PRISMACS analyzer, which combusts the sample in an
electric arc at the presence of oxygen and quantifies the carbon
dioxide produced to give percentages of total carbon and total
sulfur. A further subsample of sediment was fired at 500 C for 24 h
to remove organic carbon, and the carbon content was then
determined using a Leco analyzer to obtain total inorganic carbon
(TIC) concentrations (in weight percent). The total organic carbon
(TOC) content (in weight percent) was determined from the
difference between the total carbon and total inorganic carbon
concentrations.
Lithologically different strata were sampled into small Kubiena
boxes (5 Â 3 cm) for the purpose of microstratigraphical studies.
Altogether 50 micromorphological samples were taken. The aim
was to determine the material composition, its microstructure,
the presence of redeposited or in situ pedogenic features, and the
amount of pores and their relation to the surrounding matrix.
Fig. 2. Correlation among lithology, magnetic susceptibility ðƛÞ, frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility ðƛFDÞ, and total amount of organic carbon (TOC) values in Sections
BeD.
L. Lisa et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 25e33 27
The samples were dried, impregnated in vacuum, and then thin
sectioned. The soil thin sections were studied using a polarizing
microscope. The interpretations followed the papers of Stoops
(2003), Stoops et al. (2010) and Bullock et al. (1985).
4. Results
4.1. Litho- and pedostratigraphy
The lithological and pedostratigraphic description employs lithological
and pedogenic criteria, magnetic susceptibility and
frequency-dependent susceptibility variations, grain-size distribution,
and TOC values (Table 1). Chosen magnetic proxies were also
controlled by additional magnetic properties including ARM, IRM,
SIRM, S-ratio (100), S-ratio(300), HIRM and the ratio ARM/SIRM
measured of every facies type divided on the base of micromorphological
observations (Table 2). The descriptions of the three studied
sections are presented in Fig. 2. Generally, the lithology is similar
throughout the study area, although the position of soils or organic
matter accumulations varies. The lithological and pedostratigraphic
descriptions of the studied sections together with the grain-size
distributions of different facies (Table 1) show a high variability.
The first of the sections, Section B (Fig. 2), contains macroscopically
homogeneous sandy loams below the depth of 180 cm. This
part of the section differs mainly by the presence of well expressed
sedimentary structures (bedding) at depths of 180e220 cm, 270 cm,
290e300 cm, and 310e330 cm. Gleying is well expressed at the
depth of 330e430 cm. The upper parts of Section B show a much
higher variability including clearly expressed buried soils at a depth
of 120e152 cm and recent soil at a depth of 0e30 cm. The humusrich
intervals may represent Nile mud or redeposited A horizons of
newly developed anthropogenic soils. They are macroscopically
preserved at depths of 30e50 cm, 50e52 cm, 60e70 cm, 70e80 cm,
91e89 cm, and 170e180 cm. The charcoal concentrations are best
expressed at a depth of 70 cm under the surface.
The second of the sections, Section C (Fig. 2), shows much higher
lithological variability. The clearly developed buried or recent A
horizons of soils are missing. The very base of the section,
approximately below the depth of 440 cm, is composed of loam
with one sandy interval at a depth of 500 cm and two humus-rich
intervals at depths of 440e445 cm and 468e470 cm. This loamy
part of the section is overlain, at a depth of 370e440 cm, by sandy
loam with visibly preserved lenses rich in partly decomposed
organic matter. The same lithological situation is preserved at
a depth of 0e95 cm under the surface. The rest of the lithological
record is composed of sandy loam with structures typical for ripples
and interrupted by intervals of humus-rich material at depths of
95e112 cm, 148e152 cm, 155e165 cm, 190e200 cm, 272e285 cm,
and 296e300 cm, which may represent redeposited Nile mud or
anthropogenically developed A horizon. Such an interval at a depth
of 155e165 cm contains desiccation cracks up to 5 cm wide and up
to 10 cm deep.
The third of the studied sections, Section D (Fig. 2), shows
a relatively high variability as well. Sandy loams with preserved
partly decomposed organic layers constitute the most common
sedimentological features and are well expressed mainly at depths
of 195e350 cm, 380e390 cm, 470e480 cm, and 510e560 cm.
Sandy intervals are well expressed at depths of 350e380 cm and
480e510 cm. The rest of the lithological record is composed of
sandy loam with structures typical for ripples and interrupted by
intervals of humus-rich material at depths of 100e130 cm,
190e194 cm, and 410e450 cm, which can represent redeposited
Nile mud or anthropogenically developed A horizon. Such an
interval at a depth of 410e420 cm contains desiccation cracks up to
5 cm wide and up to 10 cm deep. Well expressed A horizon of soil
lies on the surface at a depth of 0e20 cm. The loamy interval below,
at a depth of 20e45, is rich in charcoal.
4.2. Micromorphology
Based on the distinctive micromorphological characteristics,
nine different facies types marked as xAexI were distinguished.
Table 1 provides a summary of the identified facies types together
with the typical values of magnetic susceptibility, frequencyTable
1
Basic facies types of the Nile River alluvial deposits. The indexes used are: ƛFD e magnetic susceptibility, ƛ e frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility, F1 to F5 e grain-size
fractions (F1 e 0.1e2 mm; F2 e 0.01e0.05 mm; F3 e 0.05e0.1; F4 e 0.01e0.002 mm; F5 e <0.002 mm), TOC e total amount of organic carbon.
Faciestype Distinctive Micromorphological characteristics Changes in measured values
xA Nile mud in situ - platy microstructure of laminated loam, prevailing voids are plates and
material has close porphyric related distribution. Presence of humus and decomposed organic matter.
ƛ e average or decrease
ƛFD e increase
TOC e increase
xB Secondarily redeposited nile mud - granular to inter-grain microaggregate microstructure of redeposited
humus-rich loam, single packing voids and compound packing voids, granular structural type, presence of charcoal,
decomposed and partly decomposed organic matter.
ƛ e average or increase
ƛFD e average or increase
TOC e average or increase
xC Antropogenically influenced horizon of nile mudeintergrain microaggregate and subangular blocky
microstructure of sandy loam, compound packing voids and vesicles, porphyric related distribution,
partly decomposed organic matter, charcoal, carbonate concentration with microcharcoal, bioturbation.
ƛ e average
ƛFD e increase
TOC e increase
xD Ripples composed of heavy minerals and organic matter - layers of opaque mineral concentrations
and layers of clay to sandy loam with positive gradation and the diffuse enhancement of humic material.
Platy and inter-grain microaggregate microstructure, plates, porphyric related distribution, chambers,
rare charcoal and partly decomposed organic matter.
Different behavior according to
the prevailing type of material in
the measured sample
(eg. Section C depth 250 like xA;
Section C depth 270 like xG;
Section D depth 320 like xF)
xE Fluvial sands - sands and sandy loam rich in opaque minerals, simple packing voids, and vesicles, mono-related
distribution with rare flakes of partly decomposed organic matter and rare presence of opaque mineral lenses.
ƛeaverage or decrease
ƛFD e average or decrease
TOC e decrease
xF Fluvial sands rich in heavy minerals - sands and sandy loam rich of opaque minerals, simple packing voids,
and vesicles, mono-related distribution with abundant presence of opaque mineral lenses and rare
flanks of partly decomposed organic matter.
ƛ e average or increase
ƛFD e average or increase
TOC e decrease
xG Fluvial sands rich in organic matter - platy and microaggregate microstructure of sandy loam,
with porphyric related distribution, plates, and horizontally oriented flakes of partly decomposed organic matter.
ƛ e average
ƛFD eaverage or decrease
TOC e average or increase
xI Accumulation of organic matter and charcoal -accumulations of charred and nonecharred nonedecomposed
and partly decomposed organic matter, mono-distribution, single grain microstructure of sandy material.
ƛ e decrease
ƛFD e average or increase
TOC e increase
L. Lisa et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 25e3328
dependent magnetic susceptibility and amount of total organic
carbon. The photographic documentation of the different facies
types is presented in Fig. 3. Generally, two main types of material
were observed. They differ mainly in the grain-size composition
and abundance of fine-grained humic material. Within these two
types of material, individual facies were distinguished, differing in
the presence of charcoal, carbonate concentration, intensity of
bioturbation, or the presence of oxidation and reduction features
(xA, xB, xC and xI), or in the presence of partly decomposed organic
matter accumulations or the accumulations of opaque minerals
(xD, xE, xF, xG and xH).
4.3. Magnetic susceptibility and frequency-dependent susceptibility
Most of the magnetic susceptibility values (all three sampled
sections taken together) vary between 3.5 and 8.5 Â 10À6
m3
/kg.
There are no significant differences in magnetic susceptibility
values among the three sampled sections, suggesting no or little
lateral variability in lithology. Magnetic susceptibility depends on
the grain-size of the studied sediments. Using the principal
component (PCA-R-MODE) analysis, good correlations were
determined among silt, very fine sand and magnetic susceptibility
(Fig. 4). Very strong links exist among the frequency-dependent
Table 2
Values of magnetic proxies measured for facies types divided on the base of micromorphology: S-parameter is absolute value of backfield IRM (bIRM) divided by SIRM, which is
dimensionless quantity within interval 0 and 1. This parameter was calculated for two backfields 100 mT and 300mt. ARM/SIRM ratio is dimensionless quantity as well. HIRM
value was calculated as SIRM value minus absolute value of bIRM(300). Units of this parameter are A/m.
ƛ ƛFD ARM IRM SIRM S-ratio(100) S-ratio(300) HIRM ARM/SIRM
xA 7.86 Â 104
3.19 1.37 31.19 143.28 0.83 0.98 2.23 0.009
xB 6.57 Â 104
4.04 1.28 24.77 121.94 0.79 0.94 6.56 0.010
xC 4.99 Â 104
4.78 1.20 18.74 82.23 0.78 0.99 0.59 0.014
xD 8.09 Â 104
3.23 1.32 33.88 143.88 0.77 0.94 7.46 0.009
xE 5.72 Â 104
3.19 1.31 27.16 114.47 0.79 0.98 1.94 0.011
xF 6.68 Â 104
3.01 1.00 24.77 116.11 0.79 0.96 4.47 0.008
xG 4.73 Â 104
3.07 1.02 19.85 94.47 0.78 0.98 1.49 0.010
xI 4.48 Â 104
4.28 0.64 13.11 71.94 0.84 0.99 0.14 0.008
Fig. 3. Microphotographic documentation of the different facies types with the most distinctive micromorphological features.
L. Lisa et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 25e33 29
magnetic susceptibility, very fine clay and the values of organic
carbon. On the other side, the non-magnetic proxies, i.e. TOC and
very fine clay together with sands, do not correlate with the values
of magnetic susceptibility; this implies that material of such grainsize
possess relatively low magnetic susceptibility (Fig. 4).Coarsegrained
sands are mainly composed of diamagnetic minerals such
as quartz; their increased presence in a sample decreases the bulk
magnetic susceptibility. Fine-grained clays, due to their low depositional
energy, do not contain as high proportion of heavy and/or
magnetic minerals as slightly coarser silts; as a result, they possess
relatively lower susceptibility values.
Most of the values of the frequency-dependent susceptibility
range between 2 and 6%. These values are relatively low, suggesting
only a little contribution of superparamagnetic grains to magnetic
susceptibility. There are no significant differences in the frequencydependent
susceptibility among the three sampled sections. It
seems that the frequency-dependent susceptibility depends on the
grain-size of the studied sediments with finer-grained fractions
(clay and silts) which show elevated values (Fig. 4). Samples with
a significant amount of sand fraction show relatively low values of
frequency-dependent susceptibility. There is a slight negative
correlation between magnetic susceptibility and its frequency
dependence; the high-susceptibility samples are less frequencydependent
compared to the low-susceptibility samples (Fig. 2).
4.4. Additional magnetic parameters
The results of the additional magnetic proxy measurements
correspond to the interpretations based on sedimenthological and
micromorphological interpretations. Facies types xB, xD and xF
show not only presence of magnetite, but also presence of hematite
and goethite (minerals with high coercivity) while the facies types
xA, xC, xE, xF, xG and xI show the appearance of low coercivity
minerals, i.e. magnetite and maghemite. The enhancement of very
fine-grained minerals is visible in the case of faciesfacies types xA,
xB, xC, xD and xE, while the other facies types show the coarser
magnetic fractions. The proportion between magnetite and hematite
is higher mainlyin the case of facies types xA and xI, but as visible
from the parameter S ratio (300) the most evident signal is given by
the presence of magnetite, which is according to the parameters S
ratio (100) and ARM/SIRM probably of single-domain type.
4.5. Grain-size distribution and TOC
The grain-size distribution almost continuously covers all grainsize
categories (Fig. 2). This method allows interpretation of the
sedimentary dynamics in cases where the material seemed to be
macroscopically quite homogeneous. Organic matter was not
excluded before the measurement, so the results reflect not only
the presence of a coarser fraction, but also the presence of organic
matter flakes. It is difficult to mechanically separate fractions with
and without organic flakes because a chemical removal of organic
matter would also remove very fine humic material which represents
an important fraction in some lithological facies. The
proportion of organic flakes was therefore determined
microscopically.
Generally, humic-rich intervals are more clayey or loamy (Figs. 2
and 4), whereas there is a high variability between the amount of
organic matter and sand-sized fraction. There seems to be a trend of
the positive grading of the fraction below 0.002 mm at depths
of 430e400 cm, 350e270 cm, and 80e0 cm in the case of Section B,
and at a depth of 440e300 cm in the case of Section C. This grading
reflects sedimentation within a single event, so the section with
less variability (Section B) reflects, at the same time, a small
number of single events.
The highest amounts of total organic carbon are connected with
the macroscopically humus-rich darker intervals and the presence
of charcoal or partly decomposed organic matter. Within Section B
(Fig. 2), the highest value of TOC is up to 2 percent at a depth of
50 cm. The average proportion of TOC lithologically connected with
humic-rich intervals is about 1%. Surprisingly, the macroscopically
described horizon A of the buried soil at a depth of 120e150 cm
shows the TOC proportion below 0.2%, i.e., the same as the average
TOC of sandy loam or sand without macroscopic evidence of
decomposed organic matter or humic material. The average TOC
proportion in intervals macroscopically rich in partly decomposed
organic matter is about 0.8%. In some cases, as in the case of
enhanced TOC values in sandy loam at a depth of 420 cm, the
presence of high organic content was detected only on a chemical
basis. The variability of TOC within Section C (Fig. 2) reflects the
lithological variability. Macroscopically humic-rich intervals are
reflected by the enhancement of TOC to up to 2% at a depth of
110 cm; generally, the TOC average of 1% within these intervals is
the same as in Section B. Also, as in Section B, the average TOC
proportion in intervals macroscopically rich in partly decomposed
organic matter is about 0.8% and the average TOC proportion in
sandy loam without macroscopic evidence of decomposed organic
matter or humic material is less than 0.2%. The highest TOC
proportion of 2.8% was documented at the base of Section D (Fig. 2).
From the viewpoint of lithology, this enhancement is connected
with the presence of partly decomposed organic matter or with
charcoal. Charcoal, much like organic matter, is relatively light and
its accumulation can correspond with erosional processes at the
beginning of the flooding event. As in the case of Sections B and C,
the highest amount of TOC lithologically connected with humicrich
and charcoal intervals is 2% (at a depth of 450 cm). The
average TOC value of intervals lithologically connected with partly
decomposed organic matter (except the material below the depth
of 510 cm) is about 0.8%. Horizon A of the recent soil has the TOC
value of up to 1%. Generally, the value of TOC in Section D is the
lowest one of all the compared sections.
Fig. 4. Results of the principal component (PCA-R-MODE) analysis for Sections BeD.
When the arrows meet at a sharp angle, the variables are well correlated; when the
arrows meet at more or less right angle, the variables are independent of each other.
When the arrows form angles of 180, the variables are negatively correlated. The
length of the arrows is proportional to the degree of variability of the illustrated
variables; 50.27 of variability is explained by the axis x and 23.34 of variability is
explained by the axis B.
L. Lisa et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 25e3330
5. Discussion
5.1. Magnetic susceptibility and grain-size distribution as proxies
for depositional energy
The grain-size of alluvial deposits reflects the depositional
energy (Brown, 1997). While the coarse fraction, composed mainly
of the most abundant diamagnetic mineral quartz, needs a relatively
strong depositional energy and forms mainly levee structures along
river banks, the finer grain-size fraction allows less depositional
energy and such deposits form more distal parts of the alluvial plain
(Bridge, 2003; Charlton, 2008). The situation within the Sabaloka
Gorge is even more complicated, because in some parts the river
channel is very narrow, while in others parts it widens to more than
2 km. The lithological variability was characterized from the viewpoint
of sedimentology, micromorphology, TOC, magnetic susceptibility
ðƛÞ and frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility ðƛFDÞ
by the erection of facies types xAexI. Howand why these types differ
in various depositional environments is a question of depositional
energy and human influence.
The coarse fraction is usually composed of quartz, but a special
type of sedimentation (similar to beach sands) occurs in some
cases. These sediments (xD facies type) are rich in heavy opaque
and magnetic minerals which can influence the enhancement of
ðƛÞ. Therefore, the elevated proportions of coarse-grained fraction
may correspond to low magnetic susceptibility due to the prevailing
quartz (xE facies type) or abundance of flakes of organic matter
(xG or xI facies types). In contrast, high magnetic susceptibility of
relatively coarse material can occur due to the concentration of
magnetic minerals within the heavy fraction (xF facies type). As
visible from Figs. 4 and 5, the magnetic susceptibility is dependent
mainly on the presence of silt fraction, while the frequencydependent
magnetic susceptibility vary according the presence of
clay fractions. The concentrations of heavy minerals can be identified
macroscopically as black opaque mineral accumulations.
Therefore, the facies types xD, xE, xF and xG can be interpreted as
high-energy depositional environments. In spite of the fact facies
type xI was included in the above mentioned characteristics of
high-energy environment, the organic matter is light enough to be
carried and accumulated by low-energy water.
5.2. Correlation between the TOC and depositional energy
A positive correlation was found between the frequencydependent
magnetic susceptibility and the values of total organic
carbon (Fig. 4). The total organic carbon is preserved usually as
a part of very fine-grained humic matrix within the suspended
load, but also as partly decomposed organic matter and charcoal
included in relatively coarse fraction, as visible from micromorphological
descriptions (Table 1) and field observations. As long as
very fine-grained material of suspended load experiences rather
upward-directed turbulent motions than the combination of
downward-directed turbulent motions and gravitational settling, it
will remain in suspension (Bridge, 2003). The timing of the deposition
is the final part of the flooding event, and the most suitable
parts of the alluvial plain are the morphologically predisposed
lateral embayments. Such morphological features act as natural
traps for the so-called lag deposits (Charlton, 2008). All three
sections described in this paper are located at such positions within
the landscape.
In some of the documented situations, the TOC values positively
correlated with the coarser fraction (Figs. 2 and 4). These situations
are microscopically visible as organic flakes but are sometimes well
visible also macroscopically (Fig. 6). Such features are composed of
partly decomposed organic matter as well as by charcoal. It seems
that the timing of the deposition is the beginning of the flooding
event, when the organic matter or charcoal resting on the surface of
an antropogenically maintained alluvial plain become redeposited.
Charcoal concentrations can be found on the surface of the alluvial
plain as a result of the so-called “slash and burnt” management
used in a pasture type of management (Abusuwar, 2007; El Tayeb,
2010). The grasses are annually burned to produce fresh new
pasture. The accumulations stay undisturbed until the next high
flooding event (Fig. 7).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Clayproportion[%]
Frequency dependent magnetic susceptibility [%]
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.001 0.0012 0.0014 0.0016
Siltproportion[%]
Magnetic susceptibility [SI]
Fig. 5. Cross plot diagram of Magnetic susceptibility and silt fraction and for the
frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility and the clay fraction.
Fig. 6. Origin of structural features within the suspended load macroscopically
observed after the flood event.
L. Lisa et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 25e33 31
5.3. Deposition and redeposition of the Nile mud and agricultural
processes
The fine fraction in the Sabaloka alluvial sediments, usually
composed of silt and clay, occurs mostly in the form of thin intervals
(max. 10 cm) of darker material. This material is the product of
suspended load sedimentation which occurs at the end of flooding
event, and its provenance from the area of Blue Nile sources can be
expected. This suspended load is material derived from the fields,
as can be presently observed. Three main facies types (xAexC) were
distinguished in this type of fine-grained material. Facies type xA
corresponds to the primary deposited suspended load. Once this
material is exposed to oxygen and heat, it starts to dry and shrink
(Fig. 5). These post-depositional processes lead to the formation of
platy microstructure with prevailing void plates. The high amount
of partly decomposed organic matter and humus expressed by
a high amount of TOC occurs as a natural part of material deposited
from the source areas. Magnetic susceptibility of such material is
usually quite low, while the frequency-dependent susceptibility
shows a visible enhancement.
When fluvial erosion influences previously deposited suspended
load, flakes of the dried mud will be deposited further
downstream. The depositional energy must be higher because the
material is much coarser. The erosion of once dried and shrunk mud
is higher when agriculturally maintained or destructed, for
example, by trampling. This facies type was marked as xB. Erosion
and depositional processes lead to the origin of granular to intergrain
microaggregate microstructure with single packing and
compound packing voids. Facies type xB is usually rich in charcoal
because redeposition usually takes place some time after the
primary deposition, and because of the human presence. Magnetic
susceptibility and frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility of
such a material are usually moderate or slightly enhanced due to
the mixing with coarser diamagnetic material during redeposition.
Once types xA or xB are anthropogenically influenced, the
internal microstructure changes into an inter-grain microaggregate
and subangular blocky microstructure with compound packing
voids and vesicles and with porphyritic-like distribution. The
material is bioturbated and rich in partly decomposed or decomposed
organic matter, charcoal or microcharcoal. It is also rich in
carbonate due to fertility maintenance and plant growing.
Magnetic susceptibility of such material is moderate and the
frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility is enhanced due to
the fertility maintenance (burning of organic matter) and bacterial
processes during the pedogenesis.
6. Conclusions
Sediments of the alluvial zone within the Sabaloka Gorge, the
Sixth Cataract, in Sudan were described and subdivided into nine
facies types according to their magnetic properties, grain-size
distribution, and the amount of organic carbon. The observed
lithological alternations reflect changes in energy of the depositional
environment and are also influenced by human activities.
Generally, the high-energy depositional environment is represented
by coarse fractions. Magnetic susceptibility enhancement
depends mainly on the presence of silt fraction and the heavy
mineral accumulations, which are macroscopically visible in lenses
of opaque minerals. Frequency-dependent susceptibility is
moderate or low in high-energy environment and its enhancement
depends mainly on the appearance of clay fractions. The amount of
total organic carbon varies and depends on the presence of presence
of flakes of partly decomposed organic matter.
The low depositional energy of suspended load environment is
represented by intervals of darker silts and clays. Magnetic
susceptibility is usually moderate or low, while the frequencydependent
magnetic susceptibility is elevated. The total amount
of organic carbon is also high and reflects the presence of organic
matter in different stages of decomposition. Three facies types were
distinguished within the low-energy depositional environment.
The first one, marked as xA and composed of very fine-grained,
laminated silt material, represents suspended load as a sedimentological
record of the final phases of the flooding event. Once it is
exposed to oxygen and heat, it starts to dry and shrink. When
agriculturally maintained, the material is enriched in charcoal and
becomes liable to erosion. This material is then redeposited by
water further downstream (the second facies type marked as xB) or
buried as a subfossil agriculturally influenced horizon A (the third
facies type marked as xC).
The high depositional energy of the bedload environment is
represented by five additional facies types (xE, xF, xG and xI facies
types), which differ from one another in their structural features or
in the presence or absence of some component, such as heavy
mineral accumulations, charcoal or partly decomposed organic
matter.
Acknowledgments
The geoarchaeological research in the area of Sabaloka and the
Sixth Nile Cataract was financed from the funds granted by the
Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic (international cooperation
project No. M100130902 and institutional research plan
No. AV0 Z 30130516) and by the Grant Agency of the Charles
University in Prague (project No. 15009). We wish to thank the
National Corporation for Antiquities and Museums of Sudan for the
permission to carry out the works in the area of Sabaloka and to
Murtada Bushara, an inspector of the NCAM, for his engagement in
the fieldwork.
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Geochemical tools for the stratigraphic correlation of floodplain deposits of the
Morava River in Strážnické Pomoraví, Czech Republic from the last millennium
Tomáš Grygar a,
⁎, Ivo Světlík b
, Lenka Lisá c
, Leona Koptíková c
, Aleš Bajer d
, David S. Wray e
, Vojtěch Ettler f
,
Martin Mihaljevič f
, Tereza Nováková f
, Magdaléna Koubová g
, Jan Novák h
, Zdeněk Máčka i
, Mirek Smetana i
a
Institute of Inorganic Chemistry ASCR, v.v.i., 250 68 Řež, Czech Republic
b
Nuclear Physics Institute ASCR, v.v.i, 250 68 Řež, Czech Republic
c
Institute of Geology ASCR, v.v.i., Rozvojová 269, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic
d
Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
e
The University of Greenwich at Medway, Chatham Maritime, Kent, ME4 4 TB, UK
f
Charles University, Faculty of Science, Albertov 6, 128 43 Prague, Czech Republic
g
Czech Geological Survey, Klárov 3, 118 21 Prague, Czech Republic
h
University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, Branišovská 31, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
i
Masaryk University, Faculty of Science, Department of Geography, Kotlářská 2, 611 37 Brno, Czech Republic
a b s t r a c ta r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 16 July 2009
Received in revised form 14 September 2009
Accepted 14 September 2009
Keywords:
Fluvial archives
Environmental change
Chemostratigraphy
Proxy analyses
The floodplain of the Morava River in Strážnické Pomoraví, south-east Moravia, Czech Republic contains a
very valuable record of regional environmental change, which goes back to several thousand years. Its
interpretation has been limited by poor stratigraphic correlation and dating of the sediments. We present a
geochemical solution to this challenge. We studied 8 outcrops of floodplain deposits from 4 localities along a
6 km long part of the current meander belt of the Morava River in Strážnické Pomoraví using geochemical
proxy analyses, magnetic susceptibility measurements, 14
C dating of wood remnants, and sediment
micromorphology. The proxy methods are based on elemental analysis (EDXRF) and analysis of the cation
exchange capacity of clay minerals; granulometric analyses provided the basis for lithological and facies
assignment of the sediments. Our geochemical and mineralogical interpretations have further been tested by
microstratigraphically studying the optical properties of the fine fraction. Horizons older than about 3 centuries
were 14
C dated using wood remnants and the age of deposits from the last century was determined on the base of
several proxies reflecting their industrial contamination by heavy metals and magnetic particles. The mean
depositional rate over the period from about 1000 to about 1900 AD ranged from 0.2 to 0.6 mm y−1
, depending
on the sedimentary facies. The coeval lithological change in the majority of the studied sections indicated a
change of the meander belt structure at between ~1200 AD and ~1600 AD probably as a consequence of changes
of channel structure. The alluvial deposition in the 20th century was strongly affected by the river regulation.
© 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Floodplain deposits are invaluable archives of Holocene fluvial
activity (e.g., Macklin et al., 2006; Macklin and Lewin, 2008). The
sediments may also contain information about regional environmental
changes in countries which have undergone substantial change of
land use and industrial development (e.g., Swennen and Van der
Sluys, 2002; Lang et al., 2003; Vannière et al., 2003; de Moor et al.,
2008). Both the quality and quantity of river-transported solid
material can reflect the history of agriculture, anthropogenic adjustments
to changing the river dynamics, evidence of chemical pollution,
and other aspects of land–human interactions. However, floodplain
development is a very dynamic and complex process that requires
great care to be taken in the interpretation of overbank deposit
sequences (Lewin and Macklin, 2003; Macklin and Lewin, 2008). In
many European countries there is lack of continuous environmental
sedimentary records such as natural lakes covering the historical and
prehistoric periods and documentary archives older than five hundred
years are very scattered. The understanding of how to interpret river
dynamics has improved in recent years, enabling the production of
estimates of river activity extending back several millennia (Macklin
et al., 2005, 2006; Starkel et al., 2006; Thorndycraft and Benito, 2006;
Hoffmann et al., 2008) allowing workers to identify large, regional,
continental, or perhaps global environmental changes in fluvial
activity in the multi-millennial time scale. On shorter time- and
spatial scales, some local (regional, episodic) changes in the floodplains
of rivers with smaller watersheds and alluvial plains have been
Catena 80 (2010) 106–121
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: grygar@iic.cas.cz (T. Grygar).
0341-8162/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.catena.2009.09.005
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Catena
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/catena
successfully linked to well documented anthropogenic activities
(Lang and Nolte, 1999; Swennen and Van der Sluys, 2002; Vannière
et al., 2003; de Moor et al., 2008; Notebaert et al., 2009). Larger
watersheds has some retention capacity for transport of the materials
eroded due to the land use via colluvia and smaller tributaries to the
trunk river floodplains that was discussed by Lang et al. (2003),
Rommens et al. (2006), Kalicki et al. (2008), and Hoffmann et al.
(2009).
The majority of large, naturally meandering rivers in the Czech
Republic have been straightened and/or channelized and their
floodplains narrowed by flood barriers. Several parts of the Morava
River, one of the most important rivers in the Czech Republic from
both geographical and historical points of view, have apparently been
less affected, one such area is Strážnické Pomoraví (Kadlec et al.,
2009). The floodplain in that area has been covered by several metres
of fine grained deposits since the end of the Last Glacial Maximum
(Havlíček, 1991, pp. 319–341; Havlíček and Smolíková, 1994; Kadlec
et al., 2009). The rapid aggradation of the Morava River in the last
millennium was assumed by several previous researchers to be
connected to changes in land use (e.g., Prudič, 1978). Similarly the
dramatic increase in loam deposits on floodplains, where mostly or
only peat deposits were formed during the Middle Holocene, has been
reported for many European rivers, where catchments were mostly
deforested and changed to arable fields (e.g., de Moor et al., 2008;
Notebaert et al., 2009; Hoffmann et al., 2009). We have recently
started re-examining the floodplain deposits of the lower course of
the Morava River and found that its character in a part of Strážnické
Pomoraví underwent substantial changes during the last millennium
(Kadlec et al., 2009).
The aim of this work is to establish a set of quantitative geochemical
laboratory methods which would allow routine analysis of sediments at
a sufficient sampling density to facilitate their correlation, and deliver
interpretations in conventional lithological and sedimentological terms.
These tools should enable floodplain scale correlations, which offer the
best approach to the description of the fluvial architecture as
demonstrated in numerous successful case studies (Lang and Nolte,
1999; de Moor et al., 2008; Notebaert et al., 2009). We employed cation
exchange capacity obtained by [Cu(trien)]2+
complex (Meier and Kahr,
1999; Grygar et al., 2005, 2009), X-ray fluorescence element analysis
and magnetic susceptibility measurements. To interpret these proxy
results, we cross-correlated them with outputs of conventional, more
demanding methods such as particle size analysis, micromorphological
study of processes within the fine grain matrix of the studied material,
and ICP elemental analysis performed on samples from selected
sections. The interpretation of the results is also based on 14
C dating of
wood fragments. The sedimentological analysis, dating, and correlation
are used to estimate the mean depositional rate (aggradation plus
lateral accretion) over the last millennium.
2. Methods and material studied
2.1. Studied area
Strážnické Pomoraví is one of the last meandering reaches of the
Morava River, which is not channelized, however, it is not free of
significant modern human impact. The river upstream from Strážnické
Pomoraví was straightened, the cross section modified, and the
river banks stabilized. These alterations caused a downstream
response leading to changes in channel hydraulics and morphology.
The Morava River channel has gradually become more deeply incised
into the alluvial sediments, the banks have become destabilized and
the channel has widened. The changes in the course of the river
channel are apparent from Fig. 1. Additionally, in the 1930's flood
defences were constructed along the Morava River and its tributaries,
limiting the area available for overbank flooding to about 20% of the
original floodplain (Fig. 1). Historical maps show an anabranching
channel pattern within the area while currently a single channel is
active. Parallel channels in the vicinity of Strážnice and Petrov are
depicted in several maps from 17th to 19th centuries. The former
channel pattern is evident from the map of Moravia compiled in 1665
(Blaeu, 1665) and the maps of the 1st Austrian Military Survey of 1764–
1768 and 1780–1783. Side channels called Morawka (Morávka) and
Weschka Arm (Véšky) are also recorded on the map from the 2nd
Austrian Military Survey (1841). During the 20th century, Morávka and
Véšky were both channelized and used as waterway (the Bat'a Channel)
and to drain local streams (including the Velička, Véšky, and Radějovka
creeks). Other very substantial artificial modifications to the river
morphology in the study area were the construction of flood defences
and channel straightening and consequent abandonment of meander
loops in two places within the study area during the 1930's (Fig. 1).
The map of the 2nd Austrian Military Survey (1841) indicates that
the floodplain was dominated by meadows and forests during the first
half of the 19th century. Currently the floodplain is mostly forested
and a smaller area covered by arable land. The current forests are
mostly composed of alder (Alnus glutinosa), willows (Salix sp.), ash
tree (Fraxinus excelsior), and oak (Quercus robur), but introduced (not
domestic) planted species are common in the current river banks,
such as poplars (P. canadensis, cross-breed P. canadensis×P. nigra),
maple Acer negundo=Negundo aceroides, ash tree F. angustifolia, and
walnut Juglans nigra.
Our observation after several years of fieldwork is that the lateral
movement of the concave banks of meanders in the largest meanders
is up to 0.5 to 1 m per year. This is derived from the rate at which
previous sampling sites have been removed by lateral erosion.
2.2. Sampling and sample pretreatment
Floodplain sediments were sampled from sections in natural
outcrops of the Morava River banks during the seasonal minimum
flows. In many places the rate of lateral erosion in the meander loops is
about 1 m per year and so after each large seasonal flood relatively fresh
deposits are exposed. The outer 0.5 to 1 m of sediment was removed
before sampling. Sediments from more distal parts of river channel were
retrieved by Auger corers with a diameter of 2 or 3 cm (Ejikelkamp, the
Netherlands). Sediments were sampled as cubes with 3 cm edge at 5 or
10 cm intervals, i.e. in a discontinuous manner. Samples were left to dry
in an ambient atmosphere. Very gently crushed material was used for
the size distribution analysis, clay mineral identification and magnetic
susceptibility measurement. Powders obtained by manual grinding in
an agate mortar were subjected to geochemical analyses. Micromorphological
samples were taken from macroscopically identified lithological
layers using small Kubiena boxes.
2.3. Clay mineral identification
Samples for identification of clay mineral composition (clay
fraction, <2 μm) were obtained by a conventional sedimentation
method (Tanner and Jackson, 1948). Oriented specimens for XRD
were prepared by pipette method. Approximately 2 ml of suspension
was dropped by pipette on the glass slide and air dried. The oriented
specimens were analysed air-dried and after overnight saturation
with ethylene glycol vapour at 60 °C. Then a part of the suspension
was removed and left to evaporate at 40–50 °C and subjected to CEC
analysis (discussed below). The clay fraction was analyzed by X-ray
diffraction using a Philips X'Pert system (PANalytical, the Netherlands)
with CuKα1 radiation. Clay mineral identification was
performed using the NEWMOD code (Reynolds, 1985). Relative
changes in illite–smectite concentration within the clay fraction
were estimated by determining the relative areas of the basal
diffraction lines in oriented specimens, estimated by their deconvolution
to pseudo-Voigt components using the Peak Fitting Module in
Origin7.0 (OriginLab, Northampton, MA, USA).
107T. Grygar et al. / Catena 80 (2010) 106–121
108 T. Grygar et al. / Catena 80 (2010) 106–121
2.4. Micromorphology of sediments
Samples were taken into small Kubiena boxes, slowly dried,
impregnated by a polymer resin, proceeded into thin sections and
then studied according to Bullock and Murphy (1983). A record was
made of the microfabric types, structural and porosity features,
natural inclusions, anthropogenic inclusions and pedofeatures (Macphail
and Cruise, 2001, pp. 241–267).
2.5. Quantitative analysis of expandable clay minerals (CEC)
The cation exchange capacity (CEC) was determined using a
procedure proposed by Meier and Kahr (1999) for pure clay mineral
specimens and recently tested for sediments and soils (Grygar et al.,
2009). [Cu(trien)]2+
solution was obtained from CuSO4·5H2O (Penta,
Czech Republic) and trien, triethylenetetramine (1,4,7,10-tetraazadekane,
Sigma-Aldrich), to the final concentration 0.01 M with a
potentiometric control of the constant ligand-to-metal ratio (Grygar
et al., 2009). A fine dry powder (100–500 mg) was placed in a 50 ml
beaker,wetted and then suspendedby stirringin 5 mLof distilled water;
then 5 mL 0.01 M Cu-trien solution was added, and the suspension
stirred for a further 5 min using a magnetic stirrer. The suspension was
then filtered into a 50 mL flask and the solid washed with several
aliquots of distilled water, and the final volume of the filtrate made to
50 mL. The solutions were analyzed by AAS (Cu and Mg) and AES (Ca
and Na). The sample weight for analysis was adjusted depending on its
actual CEC to consume about 50% of [Cu(trien)]2+
using the routine
described by Grygar et al. (2009).
2.6. Magnetic susceptibility (MS)
MS of samples from 5 sections was measured using Kappabridge
KLY-2 (Agico Brno) operating with magnetic field intensity of 300 A/m
and frequency of 920 Hz. Raw data were recalculated to mass-specific
MS expressed in m3
/kg, the mass of each sample was 20 to 50 g.
2.7. Particle size fractionation
Particle size fractionation was performed using sedimentation
method ISO 11277:1998.
2.8. Particle size distribution function (PSDF)
Particle size distribution was established using a Malvern
Mastersizer 2000. Samples of air dried and roughly crushed sediments
were gently disaggregated and dispersed in de-ionized water. Organic
matter was removed by addition of hydrogen peroxide accompanied
by gentle warming at 40 °C until effervescence stopped. The
supernatant was removed after centrifugation and the sample rinsed
with two changes of deionised water. Samples were then rehomogenised
in a minimum of water using a whirlymixer and then
sub-sampled for particle size analysis. Two sub-samples were taken
from each sample and analysed sequentially, the graphs presented are
the mean of the two measurements.
2.9. ICP/MS including Pb isotopic analysis
The sediments were mineralized (dry ashed) in a Linn (Germany)
programmable furnace at final temperature 450 °C. The residues were
subsequently dampened with deionized water, dissolved in HF and
HClO4 and evaporated (twice), then the residue was dissolved in
diluted nitric acid and the solutions transferred to volumetric flasks.
The metal contents were determined using inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometry (ICP/MS, X Series 2, ThermoScientific).
The Pb isotopic composition (ratios 206
Pb/207
Pb and 208
Pb/206
Pb) was
measured by diluting the solutions to a concentration of <20 μg/L,
and a correction for mass bias was performed using SRM 981
(Common Lead, NIST, USA). The detailed instrument parameters are
given elsewhere (Ettler et al., 2004). Mean r.s.d. of the 206
Pb/207
Pb and
208
Pb/206
Pb ratio analyses was 0.2%.
2.10. X-ray fluorescence analysis (EDXRF)
The analysis was performed with a PANalytical MiniPal4.0
spectrometer with Peltier-cooled silicon drift energy dispersive
detector. The ground samples were analyzed after pouring into
measuring cells with a mylar foil bottom. Al and Si were analyzed
under He flow, the ratio of their raw signals was used for correlations.
The signals of Al, Cu, Pb, Ti, and Zn were calibrated using the results
derived from the analysis of a series of sediments by ICP/MS.
2.11. Xylotomy analysis
Identification of the woods remains was carried out using an
episcopic microscope. Fragments were broken manually to expose
transverse, tangential–longitudinal and radial–longitudinal sections.
Taxonomic determinations were made using published works on
wood anatomy (Jacquiot et al., 1973; Schweingruber, 1990).
Fig. 1. The development of the channel network of the Morava River in Strážnické Pomoraví according to historical and current maps (2nd Austrian Military Survey, 1841; 3rd
Austrian Military Survey, 1876; Topographical Map of the Czechoslovak Army, 1953–1955; Topographical maps of the Czech Republic, 2006–2007) and the actual channel network
and flood defence system. The current area of the city of Strážnice is plot in all maps.
Table 1
List of studied sections.
Locality Sections Former land use
(land cover)
Number of
14
C dates
Other analyses
Bridge to
Bzenec
M215 19th century: forest 1 MS, ICP/MS
1950's: orchard
Since 1960's: forest
M7 19th century: forest 3 (taken
from Kadlec
et al., 2009)
1950's: orchard
Since 1960's: forest
M127 19th century: forest no MS, particle size
fractionation,
micromorphology
1950's: arable land
Since 1980's: forest
Meadow
below
Sand
Depot
M134 19th century to 1960's:
forest
no
1980's: arable land
1990's: shrubs
M249 19th century to 1960's:
forest
no MS, ICP/MS
1980's: arable land
1990's: shrubs
Old Piles M110 19th and 20th century:
alterations between
meadow and arable land
(3 changes of land cover)
4 MS, ICP/MS,
particle size
distribution
function
Jasenová M107 19th century: forest 1 MS
1950's: arable land
Since 1980's: forest
M108 19th century: forest 1
1950's: arable land
Since 1980's: forest
Only 14
C date points from the last millennium relevant to this study are listed. CEC and
EDXRF analyses were performed for all sections; other performed analyses are listed in
the last column.
109T. Grygar et al. / Catena 80 (2010) 106–121
2.12. 14
C dating
Large fragments of wood (trunks, branches) were processed
according to the routine procedure entailing Acid/Alkali/Acid pretreatment,
combustion and benzene synthesis (Gupta and Polach 1985). The
resulting benzene was measured by a low-backgroundliquid scintillation
spectrometer (Quantulus 1220). For calibration, the International
Standard Certified Reference Material for Contemporary C-14, Oxalic
Acid NIST SRM 4990C was used (Schneider 1995). For a background
correction, commercially available benzene (Sigma-Aldrich, cat. No.
154628-1 L, benzene, 99+%, A.C.S.,spectrophotometric grade) was used.
The resulting conventional radiocarbon age and its uncertainty were
converted to an interval of calibrated age utilizing IntCal04 calibration
curve for terrestrial samples (Curie, 1995; Reimer et al., 2004).
Dating of small charcoal chips was performed by AMS in Poznań
Radiocarbon Laboratory (Poland) and calibrated using the OxCal program.
3. Results
3.1. Lithological, facial and micromorphological description of studied
sections
The list of sections included in this study together with methods
used to their analyses is shown in Table 1 and their positions are
depicted in Fig. 2. Floodplain deposits in the study area are moderately
to poorly sorted mixtures of components from fine clay to coarse sand
(Figs. 3 and 4). The coarse to fine ratio (C/F) strongly varies according
to the chosen coarse limit. Generally, when the lower coarse limit is
taken as 100 μm, the C/F ratio varies between 1:5 and 3:1.
Sedimentary facies were defined using terminology developed by
Cojan and Renard (1999, pp. 322–333), Bridge (2003, pp. 260–295),
and Houben (2007) on the basis of field observations, sedimentological,
pedological and micromorphological evaluation, and laboratory
analyses. The list of facies (Table 2) was obtained by comparison of
several sections and an “iterative” evaluation of laboratory analyses
using individual approach recommended by Houben (2007) to each
studied reach.
From the sequences observed in outcrops (concave banks of
meanders) during minimal river flows and material retrieved by the
Auger corer farther from the river channel, we focused on fine
overbank deposits consisting mostly of clay, silt, and minor fine sand
fractions. We avoided horizons containing mostly sandy material
through most of their thickness, i.e., we did not systematically study
the infill of abandoned channels and deposits on former point bars.
The fine-grained overbank sedimentary sequences, up to a thickness
of 5 m, lay mostly on early Holocene peat layers (Kadlec et al., 2009)
or on channel or point bar deposits older than about several thousand
years (e.g., in M127 section, Fig. 3).
The lithological development of the fine overbank deposits in
studied area is typical for meandering rivers (Bridge, 2003). The facies
Fig. 2. Map of the Morava River catchment (map at top) with the Strážnické Pomoraví area (black rectangle) with the position of studied sections. Legend: 1 current and 2 abandoned
channels within the maximal area of the floodplain (altitude below ~165 m.a.s.l.), 3 eolian sand body, 4 Late and Middle Pleistocene alluvial fans, 5 towns, 6 positions and labels of
studied sections.
110 T. Grygar et al. / Catena 80 (2010) 106–121
assignment is supported by the size distribution analyses of sections
M127 (Fig. 3) and M110 (Fig. 4). The sedimentary sequence observed
in section M127 commences with the fining-upward sandy fill of an
abandoned channel or point bar. These coarse sand deposits are
overlain by massive sands intercalated with silty layers. The central
part of section M127 as well as many other studied sedimentary
sequences, is 1–3 m thick and consists mostly of silty–clayey material
with <20% fine sand and <10% medium and coarse sand, we consider
this to reflect distal or proximal floodplain deposition (the further
discrimination is given below). This sedimentary unit always displays
signs of gleying with rhizoconcretions and centimetre-sized Fe oxide
stains, mostly along desiccation cracks, and it usually has a coarse
angular structure. Macromorphologically these stains are Fe,Mnoxide
segregations and hypocoatings. Along these segregations and
channels with hypocoatings, depletion features are visible representing
the fact that solutions rich in Fe and Mn were transported quite
short distances, i.e. on millimetre scale. No dusty or clayey void
coatings were observed. Material in this horizon usually has a massive
to channel microstructure and a C/F ratio, with the threshold set at
50 μm, varying from 1:1 to 1:2. The upper 1.4 m thick layer of the
M127 section has a coarser grain size, dominated by coarse silt and
fine sand and with the sum of medium and fine sand totalling about
40%. A C/F ratio of 3:1, with the threshold limit of 200 μm, represents
more sandy and unsorted material, but this horizon also contains
material with a C/F ratio of 1:1 using a threshold of 50 μm. Samples
dominated by coarse-silt to fine-sand fractions can be assigned to the
transition from proximal floodplain to levee deposits. Material of this
horizon is micromorphologically characterised by the presence of
increased bioturbation by roots, redeposited soil fabric fragments, the
presence of Fe,Mn-oxides' as well as depletion features. Importantly,
there is no visible clay redeposition and segregation as a channel
coating. The uppermost parts of sedimentary sequences commonly
contain 10–30 cm thick layers covering the buried A horizons perhaps
related to agricultural activities. Typical features are bioturbation, the
presence of decomposed organic matter, fragments of roots, charcoal,
redeposited Fe,Mn-oxide nodules and soil fabric fragments.
The finest grained deposits are assigned to the distal floodplain
(backswamp) facies. These are best documented in the central part of
section M110. The particle size distribution function of the finest
deposits in this section displays the highest proportion of clay-sized
material (Fig. 4).
Wood fragments suitable to 14
C dating comprised parts of trunks
or branches of ash tree or oak. Tree roots were excluded from dating.
The wood fragments most commonly occur in the top of clayey layers,
in the fining upward abandoned channel deposits, and rather
exceptionally in the distal floodplain facies. Charcoal samples are
mostly found in deposits with a prevailing fine fraction. The more
porous, silty proximal floodplain and sandy levee deposits are usually
very poor in fossil wood fragments and charcoal, probably because of
oxidative degradation or removal by floods, this substantially hinders
their dating and correlation and became a motivation for our
chemostratigraphic correlation approach. While 14
C dating of the
lower parts of the overbank fines can be used to achieve correlation,
proxies of industrial anthropogenic pollution were used in their upper
parts.
3.2. Geochemical proxy analyses and magnetic susceptibility
Several analytical methods were used to aid interpretation of the
large sample series and to increase the number of correlatable sections.
To interpret and validate the so obtained proxies, we compared them
withtheresults of well established quantitative methods and performed
a regression analysis, which is summarized in Table 3. The most
significant correlation is that between CEC and % clay fraction.
Correlation of the EDXRF signal of Al/Si and EDXRF signal of Rb with
the percentage of the clay fraction are also highly significant.
Fig. 3. Characteristics of section M127 with particle size distribution. A: results of particle size fractionation. B: section description, 1 dark brown A horizon (ploughed), 2 light brown
soil with coarse polyedric structure, 3 light grey layer with about 1 mm black nodules and about 1 cm rusty stains, 4 grey gleyed layer with up to 0.5 cm rusty stains, 5 grey sand layer
with massive grey silty lenses and fossil wood fragments. C: 14
C dates of three wood fragments. D: CEC values. E: particle size distribution functions in selected depths.
111T. Grygar et al. / Catena 80 (2010) 106–121
Preparation and analysis by ICP/MS of a selection of samples enabled the
production of calibration lines for lead, titanium and zinc using the
EDXRF. We used EDXRF for the majority of measurements because it
offers the advantage (over ICP-MS) of a simple, rapid drying and
grinding pre-treatment.
The depth of industrially polluted deposits is readily identified
from the depth profiles of aluminium-normalised Pb and Zn
concentrations, Pb isotopic analysis, and magnetic susceptibility
(MS) measurements, as can be seen for 3 sections in Fig. 5. Cu
depth profiles (not shown) are very similar to those of Pb and Zn.
Heavy metal concentrations were normalized to Al, because it is
considered an immobile lithogenic element which is not expected to
be anthropogenically affected (Al was also used for the normalization ,
e.g., by Desenfant et al., 2004; Ettler et al., 2006; and Pasternack and
Brown, 2006). The Pb isotopic composition is a very useful tracer of
modern industrial pollution (e.g., Novák et al., 2003; Ettler et al.,
2004), because common lithogenic Pb in central Europe has a lower
abundance of the lighter Pb isotopes, particularly 206
Pb than Pb from
coal burning and leaded gasoline. Komárek et al. (2008) gave typical
206
Pb/207
Pb values about 1.19–1.22 for Central European natural Pb,
1.18–1.20 for Pb from coal combustion, and 1.12–1.16 for European
leaded gasoline. In M215, M219, and M249, 206
Pb/207
Pb ratios of
contaminated sediments were 0.189 (σ=0.002), 1.191 (σ=0.001),
and 0.188 (σ=0.002), respectively, while the underlying unpolluted
sediment in these three sections had mean 206
Pb/207
Pb values 1.200
(σ=0.003). Although the change is not dramatic, it is statistically
significant. 206
Pb/207
Pb and 208
Pb/206
Pb ratios are linearly dependent
in the studied sediments.
Fig. 4. Characteristics of section M110. A: section description, 1 brown silty sediment with sandy layers and inclusions, 2 brown silty or clayey gleyed material with sand inclusions at
top and rhizoconcretions and their pseudomorphs at bottom, 3 mostly anoxic, plastic, unsorted grey sediment with substantial sand component. B: the position of wood fragments
with their age obtained by 14
C dating. C: CEC log of the section. D: particle.
Table 2
Facies description used in this work and “adjusted” for the deposits of the actual studied site.
Facies Spatial position Lithology Structure CEC
Channel sands Bottom parts of profiles, occasionally
within proximal floodplain deposits
Coarse sand, sometimes with fine gravel Non-laminated, sometimes with gravel layers <0.02
Deposits of point
bars
Usually on channel sands Sand layers, silt layers Usually laminated (cm to dm scale) <0.05
Distal floodplain
sediments
Upward fining of underlying channel
sands or point bar deposits
Comparable percentages of
clay and silt fractions
Non-laminated, coarse prismatic soil structures >0.12
Proximal floodplain
sediments
Upward coarsening of underlying
distal floodplain deposits
Silt fraction larger than clay fraction,
minor fine sand
Non-laminated, occasional layers or inclusions
of fine sand (mm or cm scale), coarse polyedric
soil structure
0.08–0.12
Levee deposits Topmost layers in outcrops of the
current banks
Mainly silt and fine sand fractions Usually alterations of silt and thin sand layers,
fine polyedric soil structure
0.04–0.07
CEC values in mmol [Cu(trien)2+
] given as mean values for the given facies.
112 T. Grygar et al. / Catena 80 (2010) 106–121
There is also a minor increase in Pb concentration and a change in
the Pb isotopic composition in the Morava River floodplain deposits
preceding the major “step” at the top of this minor, and presumably
earlier variation is indicated by grey arrows in Fig. 5. It could be caused
by a downward movement of Pb ions (Hudson-Edwards et al., 1998;
Fernandez et al., 2008) or indicate minor Pb contamination preceding
the significant (industrial) increase.
3.3. Proxies based on cation exchange capacity
Cation exchange capacity (CEC) of expandable clay minerals in the
sediments was determined by [Cu(trien)]2+
method (Meier and Kahr,
1999), which has recently been successfully tested and used in the
analysis of the floodplain deposits (Kadlec et al., 2009; Grygar et al.,
2009). To interpret the CEC value of the samples in conventional
sedimentological terms, we performed detailed mineralogical and
granulometric analyses of selected sediment samples. We separated
the clay fractions in 11 samples from the M127 section and subjected
them to conventional XRD phase identification and CEC determination,
producing a specific CEC of the clay fraction (Table 4). XRD of the
clay fraction showed that disordered (R0) mixed-layer illite–smectite
(with about 50% expandable layers) is the major component, while
illite and kaolinite are present at smaller concentrations (Table 4).
Depth changes in the % basal diffraction of illite–smectite and CEC of
the clay are negligible, showing that the mineralogical composition of
the clay fraction is independent of the depth (or age of the sediments).
This evaluation is in agreement with the observation that CEC can be
used to determine the percentage of clay present using linear
regression (Table 3). The regression line of that dependence (with
statistically insignificant constant) is:
%clay fraction ð< 2μmÞ = 0:6628⋅CEC; r
2
= 0:86
where CEC is the consumption of [Cu(trien)]2+
in mmol/g.
Another parameter derived from determination of the cation
exchange capacity is the Mg/Ca ratio of the exchangeable/soluble
fraction. We have already described a very specific Mg/Ca depth
profile common in the floodplain deposits in Strážnické Pomoraví
(Kadlec et al. 2009, Grygar et al. 2009). Similar depth profiles were
obtained in the sections described in this paper (Figs. 6 and 7). We
evaluated the correlation of the Mg/Ca ratio with CEC (clay fraction
content) and the sample depth, comparing the upper 350 cm of
8 sections. Mg/Ca ratio was statistically weakly dependent on CEC
(r=0.4702, 349 points) but it was statistically significantly dependent
on the sample depth (r=0.7945, 349 points). The Mg/Ca ratio is
hence not primarily derived from sediment lithology, but it is
somehow related to the “history” of the sediments.
The general trend found in sedimentary sections is that the Mg/Ca
ratio decreases from values around ~0.2 at depths of about 250–350 cm
to 0.10–0.15 at the uppermost 50–100 cm, as shown, for example, in
Figs. 6 and 7. In agreement with our previous reports (Kadlec et al.,
2009; Grygar et al., 2009) we consider the Mg/Ca ratio in the
exchangeable/soluble fraction to be very efficient in inter-correlation
of the individual sections of floodplain deposits (Fig. 7, panel B).
To exclude some spatial bias in the Mg/Ca ratio of floodplain
deposits, we analyzed sediments along a 180 m long transect (M234;
Fig. 2) which covers the top layers of a point bar, covered by sparse
willows and herbs, through shrubs dominated by Acer negundo and
Salix sp., to the edge of a Fraxinus sp. forest at the level of floodplain
(total height difference of about 4 m). We found that the Mg/Ca ratio
in the top soil layers (Fig. 6) is not dependent on the distance of the
site from the channel, because all Mg/Ca values in the top layer of the
M234 transect were in the interval 0.09 to 0.15, i.e. within the same
range as the top sediments collected from river banks. Additionally, a
similar depth trend in the Mg/Ca ratio as in the sections was also
found in cores drilled several hundred metres away from the river
channel, i.e., outside the range of levee deposits (as demonstrated by
core M129 in Fig. 6).
The mean Mg/Ca ratio of water derived from the Morava River (3
samples) is 0.25; this is similar to Mg/Ca ratio of ~0.2, typical for
samples in sections of river banks at greater depths. It is also possible
that the higher Mg/Ca ratios found in the older (deeper) sediments
are due to their slow cation exchange with groundwater derived from
the Morava River. If this was the case, the Mg/Ca increase with depth
would indicate longer residence of the deeper material in the
floodplain.
3.4. Facies description using geochemical proxies
As shown in Table 3, CEC, Rb abundance and the ratio of Al/Si
signals from the EDXRF are useful proxies for the abundance of clay
fraction material in the sediments. The Si signal of EDXRF is best
correlated with the coarse sand fraction (0.25–2 mm), i.e. coarse
quartz grains. Variation in the grain size distribution within all studied
sections can hence be tracked by the results of geochemical analyses
with a high sampling density.
Depth changes in CEC can be used as a sensitive indicator of sand
intercalations, which cause sharp minima in CEC/depth profiles (see
Table 3
Correlations used to interpret and calibrate geochemical proxies.
Proxy (method) Correlation/calibration analysis Sections used to correlation Regression coefficient r
(number of experimental points)
Proxy interpretation
CEC (Cu[trien]2+
) Percentage of fraction below 2 μm M127 0.9318 Clay fraction percentage
(46)
Al/Si ratio of signals (EDXRF) Percentage of fraction below 2 μm M127 0.8575 Clay fraction percentage
(46)
Rb signal (EDXRF) Percentage of fraction below 2 μm M127 0.8319 Clay fraction percentage
(46)
Ti signal (EDXRF) Percentage of fraction 2–50 μm M127 0.8071 Silt fraction percentage
(43)
Al signal (EDXRF) Al content (ICP/MS) M215, M249 0.8647 Al percentage
(87)
Ti signal (EDXRF) Ti content by ICP/MS M215, M110, M249 0.8941 Ti percentage
(144)
Zn signal (EDXRF) Zn content (ICP/MS) M215, M110, M249 0.9297 Zn percentage
(144)
Cu signal (EDXRF) Cu content (ICP/MS) M215, M110, M249 0.7485 Cu percentage
(143)
Pb signal (EDXRF) Pb content (ICP/MS) M215, M249 0.8166 Pb percentage
(87)
113T. Grygar et al. / Catena 80 (2010) 106–121
114 T. Grygar et al. / Catena 80 (2010) 106–121
also in Kadlec et al., 2009), but CEC also visualizes stepwise
lithological changes development (gradation) within the units of
fine overbank floodplain deposits. CEC maxima within units interpreted
as distal or proximal floodplain deposits correspond to maxima
of clay (<5 μm) and fine silt (<20 μm) fractions, while simple
increases in the coarseness of the silt fraction in upward coarsening
sequences of distal to proximal floodplain deposits is identified by a
decrease in CEC values (Figs. 3 and 4).
A combination of the lithological description and appearance of
the sediments with their CEC makes it possible to propose a facies
assignment (Table 2). Sediments with a high proportion of clay grade
material, considered to be distal floodplain sediments (e.g., in the
middle of the section M110), have CEC values higher than about
0.13 mmol [Cu(trien)]2+
/g, and in some exceptional cases the CEC of
the finest sediments is up to 0.16 mmol [Cu(trien)]2+
/g. The
sediments with approximately equal proportions of clay and fine silt
fractions, and minor percentage of fine sand, are considered to be
proximal floodplain sediments, and have CEC values in the range
about 0.08–0.12 mmol [Cu(trien)]2+
/g. Sediments with CEC values
<0.07 always have a significant or even a dominant proportion of
coarse silt and/or sand and are considered to be proximal floodplain
sediments intercalated with some levee deposits. Levee deposits, the
coarsest uppermost sediments, have a CEC of about 0.05 mmol [Cu
(trien)]2+
/g. This sediment sorting, dependent on the distance of the
point of deposition from the channel, is typical for floodplains, where
the finest particles are deposited over the entire flooded area, while
coarser fraction is preferentially settled out closer to the channel
(Bridge, 2003). The above described interpretation of the CEC values
in the terms of facies is only valid for this particular site in the Morava
River floodplain, for which it was “calibrated” by the conventional
methods discussed above.
3.5. Lateral stability of the sections
In some localities (such as Bridge to Bzenec) the lateral stability of
facies is good at a hundred-metre scale (Fig. 7), while in others (e.g., such
as Old Piles) a few metres deep and about 10 m wide palaeochannels are
found in the outcrops in close proximity to continuous outcrops of
overbank fines. The lateral continuity of outcrops is important to ensure
that the chosen sections are representative prior to extending
chemostratigraphic correlation and 14
C dating to other sections. The
sections shown in Fig. 7 are a few hundred metres apart; section M219 is
the furthest upstream, M7 is 200 m downstream of M219 and M127
~400 m downstream of M219 (Fig. 2).
The chemostratigraphic correlation lines for the Bridge to Bzenec
location are identified by grey areas in Fig. 7. The topmost layers of the
section M127 are thinner, as would be expected from correlation lines
1, 2, and 3, which correspond to industrially polluted layers, the Mg/Ca
ratio change, and upward coarsening, respectively. The variable
thickness of the industrially polluted layer is probably due to different
land use (land cover) in these sections (Table 1). The silt fraction
minimum (line 5, clay fraction maximum, distal floodplain sedimentation)
within section M127 is at a correspondingly shallower depth.
The thickness of proximal to distal floodplain deposits (sediments
between lines 3 and 4) is similar in all three sections, implying a similar
depositional rate for this unit. The facies development at depths
greater than that indicated by line 4 is very different; either the
development within the three sections was different due to a different
channel position before the Middle Ages, or there is a depositional
hiatus in the bottom part of at least two of the three studied sections.
The poorer correlation of older deposits is a common consequence of
the aggradation dynamics of a meandering river.
3.6. Correlation of sections along the studied meander belt
The lithological development recorded in the eight studied
sections can be approximately correlated in their central and
upper parts, covering in 3–4 m the last 500–1200 years. This
correlation is based on the genetic relationship between the studied
sections, which seem to belong to a single meander belt. The
location of all studied sections along a single river channel is also
apparent from the available maps as discussed above. The timing of
the beginning of the coarsening upwards fillings of the abandoned
channels (at the base of the sequences of overbank fines) cannot be
correlated, because available data are scattered from about 5 to 2 ky
BP. The correlation of sedimentation in the sections studied is shown
in Fig. 8. Five sections from three localities are displayed, in each of
them at least one 14
C date of wood fragments or charcoals was
determined, which, together with the date point, of approximately
1900 AD derived from the start of the industrially polluted layer —
produced five age-depth models.
There are three periods indicated in the sections by grey areas,
where some major changes of depositional facies occurred. These
changes in individual sections do not always display the same pattern,
but they are notably coincident. The start of gradual upward coarsening
at ~1200 AD in sections M215, M7, M110, and M107 could indicate the
beginning of the gradual approach of the river channel towards these
sites. The sediments deposited at ~1600 AD are unusually coarse in the
studied sections, and these sediments only briefly fined upward in
sections M107 and M110. The final coarsening after 1900 AD is
probably due to a combination of the floodplain narrowing due to the
construction of flood defences and also an artefact of the substantial
accumulation of levee deposits in the studied sections.
Fig. 5. Proxies of industrial pollution in three studied sections. Pb/Al and Zn/Al ratios and Pb isotopic composition obtained by ICP/MS. MS (the right panels) is mass-specific magnetic
susceptibility. Grey rectangles indicate industrially polluted top sediments. Grey arrows point to possible increase in Pb concentration and changed isotopic composition before the
major change of these parameters.
Table 4
Percentage and characteristics of clay fraction of floodplain deposits from section M127.
Depth
[cm]
Sedimentary
facies
% clay fraction
(<2 μm) a
% basal diffraction
of illite–smectite b
CECc
[meq/100 g]
10 Proximal floodplain/
levee sediments
13 83 0.205
30 Proximal floodplain/
levee sediments
14 81 0.212
70 Proximal floodplain/
levee sediments
16 90 0.214
110 Sandy intercalation 13 90 0.219
150 Distal/proximal
floodplain sediments
31 93 0.212
190 Distal/proximal
floodplain sediments
30 92 0.232
230 Distal/proximal
floodplain sediments
32 94 0.251
270 Distal floodplain
sediments
31 95 0.263
330 Distal floodplain
sediments
29 95 0.250
360 Abandoned channel
sediments
20 95 0.251
440 Abandoned channel
sediments
15 94 0.202
a
Obtained by size fractionation according to ISO 11277:1998.
b
Analysis of clay fraction separated according to Tanner and Jackson (1948), the area
of basal diffraction of illite–smectite (diffraction maximum d between 13.6 and 14.7 Å)
to sum of the areas of basal diffractions of illite–smectites plus micas plus kaolinite.
c
CEC in mmol [Cu(trien)]2+
obtained with the clay fraction (<2 μm) separated
according to Tanner and Jackson (1948).
115T. Grygar et al. / Catena 80 (2010) 106–121
Fig. 6. Mg/Ca in the transect M234 (superficial sampling from the point bar level to the floodplain level) and core M129 (about 200 m far from the river channel). Bar plots show Mg/Ca dependence on the sampling depth.
116T.Grygaretal./Catena80(2010)106–121
Fig. 7. Lateral stability of three sections in the locality “Bridge to Bzenec” using several chemostratigraphic and lithologic markers. A: the depth of industrially polluted sediments (Pb/
Al ratio by EDXRF). B: the inflex point of Mg/Ca ratio in exchangeable/soluble fraction. C: CEC values with selected 14
C dates of wood fragments and charcoals. D: Ti/Al minimum, a
proxy of silt minimum content (finest sediments of distal floodplain).
117T. Grygar et al. / Catena 80 (2010) 106–121
4. Discussion
4.1. Use of proxy analyses to facilitate sediment description
and correlation
In the studied floodplain deposits we found that CEC values can be
used as a proxy for the percentage of clay fraction, which in turn can
be used in the assignment of sediment facies. Micromorphological
study confirmed that clay horizons or more clayey areas were due to
primary sedimentation and that clay redeposition caused by pedogenetic
processes is only microscopic (at millimetre scale). If the use of
CEC logs is combined with visual sediment examination, it can be used
as a substitute for more demanding size fractionation or analysis and
allows rapid comparison of data from numerous sections. EDXRF and
CEC needs only sample homogenization and grinding, the former
method is non-destructive and the latter has sample consumption of
up to 0.5 g; each analysis takes several minutes of laboratory work if
large sample numbers are routinely processed. The efficiency and low
sample consumption are very useful features in checking the lateral
stability of the sediments in the studied sites by enabling high density
sampling of more sections. Subjective visual evaluation of sediment
lithology in the field is seriously hindered by the highly variable
degree of gleying, variable development of soil structure, and medium
to poor sorting of the overbank fines. The quantitative output of the
proxy methods offers a possibility to objectively identify gradation
within each sediment subunit (facies).
As shown by the depth profiles in the majority of the studied
sections, the Mg/Ca ratio of the exchangeable/soluble fraction has an
additional control be it the age of the material deposition, or the time
period over which the sediment was subjected to local pedogenesis in
the floodplain, or equilibration with groundwater. Our current
knowledge is insufficient to discriminate between these hypotheses,
but this fact is not essential for correlation purposes. In the sections
with a reliable age model, the inflex of the Mg/Ca gradient is centred
between 50 cm and 150 cm depth, or in 18th century AD (the letter
assignment has a much better consistency). Interpretation of this
gradient will be the subject of our further study.
4.2. Chemostratigraphy based on industrial pollution
We had expected individual heavy metals and magnetic particles to
display different depth profiles because of their use in different
anthropogenic applications (such as corrosion inhibitors, pigments).
However, on examination, the individual proxies of the industrial
pollution are strongly correlated, i.e. the sharp changes of MS and Zn
concentration occurred at practically the same depths in a given section
(Fig. 5). The significant increase in Pb concentration and the major
change in its isotopic composition also coincide with an increase in MS
and Zn levels. This co-variance is in agreement with the results obtained
in several previous European studies: in a small watershed of the Arc
River in southern France, polluted by fly ash, linked contamination by
magnetic particles, Pb and Zn was found by Desenfant et al. (2004).
Likewise, a correlation between Cu, Zn, and MS results in riverbed
sediments was reported in the Vltava River (Moldau River) in the
western part of Czech Republic by Knab et al. (2006).
The estimated age of the industrially polluted deposits in the
studied area (grey areas in Fig. 5) can be based on the interpolation of
14
C dates, an assumption of a recent deposition of the topmost
sediments, and relatively a stable mean depositional rate at the measured
section. The last assumption causes the exclusion of sections
with thick sandy intercalations in proximal floodplain deposits and/or
thick levee deposits on their top. Measured sections meeting the
criteria for the interpolation are summarized in Table 5. The mean of
the three listed interpolated dates for the lower boundary of the
polluted layer is 1910 AD.
Anthropogenic pollution of the topmost floodplain deposits in the
study area is probably related to coal combustion and perhaps other
industrial processes in the Morava River watershed and, as such, the
scheme is generally valid for the Czech Republic (Novák et al., 2003).
The recording of elevated concentrations of heavy metals related to
the industrial pollution is commonly noted in study of sediment
archives (e.g., Swennen and Van der Sluys, 2002; Novák et al., 2003;
Ettler et al., 2004; 2006; Pasternack and Brown, 2006). The reliable
Fig. 8. The depth profiles of CEC in the sections with age models. Three synchronous lithological changes are indicated by grey areas.
Table 5
Interpolated dates of bottom of Pb polluted layer in selected sections.
Section Age model
(number of 14C
dating points)
Locality Depth of Pb
polluted layer
[cm]
Interpolated
date
S1 3 (taken from
Kadlec et al., 2009)
Bridge to
Bzenec
30 1910
M110 3 Old Piles 40 1890
M108 1 Jasenová 30 1940
118 T. Grygar et al. / Catena 80 (2010) 106–121
identification of the depth profiles of the pollutants may be limited by
the weathering of the original contaminant particles and the
mobilization of their ions (Hudson-Edwards et al., 1998). This
chemical mobilization may be very important in the case of metal
sulphide contaminations from historical mining, which considerably
decreases pH during their oxidative weathering, and consequently
highly mobile free ions are formed (Hudson-Edwards et al., 1998).
This is probably not the case in the study area where there are no
nearby sources of pollution due to historical or current mining or
metal smelting and the pollution probably originates from more
remote, global sources. Swennen and Van der Sluys (2002) are rather
optimistic with respect to the post-depositional stability of industrial
polluted fluvial deposits. The outcrops in Strážnické Pomoraví do not
bear signs of systematic translocations of soil particles (illimerization),
however, special attention must be paid to the levee deposits
and sandy intercalations wherever they are present in the top layers
and where metal contamination is observed. The downward particle
transport through permeable, coarse sediments in sandy or gravelly
river alluvia was observed, e.g., by Cieszewski et al. (2008). Ploughing
and bioturbation are also responsible for some downward transport of
the atmospherically derived contaminants (Fernandez et al., 2008).
The effects blurring the actual lower boundary of the industrial
pollution in the measured sections could be responsible for about a
decimetre-scale inaccuracy, which is not a significant problem in the
studied sections where the depth of industrially polluted layers
ranges from 0.3 to 1 m. In spite of all these uncertainties, the lack of
reliable dating techniques for the last 100 y makes the industrial
pollution an invaluable chemostratigraphic tool for the studied
sections.
The pollution of the Morava River watershed by the fallout of fly
ash from coal combustion is one possible explanation for the almost
step-like growth of heavy metals' and magnetic particles' concentrations
observed in sections at the depth of 30 to 100 cm in river banks
(Fig. 5). The increase of the magnetic susceptibility signal has
previously been attributed to the redeposition of less weathered soil
material from intensified agricultural activities since the 1950's
(Kadlec et al., 2009). The coincidence of its growth with the growth
of heavy metal concentration and Pb isotopic composition can also
imply another explanation, such as the contamination of the
sediments by fly ash from coal combustion. Such an association of
magnetic carriers and heavy metals was experimentally demonstrated
in case studies in the Czech Republic by Kapička et al. (1999) and
France (Desenfant et al., 2004).
The sharp changes in Pb concentration and isotopic composition
observed in the Morava River floodplain sequences closely resemble
the observation in sediments of Lake Constance in Switzerland where
these signatures started to change around 1900 AD, a pattern that was
again attributed to the coal combustion (Kober et al., 1999). Similarly
in the Czech Republic, coal combustion was the most important
source of atmospheric lead; the first steep growth of coal mining,
associated with modern industrialization of Czech lands started at
~1900 and a second growth peak of coal mining followed in the 1950's
(Novák et al., 2003). Previously we assigned the change in Pb isotopic
signature in the floodplain deposits in Strážnické Pomoraví exclusively
to the introduction of leaded gasoline (Kadlec et al., 2009). It is,
however, not easy to distinguish the influences of leaded gasoline and
coal combustion only from Pb isotopic signatures (Komárek et al.,
2008).
4.3. The depositional rates in current floodplain in Strážnické Pomoraví
The depositional rate (aggradation plus lateral accretion) is a very
important factor describing the floodplain when an anthropogenic
influence is suspected to affect the behaviour of a river or floodplain.
In many recent studies, a reported increase of aggradation rates in
floodplains has been assigned to an intensification of land use,
especially deforestation and ploughing. Such a straightforward
relationship seems justified for small watersheds, especially where
colluviation and enhanced direct localized erosion can be relevant
(e.g., de Moor et al., 2008), but it may be oversimplified in the
floodplains of rivers with a large watershed, where the transport of
the material from soil erosion to the floodplains of the trunk rivers is
delayed in temporal sinks in the higher order valleys (e.g., Lang et al.,
2003; Kalicki et al., 2008).
Calculation of the mean depositional rate in Strážnické Pomoraví is
hindered by two facts. Firstly, the deposition rate of the topmost
sediments in the studied area was probably affected by past changes
in land use, flood defence building in Strážnické Pomoraví, and
channelization of the river upstream during the 20th century.
Evaluation of the depositional rate during the last century would
require a much more detailed study than is the scope of this paper.
The second limitation is the lack of the recent dating points caused by
Table 6
Mean depositional rates of fine overbank deposits in the studied area.
14
C age BP Calendar age Depositional rate [cm·y− 1
]
(time interval)
Sediment character
M107, 90 cm 1900 0.26 (1140–1900) Mostly clayey, distal floodplain
M 107, 280 cm 8062 901±81 1012 – 1268 (94)
M107-280, Poz-29491 815±30 1169 – 1269 (95)
M108, 35 cm 1900 0.55 (1535–1900) Mostly silty, proximal floodplain
M 108, 210-260 cm, 8063 389±80 1408 – 1661 (95)
M110, 40 cm 1900 0.42 (1570–1900) Upward coarsening, silty, proximal
floodplain deposits to leveeM110, 178 cm, 8057 273±81 1446 – 1696 (70),
1725 – 1814 (17),
1917 – 1952 (6)
220 cm, 8066 205±80 1515 – 1598 (11%),
1617 – 1953 (84%)
DATUM NOT USED
250 cm, 8065 672±82 1213 – 1426 (95) 0.20 (720–1320) Clayey, distal floodplain sediments
370 cm, 8064 1343±83 556 – 884 (95%)
M215, 90 cm 1900 0.24 (1126–1900) Upward coarsening from silty to sandy
M215-290, Poz-29494 900±30 1040–1211 (95)
M7 taken from Kadlec
et al., 2009
0.36 (1123–1900) Upward coarsening silty, proximal
floodplain to levee
The depositional rate of the deposits from the last century was not evaluated because of a highly variable proportion of levee deposits in the top of the sections.
119T. Grygar et al. / Catena 80 (2010) 106–121
the equivocality of the radiocarbon calibration curve between 1620
and 1955 AD. The latter problem is partly solved by using the proxies
of the industrial pollution, which indicate the sediments deposited
after ~1900 AD.
The mean depositional rates in Table 6 were calculated by linear
regression using the age of 1900 AD of the bottom of the industrially
polluted sediments and 14
C date points from the deeper parts of the
sections. A facies control on the mean depositional rate is quite clear: the
lowest deposition rates (0.2 to 0.3 cm y−1
) are typical for distal
floodplain sediments (middle, mostly clay (lower part of section M110,
mean CEC 0.12 mmol [Cu(trien)]2+
/g) or upward coarsening clayey
sediments grading from distal to proximal floodplain deposits (central
parts of sections M7, M107, and M215). The sedimentation rates in
section M108 and the upper part of section M110, both with much
coarser sediments of proximal floodplain to levee deposits (CEC~0.09 mmol
[Cu(trien)]2+
/g) was 0.55 and 0.42 cm y−1
, respectively. This
dependence should be taken intoaccount when mean aggradation rate of
floodplains is to be evaluated from large sets of depth-age profiles.
In our previous study (Kadlec et al., 2009) we found a pronounced
change in the nature of the sediment, centred on the 16th century,
where a shift from more clayey deposits, assigned here to distal
floodplain sediments, to more silty deposits, assigned here to proximal
floodplain deposits occurred. The current results (Figs. 3, 4, and 8)
confirm that substantial lithological (facial) changes occurred in that
period in the floodplain part under investigation. The current age
model now permits the identification of three simultaneous changes in
depositional conditions in four sections from three localities (Fig. 8):
one at ~1200 AD, another at ~1600 AD, and the last at ~1900 AD.
The sediment coarsening at ~1600 AD in sections M7 and M110
indicated in Fig. 8 is within the uncertainty of the sediment dating
coincident with the sediment coarsening during the 16th century, as
reported previously (Kadlec et al., 2009), where one more locality was
also included (downstream from sections M107 and M108). For at
least the last two centuries all these sections belonged to the same
river branch (meander belt). The simultaneous coarsening of the
sediments in several sections from that branch allows proposing a
hypothesis that the proportion of water flowing through this branch
was enhanced in ~1600 AD at the expense of the branch which passed
through the vicinity of Strážnice and Petrov (Figs. 1 and 2). This is the
most straightforward interpretation reflecting the knowledge on the
dynamics of floodplain of meandering and aggrading rivers (Bridge,
2003). To discriminate between such a facies change and an assumed
general change in the nature of the sediments, as assumed previously
(Kadlec et al., 2009), further analyses will be needed to focus on
sections and cores from other areas of the Morava River floodplain,
including localities downstream from the current sites and also
sections and cores from parts of the river floodplain currently
separated from the active river branch by flood defences. This paper
presents and verifies tools and approaches suitable for such studies.
5. Conclusions
Geochemical proxies are very useful tools for the study of
sedimentary sequences comprised of aggrading meandering rivers
due to their ease of generation. The proxy methods were “calibrated”
using conventional analytical methods that allowed their interpretation
in lithological terms and permit the facies assignment to the
sediments. The chemostratigraphic correlation of floodplain horizons
with a heavy metal contamination helps to overcome two problems
when describing sediment sequences from the last century: firstly by
providing a date point of the onset of massive industrial pollution
(~1900 AD) into the interval of equivocality of the radiocarbon
calibration curve, and secondly by permitting identification of the top
layers most affected by river regulations and land use changes in the
20th century. The results of the study produced estimates of mean
depositional rates in Strážnické Pomoraví between ~1000 and
~1900 AD in several localities; the actual sedimentation rates depend
on the actual depositional facies.
Acknowledgments
The work would never have been performed without the
enthusiastic and inspiring work of Jaroslav Kadlec (Geological
Institute ASCR, Prague, Czech Republic). We also thank to Libor Petr
(Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic) and Anna Píšková
(Institute of Inorganic Chemistry ASCR, Řež, Czech Republic) for
their help in the field trips. Jana Dörflová, Petr Vorm, and Zuzana
Hájková (all three from the Institute of Inorganic Chemistry ASCR, Řež,
Czech Republic) substantially contributed by processing and laboratory
analyses (CEC and EDXRF) of many hundred samples. The work
was funded by project IAAX00130801 (Grant Agency of the Academy
of Sciences of Czech Republic) and the EDXRF analyses by the project
AV0Z4032918.
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88
89
5.3. Eolické procesy
Lisá, L., Buriánek D., Uher P. (2009): New approach to garnet redistribution during aeolian
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90
Geological Quarterly, 2009, 53 (3): 333–340
New approach to garnet redistribution during aeolian transport
Lenka LISÁ, David BURIÁNEK and Pavel UHER
Lisá L., Buriánek D. and Uher P. (2009) — New approach to garnet redistribution during aeolian transport. Geol. Quart., 53 (3):
333–340. Warszawa.
Garnet composition within Late Pleistocene (Weichselian) loess and loess-like deposits was studied in 13 samples of sediment heavy
mineral fractions from Moravia and Silesia (Czech Republic). Four areas differing in garnet chemistry were identified, and some regional
trends in garnet composition changes were documented. The data obtained support the generally accepted conclusion of prevailing westerly
winds during Weichselian loess deposition. Metamorphic rocks of the Bohemian Massif together with contributions from igneous
(mainly granitic) and sedimentary rocks were indicated as a source for the Weichselian loess and loess-like deposits studied. Local differences
in garnet composition depend on the basement source rocks, on prevailing wind direction, on regional geomorphology and on
transport distance.
Lenka Lisá, Institute of Geology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Rozvojová 135, 165 02 Praha 6, Czech Republic, e-mail:
lisa@gli.cas.cz; David Buriánek, Czech Geological Survey, Leitnerova 2, Brno 602 00, Czech Republic, e-mail: burianek@cgu.cz;
Pavel Uher, Department of Mineral Deposits, Comenius University, Mlynská dolina, 842 15 Bratislava, Slovakia, e-mail:
puher@fns.uniba.sk (received: September 24, 2008; accepted: April 04, 2009).
Key words: Weichselian, Pleistocene, Czech Republic, aeolian sediments, garnet composition, provenance.
INTRODUCTION
The wide compositional range of garnets, leads to their
common use as provenance indicators. However, even though
their major element chemistry has been known since 1985
(Morton, 1985), they have been very rarely used as provenance
indicators for loessic sediments. There are two main reasons
why garnet composition is not often used in Quaternary provenance
studies. Firstly, the data are inhomogeneous and secondly,
sufficient data from provenance source rocks are commonly
absent. We demonstrate here that in cases where provenance
data are not available, garnet chemistry can be still used
as proxies for aeolian sedimentary process. Moravian and
Silesian Weichselian loess and loess-like deposits were chosen
for this study.
GEOLOGICAL SETTINGS
Loess and loess-like deposits cover more than 20% of the
Quaternary surface area in Moravia and Silesia (Fig. 1). Most
of these accumulations were deposited during the latest Pleistocene
(Late Weichselian, M IS 2) glacial phase (Frechen et al.,
1999). The average thickness of the youngest Weichselian
loess is about 1 to 1.5 m. Garnet-rich loess material was used
for provenance studies and also for the study of garnet redistribution
across the landscape. The differences between typical
South Moravian loess s.s. and North Moravian loess-like deposits
are in the transparency of the material that reflects carbonate
content (Pelíšek, 1949), the different altitudes at which
they are found, and different sources (Lisá et al., 2005).
Weichselian loess and loess-like deposits in Moravia and
Silesia area have been much studied. Detailed sedimentary
classifications for local areas were published by Ambrož
(1947) and Pelíšek (1949), stratigraphical studies were published
by Musil and Valoch (1956), Ložek (1958), Kukla
(1961) and Havlíèek and Smolíková (1993), provenance studies
by Kvítková and Buriánek (2002), Lisá (2004), Lisá et al.
(2005) and Lisá and Uher (2006). Palaeoclimate studies of the
Moravian loess were published by Adamová and Havlíèek
(1997), Frechen et al. (1999), Cílek (2001) and by Adamová et
al. (2002). However, none of these papers deal with the problem
of garnet redistribution.
The most complete source, regarding the garnet chemical
composition within the area studied, is by Èopjaková et al.
(2005). Some other regional publications (Fediuková et al.,
1985, Batík and Fediuková, 1992, Nehyba and Buriánek, 2004
and Medaris et al., 2005) are used as comparisons in this study.
METHODS
Samples were collected from Weichselian loess sections
that have been described by many authors (Macoun et al.,
1965; Havlíèek, 1985; Havlíèek and Smolíková, 1993;
Adamová and Havlíèek, 1995, 1997). In total, 13 sites were selected
for detailed garnet analysis (Osoblaha, Skrochovice,
Leština, Štemberk, Hranice, Kokory, Boskovice, Skalièka,
Ivanovice, Modøice, Oøechov, Horní Dunajovice and Dolní
Vìstonice, Fig. 1).
The most commonly used size fraction in palaeogeographical
provenance studies within Moravia, 0.063–0.125 mm, was
subjected to the standard procedure of heavy mineral separation
in heavy liquid — tetrabromethane of D = 2.96 g/cm3
(Mange and Mauer, 1992; Mange and Wright 2007). Most of
the samples were garnet-rich, so further separation was not
necessary. The samples were impregnated with resin and polished.
The polished samples were then analysed using a
Cameca SX-100 electron microprobe analyser at the Institute of
Geological Sciences (Masaryk University, Brno). The following
analytical conditions were used: wavelength-dispersion
mode with a beam diameter of 4–5 mm with an accelerating potential
of 15 kV and a sample current of 20 nA. A counting time
of 20 s was used for all elements. The following standards were
used (Ka X-ray lines): wollastonite (Si, Ca), albite (Na), chromite
(Cr), Al2O3 (Al), MgO (Mg), Fe2O3 (Fe), metallic Mn
(Mn) and TiO2 (Ti). Garnet grains separated from the same
fraction and mounted on adhesive carbon tape and studied by
the same microprobe analyzer were used for micromorphological
interpretation. A minimum of three analyses
were made, but no zoning was found.
RESULTS
HEAVY MINERAL DISTRIBUTION
The heavy mineral composition is shown in Table 1. Garnets
are very abundant in detrital heavy minerals in the fraction
studied (0.063–0.250 mm). Their contents range from 5.3% at
Oøechov in the south to 44.3% Štemberk in the north. There is
no systematic trend in garnet abundance across the area studied,
but there is a decrease in garnet from west to east in the
south of the area studied and an increase in garnet from west to
east in the central and northern parts. A variable proportionality
exists between garnet and hornblende quantities (Table 1). The
results of the heavy mineral provenance studies have previously
been published by Lisá et al. (2005).
MAJOR ELEMENT CHEMISTRY OF GARNETS
The garnet chemistry is typified by the predominance of
an almandine (Alm) component (Table 2). No pronounced
zoning was observed. The garnet with Alm >50% constitutes
334 Lenka Lisá, David Buriánek and Pavel Uher
Fig. 1. The distribution of Quaternary, mainly aeolian sediments in Moravia and Silesia and their geological
basement, Eastern part of the Czech Republic; location of samples discussed in this paper
89%, although groups of garnets can be recognized in which
Mg, Mn or Ca components show some differences or anomalies
in source provenance rocks. Microchemical analyses of
selected detrital garnets from each area are shown in Table 2.
Significant differences were found between localities for different
parts of Moravia and Silesia. Towards the east, the
amount of grossular (Grs) component decreases (Table 2).
Another, more significant decrease in this component is a
function of latitude in eastern Moravia and Silesia. Towards
the south, the Grs component decreases. Another latitude-dependent
difference is visible in the western part of Moravia
and Silesia (Fig. 2; Table 2). This region is dominated by
almandine-rich garnets with variable pyrope (Prp) and
spessartine (Sps) components (Table 2). Moravia and Silesia
can be divided into four main areas according to such differences:
A1, A2, A3 and B1 (see Figs. 2 and 3). Diagrams of relations
between Mg/Mn and Ca are demonstrated in Figure 2.
These data for garnet distribution in loess of the area studied
are shown in four scatter diagrams of Mg/Mn vs. Ca (Fig. 2).
The first three areas are typified by loess deposits overlying
crystalline complexes or surrounded by such complexes. The
next two areas have a sedimentary rock basement and a variation
of in Grs-rich component garnets can be seen between
these two groups. An obvious decrease in the Grs-rich component
is visible towards the SE of Moravia. Variations in
garnet chemical composition are also visible from north to
south. Loess deposits from the southern part of the area studied
are typified by a high Mg/Mn ratio (>20; Fig. 3).
MICROMORPHOLOGY OF DETRITAL GARNETS
Garnet grains from the samples studied display typical features
of aeolian transport (Fig. 4). This is in contrast with the
quartz grains that are more commonly used for
micromorphological study (cf., Smalley and Cabrera, 1970;
Lisá, 2004; Kenig, 2006, 2008; Hladil et al., 2008). The garnet
grains have a subangular to angular outline, with high to medium
relief. There is a noticeable presence of imbricated
blocks, large breakage blocks, edge abrasion, and different
types of ridges, pits and typical aeolian V-shaped pits or arrows.
Most grains are affected by chemical dissolution as documented
by solution pits or silica precipitation. Detrital garnets
are nearly always found in the formof irregular chips (Fig. 4).
DISCUSSION
The ratio between garnet and hornblende quantities reflects
the geological setting of the study area (Lisá et al., 2005;
Lisá and Uher, 2006). Westerly-lying magmatic and metamorphic
Moldanubian rocks, mainly orthogneisses, amphibolites,
paragneisses, peridotites, eclogites and granulites (Mísaø
et al., 1983; Fiala et al., 1995) produce large amounts of
hornblende, garnet and variable amounts of stable heavy minerals
such as epidote, apatite or zircon. Towards the east, sedimentary
successions of Devonian and Lower Carboniferous
age start to appear together with Tertiary deposits of the
Carpathian Foredeep. These are connected with large
amounts of garnets and other more stable minerals, typical of
older strata (Èopjaková et al., 2005). Hornblendes are compensated
for a more stable mineral — garnet (Table 1). This
situation reflects the fact that the studied mineral fraction of
loess and loess-like deposits in the conditions of Central Europe
(0.063–0.250 mm) were transported at very short distances
(Cílek, 2001), mostly about 50 kilometres (Lisá, 2004).
Transport was dominantly from the west to the east (Cílek,
New approach to garnet redistribution during aeolian transport 335
Locality Amp Grt Zrn St Tur Rt Ep Ky Mnz Ap other
Osoblaha 9.0 34.0 16.7 20.0 3.6 6.7 0.0 5.0 0.2 3.3 1.5 Ttn
Skrochovice 6.6 38.4 7.7 17.4 15.4 10.3 0.0 4.1 0.1 0.0 0.0
Hranice 8.0 29.3 31.0 0.0 8.0 8.0 9.3 1.3 0.1 0.0 5.0 Cpx
Leština 59.7 24.0 1.9 0.7 0.3 2.5 4.0 0.9 0.3 3.4 2.3 Sil, Ttn
Štemberk 22.4 44.3 4.5 5.0 9.0 1.5 10.1 3.0 0.2 0.0 0.0
Kokory 57.8 20.3 1.8 1.2 1.2 2.5 3.9 1.2 0.3 3.8 6.0 Sil, Ttn, Cpx
Boskovice 62.5 19.7 3.9 0.5 1.8 0.3 2.5 0.5 0.2 2.1 6.0 Sil, Ttn
Skalièka 47.7 24.2 2.9 0.0 5.6 0.0 6.0 0.0 1.2 1.2 0.0
Modøice 38.6 38.3 1.8 1.8 1.2 2.5 16.6 3.8 2.2 1.9 0.0
H. Dunajovice 60.2 23.0 1.9 0.9 0.3 2.5 1.7 0.9 0.3 3.4 0.0
D. Vìstonice 61.2 20.9 3.0 0.7 1.8 0.7 2.3 1.4 0.2 2.0 5.8 Sil, Ttn
Ivanovice 31.8 28.8 13.0 3.8 5.0 2.5 6.4 1.3 0.1 5.0 2.3 Cpx
Oøechov 49.5 5.3 15.9 3.9 4.6 11.3 2.0 4.0 0.6 1.4 1.5 Cpx
Amp — amphibole, Grt — garnet, Zrn — zircon, St — staurolite, Tur — tourmaline, Rt — rutile, Ep — epidote, Ky —
kyanite, Mnz — monazite, Ap — apatite, Ttn — titanite, Sil — sillimanite, Cpx — Ca clinopyroxene; abbreviations after
Kretz (1983)
T a b l e 1
The concentrations of prevailing non-opaque minerals (%) in the heavy mineral fraction
2001; Adamová et al., 2002; Lisá et al., 2005) and correspond
to contemporary wind directions.
The nature of the geological basement determine overall
mineral assemblages as well as garnet compositions. By examining
the differences between different geological units it is
possible to observe patterns of garnet redistribution within the
Moravian and Silesian loess and loess-like deposits and divide
them into four main areas named A1, A2, A3 and B1 as described
above (Fig. 2). It seems that this redistribution depends
not only on the rock basement lithology, but also on selection of
garnet types during aeolian transport (cf., Èopjaková et al.,
2005). Aerodynamic and diagenetic effects can be minimized
by determining the proportion of stable minerals with similar
densities. The index values that best reflect the provenance
characteristics (Morton and Hallsworth, 1994) are ATi = 100 ´
apatite count/(apatite + tourmaline), GZi = 100 ´ garnet
count/(garnet + zircone); RuZi = 100 ´ rutile count/(rutile +
zircone) and Mzi = 100 ´ count monazite/(monazite + zircone).
336 Lenka Lisá, David Buriánek and Pavel Uher
Ivanovice/2 Ivanovice/3 Oøechov/4 Oøechov/5 Boskovice/2 Boskovice/8 Leština/3 Leština/5
SiO2 38.94 38.05 38.98 38.17 37.54 37.36 37.09 37.35
TiO2 0.22 0.23 0.22 0.37 0.19 0.21 0.33 0.30
Al2O3 21.73 21.60 21.70 21.37 20.79 19.89 20.58 20.60
Fe2O3 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.65 0.86 0.89 0.66
FeO 29.42 31.26 25.82 31.04 30.94 21.03 28.04 27.81
MnO 0.67 0.77 0.43 0.38 1.06 16.26 0.56 0.24
MgO 8.43 6.42 9.30 3.74 2.45 2.35 2.60 2.87
NiO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
ZnO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
CaO 0.88 1.47 2.76 5.47 6.89 2.01 9.24 9.18
Total 100.29 99.8 99.31 100.54 100.52 99.97 99.33 99.02
Based on 12 oxygens and with Fe2+
/Fe3+
calculated assuming full site occupancy
Si 3.009 2.990 3.007 3.003 2.990 3.025 2.972 2.990
AlVI
0.000 0.010 0.000 0.000 0.010 0.000 0.028 0.010
T-site 3.009 3.000 3.007 3.003 3.000 3.025 3.000 3.000
AlVI
1.979 1.993 1.974 1.983 1.945 1.903 1.920 1.973
Ti 0.013 0.014 0.013 0.022 0.011 0.013 0.020 0.018
Fe3+
0.000 0.000 0.006 0.000 0.039 0.052 0.054 0.040
B-site 1.992 2.007 1.993 2.005 1.995 1.968 1.994 2.031
Fe2+
1.901 2.063 1.666 2.053 2.061 1.424 1.879 1.862
Mn 0.044 0.051 0.028 0.025 0.072 1.115 0.038 0.016
Mg 0.971 0.752 1.070 0.439 0.291 0.284 0.311 0.342
Ni 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Zn 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Ca 0.073 0.124 0.228 0.461 0.588 0.174 0.793 0.787
A-site 2.989 2.990 2.992 2.978 3.012 2.997 3.021 3.007
Alm 63.4 69.0 55.3 68.9 68.2 46.2 61.8 61.5
Adr 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 2.0 2.7 2.7 2.0
Grs 2.5 4.1 7.4 15.5 17.7 3.3 23.8 24.5
Prp 32.7 25.2 36.0 14.8 9.7 9.7 10.4 11.5
Sps 1.5 1.7 0.9 0.9 2.4 38.1 1.3 0.5
Alm — almandine, Adr — andradite , Grs — grossular, Prp — pyrope, Sps — spessartine; T-site means tetrahedral crystallographic
sites in garnet structure, dodecahedral A-site is usually occupied by divalent cations, octahedral B-site is usually occupied
by trivalent cations
T a b l e 2
Typical chemical analyses of garnets from the loess and loess-like localities studied in Moravia and Silesia,
Eastern part of the Czech Republic
Differences can be found and A1 + B1 groups should be separated
from A2 + A3 groups using these indices (Fig. 3). These
data support the results published by Lisá et al. (2005).
Loess and loess-like deposits with more common
almandine-rich garnets are typical mainly of metapelites of the
Moravian Nappe (Batík and Fediuková, 1992), paragneisses of
the Zábøeh Crystalline Unit (Èopjaková et al., 2005) and metamorphic
rocks of the Silesicum (Fediuková et al., 1985).
Low-grossular pyrope-almandine garnets are present in felsic
granulites (Èopjaková et al., 2005) and pyrope-rich garnets are
New approach to garnet redistribution during aeolian transport 337
Fig. 2. Diagrams of Mg/Mn vs. Ca together with a ternary diagram; this portion
is within the loess localities studied from Moravia and Silesia. It is possible
to see groups with different garnet chemical compositions
typical for peridotites from the Moldanubian Zone
(Medaris et al., 2005). This N–S line primarily covers
the main mass of westerly-lying loess and
loess-like source rocks. The metamorphic provenance
source as a significant part of loess and
loess-like deposit material was supported by zircon
typology studies (Lisá and Uher, 2006). All sites of
loess and loess-like deposits surrounding this line
contain variable amounts of garnet with a Grs component
(Table 2).
Towards the east, in the provenance area characterized
by Tertiary deposits of the Carpathian
Foredeep, the amount of Grs-rich garnets rapidly
decreases. This is the main trend in loess garnet distribution.
This trend could possibly be explained by
the fact that the loess material was transported only
a limited distance. This explanation fits with the aeolian
transport distance results published for this
area which are based on radioactivity measurements
and abundances of quartz microstructures (Lisá,
2004; Lisá et al., 2005). A second explanation for
the decreasing amount of Grs-rich garnets towards
the east is the changing rock provenance. This is
supported by the fact that the garnet geochemical
composition of Tertiary deposits from South
Moravia is sufficiently variable (Nehyba and
Buriánek, 2004); however, garnet grains with a
grossular component are very rare in this area.
Èopjaková et al. (2005) found the same results in
the case of Lower Carboniferous Culm strata, where
the Grs component is also very rare.
The second trend found in Moravian and
Silesian loess and loess-like deposits are the
changes in vertical garnet chemical distribution.
Garnets with Mg/Mn >20 are present. These types
of garnet reflect the presence of different source
rocks in the provenance area. Significant differences
were found between the A1, A2 and B1
groups. The heavy mineral compositions are very
similar for groups A1 and B1 (Fig. 3), as both
groups contain garnets with an Mg/Mn ratio of over
338 Lenka Lisá, David Buriánek and Pavel Uher
Fig. 3. Diagrams of provenance characteristics according to heavy mineral indices
(Morton and Hallsworth, 1994)
Fig. 4. Garnet grain outlines, morphology and microstructures from selected sites
30. The only difference between these two groups is the absence
of a Grs component in the A1 group. The heavy mineral
A2 group differs from the A1 and B1 groups in its composition
and also garnet grains from the A2 group differ Mg/Mn ratio,
which are not higher than 30. The area A3 contains garnet
grains with an Mg/Mn ratio of up to 51.
Areas marked as A1 and A2 have a very similar Ca versus
Mg/Mn distribution. Garnets in both areas contain a Grs component
and have variable amounts of Prp and Grs components.
The presumed provenance for these two areas can be seen in
rocks lying in southern and central Moravia. The provenance
area for southern Moravian loess is probably represented by
Moldanubian gneisses, paragneises and migmatites. This mixture
of rocks is rich in pyrope and partly also in a spessartine
component (Èopjaková et al., 2005). The presence of the Grs
component is disputable, because some types of rocks are depleted
in this component while it is present in others. Source
rocks of Central Moravian loess may be represented by the
Svratka Zone metapelites, which are mostly rich in Fe with relatively
low Mg (unpublished analyses of Novák and
Èopjaková in: Èopjaková et al., 2005). The area described as
A3 probably reflects a source in rocks of the Silesicum.
Fediuková et al. (1985) distinguished almandine-rich garnets
for the Silesicum, but also with variable proportions of Sps and
Prp components. Moreover, the same author described
Grs-Sps-Alm types of garnets from the Silesicum, originating
under conditions of retrograde metamorphism. The widest garnet
distribution range (see diagram of Ca versus Mg/Mn,
Fig. 2) is observed, which reflects a sufficiently wide variability
in Silesian garnet chemistry as well as in their source rocks.
Detrital garnets, derived by aeolian process from the source
rocks, are mechanically changed into fragments and chips (see
Fig. 4). Usually, all grains show some degree of corrosion, but
this chemical process is not very marked. There is no evident
correlation between the presence of microstructures and the
composition of garnets. Èopjaková et al. (2005) found the
same results in the case of Lower Carboniferous Culm garnets.
According to that paper, a low degree of alteration may be suggested
by the simultaneous presence of less stable apatite and
epidote in heavy mineral assemblages. In the case of loess and
loess-like deposits, no significant differences exist in the degree
of garnet corrosion between the sites (Fig. 4). This is probably
the result of a very recent mechanical erosion and the absence
of time for more prominent corrosion processes. It is interesting
that the quartz grains from the same samples do not
show microstructures that clearly document aeolian transport
(Lisá, 2004). The reason for this fact is probably the difference
in hardness between quartz and garnet (the hardness of garnet
varies from 6.5 to 7.5 while quartz has a hardness of 7). Garnet
is shown to be the more informative mineral as regards aeolian
transport in this respect.
CONCLUSIONS
The following main conclusions were derived from the data
obtained:
1. The use of garnet geochemistry is a new tool for the study
of loess deposits and the type of aeolian mineral redistribution.
2. Four different areas in Moravia and Silesia were distinguished
based on garnet chemical compositions. These areas
reflect different sources of loess material. The aeolian transport
distance is recognizable where the almandine component is
subdued by other Grs, Prp or Sps components. Such cases are
documented by the presence or absence of garnets of anomalous
chemical composition.
3. A prevailing westerly wind direction and a short transport
distance are best documented in the western part of the
study area by the presence of Alm–Prp garnets deflated from
Moldanubian metamorphic rocks (especially granulites).
4. The outline (shape, morphology, habitus) of detrital garnets
is mostly subangular to angular and reflects aeolian transport
more clearly than do quartz grains of the same grain-size
category.
Acknowledgements. The authors wish to thank technical
staff at the Department of Geological Sciences from Brno for
their help and M. Novák (Dept. of Geological Sciences, Fac. of
Sci., Masaryk University, Brno) for constructive comments.
The research was supported by AVOZ 30130516 Institutional
Research Plan.
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340 Lenka Lisá, David Buriánek and Pavel Uher
Geoarchaeology of Upper Palaeolithic loess sites located within a
transect through Moravian valleys, Czech Republic
L. Lisá a, *, J. Hosek b, c
, A. Bajer d
, T. Matys Grygar e
, D. Vandenberghe f
a
Institute of Geology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Rozvojova 269, Prague 165 00, Czech Republic
b
Czech Geological Survey, Klárov 3, Prague 118 21, Czech Republic
c
Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Albertov 6, Prague 2, Czech Republic
d
Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University, Zemedelská 3, Brno 613 00, Czech Republic
e
Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 250 68 Rez, Czech Republic
f
The Research Foundation e Flanders (FWO e Vlaanderen), Laboratory of Mineralogy and Petrology (Luminescence Research Group),
Department of Geology and Soil Science, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281 (S8), B-9000 Gent, Belgium
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Available online 3 October 2013
a b s t r a c t
The Middle and Upper Palaeolithic sites situated within the system of Moravian and South Silesian
valleys are key localities for understanding the patterns of seasonal mobility that enabled humans to
exploit the North European Plain, and a possibility to distinguish the importance of the weather and
climate for their subsistence practises. Loess accumulations that have covered the best preserved open
air Palaeolithic sites in Central Europe display the climatic record covering at least 30,000 years. The
sedimentological, microstratigraphical and geochemical record of three studied Upper Palaeolithic loess
sites show significant changes, documenting increased precipitation towards the north. A progressive
coarsening of the loess deposits during the Upper Pleniglacial, contrasting with the progressive fining
toward the North European glaciation was detected. This methodological approach explains more precisely
the context of formation processes connected also with human activity within the corridor between
the North European Plain and the Danube Basin, through which a wide range of organisms,
including humans and their prey species, were channelled.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Upper Palaeolithic sites located along a transect between the
Danube region, Moravian valleys, and the North European Plain
offer unique insights into an early episode of modern human
adaptations to the landscape (Otte, 1981; Svoboda et al., 2002;
Oliva, 2005, 2007; Lisá et al., 2013). The system of Moravian
valleys, oriented mainly NeS or NEeSW (Czudek, 1997), provides
a valuable archaeological trap for two reasons. First, it constitutes
wide river valleys between transcontinental mountain ranges
through which a wide range of organisms, including humans and
their prey species, were channelled: this has always been the
principal access route to the North European Plain from the
Danube Basin (Skutil, 1955; Valoch, 1979; Svoboda et al., 2002;
Trinkaus and Svoboda, 2006). Second, it is also a trap for windblown
sediments flowing preferentially from the W or NW, SW to
the E or NE, SE (Lisá, 2004; Lisá and Uher, 2006; Lisá et al., 2009)
that have accumulated to considerable depths around many a
hilly protuberance in that landscape. It is these deep accumulations
of loess that have covered the best preserved open air
Palaeolithic sites in Europe (Svoboda et al., 2002). The lithological
record of those localities was described mainly in the case of
the famous Dolní Vestonice old brickyard section (Klíma et al.,
1962; Bábek et al., 2011; Antoine et al., 2013), but the
geochemical and micromorphological record of other localities
situated more northerly in Moravia was less studied. Instrumental
sedimentological analyses can bring valuable information
about environmental conditions which Palaeolithic hunters had
to accept in hunting large mammals. The main question
addressed in this paper is, therefore: is it possible to distinguish
any significant lithological or geochemical differences between
three of the most important Upper Palaeolithic regions within
Moravia and use the interpretations of those differences to
discuss climatic changes of Middle and Upper Pleniglacial and
the reasons which enabled humans to exploit the North European
Plain, and subsequently even colder regions?
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lisa@gli.cas.cz (L. Lisá).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Quaternary International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/quaint
1040-6182/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.08.058
Quaternary International 351 (2014) 25e37
2. Geographical and sedimentological background
Three key localities for Moravian Upper Palaeolithic history are
used in this study. The localities are typical for long term temporary
Gravettian occupation (Nývltová Fisáková, 2013) and are situated
along a transect between South Moravia (Dolní Vestonice), Central
Moravia within Moravian Gate (Predmostí), and NortheEast
Moravia (Hostálkovice locality near Petrkovice). The imaginary
section connecting those three localities provides information
about the different sedimentological records preserved, and the
differences of environmental conditions which Palaeolithic hunters
had to accept in hunting large mammals.
The Last Glacial loess formation within the area of Central
Europe was strongly influenced by its geographical position between
two glaciers. In that time Moravia and Silesia were situated
in the narrowest part of the non-glaciated area and became very
important for loess formation as well as for the fauna (Lozek, 1968;
Horácek and Lozek, 1988), flora (Frenzel, 1968) and human migrations
(Svoboda et al., 2002).
2.1. Dolní Vestonice II (DV II)
This section was excavated in the context of the archaeological
research of the Gravettian site during the 2005 season. The studied
section is located in anthropogenic terraces on the slope above the
famous Dolní Vestonice e old brickyard section. The 4.2 m thick
profile DV II covers the Gravettian cultural layer and the Upper
Pleniglacial sedimentary record correlated with the upper part of
the old brickyard section. The section in the old brickyard represents
the most prominent loess section accessible today in Central
Europe and, therefore, enormous numbers of different research
efforts were made there (Klima et al.,1962; Demek and Kukla,1969;
Haesaerts and Mestdagh, 2000; Fuchs et al., 2012; Antoine et al.,
2013). Approximately 18 m of loess, loess like deposits, and paleosols
cover a relatively complete Last climatic cycle and display
warming, cooling, and wetting trends. The loess was in this case
derived mainly from frost shattered and weathered magmatic and
metamorphic rocks situated to the west, deposited as eluvial deposits
or as river alluvium (Lisá, 2004; Lisá and Uher, 2006; Lisá
et al., 2009), and calcareous Miocene deposits (Adamová,
Havlícek, 1998). The provenance during the last glacial period did
not change (Lisá et al., 2009) and the grain size differences depend
mostly on the wind speed or post-depositional weathering.
2.2. Predmostí
Close to the town of Prerov, and to the southern entrance to the
Moravian Gate, a series of loess deposits has been extensively
excavated. A rescue excavation in the last century produced a
considerable body of data relating to various Palaeolithic episodes,
mainly of Gravettian Age (Svoboda et al.,1994). Predmostí is located
at the southern entrance of the Moravian Gate, one of the most
important passing points of prehistoric routes in Central Europe
(Svoboda et al., 1994). Originally two limestone formations, at
Skalka in the south and Hradisko in the north, emerged from the
Neogene and Quaternary deposits. Both of them have nearly disappeared
due to limestone exploitation. Several mineral spring
sources are known close to the site, which formed travertine deposits
(Kovanda, 1971). One, with a constant temperature of 12 C
was located directly at the foot of the former Skalka hill (Svoboda
et al., 1994). The cultural content of this locality has been classified
as Gravettian or Pavlovian with a hypothetical Aurignacian
horizon below. The Gravettian was dated approximately to 26e
27 ka (Svoboda et al., 1994).
2.3. Hostálkovice
Hostálkovice is situated in Northern Moravia in the Ostrava
region. This locality is 1.5 km from Petrkovice, famous for the
Venus finding (Svoboda, 2004). Unfortunately, Petrkovice could
not be included in this research because of technical problems.
Hostálkovice, nevertheless, offers the similar stratigraphy
(Folprecht, 1934; Neruda and Nerudová, 2000) and its location was
suitable for our research. The site was excavated in 1992 by P.
Neruda (Neruda and Nerudová, 2000). This site lies beyond the
Moravian Gate at the opening of the North European Plain. It has
also a significant history of archaeological investigation, allowing
us to target location of an approximately 1.6 deep test pit to
capture the layer with Gravettian artefacts.
3. Methodology
3.1. Micromorphology
Microstratigraphical study, micromorphology in archaeological
context, was applied in all three localities. In total, 53 samples for
thin sections were taken. A micromorphological approach covers
descriptive microstratigraphical analyses (Bullock et al., 1985)
including microfabric types, structural and porosity features, natural
inclusions, anthropogenic inclusions, and pedofeatures (Macphail
and Cruise, 2001). Such application of soil micromorphology to
archaeology was introduced mainly by Goldberg (1983) and latelyis
well established in the literature (French, 2003; Goldberg and
Macphail, 2006). Samples were taken in Kubiena boxes (9 Â 5 cm),
slowly dried, impregnated by a polymer resin, processed into thin
sections and then studied according to Bullock et al. (1985) and
Stoops (2003). A record was made of the microfabric types, structural
and porosity features, natural inclusions, anthropogenic inclusions
and pedofeatures (Macphail and Cruise, 2001).
3.2. Geochemistry e quantitative analysis of expandable clay
minerals (CEC)
The cation exchange capacity (CEC) was determined using a
procedure proposed by Meier and Kahr (1999) for pure clay mineral
specimens and then optimised for sediments and soils (Grygar
et al., 2009). [Cu(trien)]2þ
solution was obtained from
CuSO4$5H2O (Penta, Czech Republic) and trien, triethylenetetramine
(1,4,7,10-tetraazadekane, SigmaeAldrich), to the final concentration
0.01 M with a potentiometric control of the constant
ligand-to-metal ratio (Grygar et al., 2009). A fine dry powder (100e
500 mg) was placed in a 50 mL beaker, wetted and then suspended
by stirring in 5 mL of distilled water; then 5 mL 0.01 M Cu-trien
solution was added, and the suspension stirred for a further
5 min using a magnetic stirrer. The suspension was then filtered
into a 50 mL flask and the solid washed with several aliquots of
distilled water, and the final volume of the filtrate made to 50 mL.
The solutions were analyzed by AAS (Cu and Mg) and AES (Ca and
Na). The sample weight for analysis was adjusted depending on its
actual CEC to consume about 50% of [Cu(trien)]2þ
using the routine
described by Grygar et al. (2009).
3.3. Bulk magnetic susceptibility (MS)
Unoriented samples were collected at 5 cm intervals from
cleaned profiles. Low frequency magnetic susceptibility (clf) was
measured at 0.976 kHz and high frequency magnetic susceptibility
(chf), at 3.904 kHz, using a MFK1 kappabridge (AGICO, Brno). The
difference between the two measurements gives the frequency
dependent susceptibility, expressed here as a percentage of cfd
L. Lisá et al. / Quaternary International 351 (2014) 25e3726
(cfd% ¼ (clf À chf)/clf  100). This parameter is widely used to
determine the concentration of magnetic particles close to superparamagnetic
(SP)/stable single domain (SSD) boundary (Liu et al.,
2005). This grain size fraction is proposed to have formed during
pedogenesis (Evans and Heller, 2003; Dearing et al., 1996).
3.4. Particle size distribution function (PSDF)
Samples for particle size distribution were collected at 5 cm
intervals from cleaned profiles from all three studied section
(Figs. 2 and 3). Particle-size analysis (PSA) is a measurement of the
size distribution of individual particles in a soil sample (Gee and
Bauder, 1986). Particle size distribution was established using a
Malvern Mastersizer 2000. Samples of air dried and roughly
crushed sediments were gently disaggregated and dispersed in deionized
water. Organic matter was removed by addition of
hydrogen peroxide accompanied by gentle warming at 40 C until
effervescence stopped. The supernatant was removed after
centrifugation and the sample rinsed with two changes of deionised
water. The samples were then re-homogenised in a minimum
of water using a whirly mixer and then sub-sampled for particle
size analysis. Two sub-samples were taken from each sample and
analysed sequentially, and the graphs presented are the mean of
the two measurements.
3.5. OSL dating
DV II section was sampled in two positions. DV2/1 comes from
the depth of 435 cm and corresponds to the base of cultural layer
mixed with soil material. DV2/2 comes from the depth of 265 cm
and corresponds to the position directly above gley II. layer (Fig. 2).
Three locations were sampled at Hostálkovice. HB 13 came from
160 cm depth at the very base of the section on the contact between
redeposited terrace sediments and redeposited loess-like sediments.
THV2 came from a depth of 65 cm where some of the artefacts
occurred. THV1 came from 35 cm depth, on the contact
between E soil horizon and the loess-like sediment below (Fig. 2).
Predmostí was not sampled due to the technical problems during
the fieldwork organisation.
Samples were dated by OSL in the Laboratory of Mineralogy and
Petrology (Luminescence Research Group), Department of Geology
and Soil Science, Ghent University in Belgium. by applying the SAROSL
protocol to sand-sized (63e90 mm) quartz. This fraction was
extracted from the inner material of the sampling tubes using
conventional sample preparation procedures (HCl, H2O2, sieving,
heavy liquids, and HF). OSL measurements were performed using
an automated Risø TL/OSL-DA-12 reader. The equivalent dose (De)
was determined using the single-aliquot regenerative-dose (SAR)
protocol as described by Murray and Wintle (2000, 2003). Lowlevel
high-resolution gamma-ray spectrometry was used for the
determination of the natural dose rate. The annual dose was
calculated from the present-day radionuclide activities using the
conversion factors of Adamiec and Aitken (1998). An internal dose
rate of 0.013 Æ 0.003 Gy kaÀ1
was assumed (Vandenberghe et al.,
2008). Both the beta and gamma contributions were corrected for
the effect of moisture by generally accepted procedures.
4. Results
4.1. Stratigraphy
4.1.1. Southern Dolní Vestonice section
The lithostratigraphy was examined in a 4.2 m high freshly
cleaned vertical section (Fig. 2) containing several horizons with
different contexts, coded as DV II. Generally, the profile is mainly
composed of fine grained loess and loess-like sediments which
Fig. 1. Location of studied sites.
L. Lisá et al. / Quaternary International 351 (2014) 25e37 27
were post-depositionally influenced by changing climatic conditions.
There is a dark brown horizon of re-deposited laminated soil,
probably of Cambisol type (40 cm) found in the very bottom, followed
by the complex of thin loess layers (approximately 15 cm
each), and one darker layer (10 cm), described as Gravettian
occupational layer (10 cm) with the macroscopic presence of
charcoal and fine freezing and thawing laminae (less than 1 cm) in
the loess layers below and above. The loess deposition grades into
two lighter horizons (17 and 10 cm) divided by a loess horizon
(10 cm). Those horizons were interpreted as gley horizons. The part
of the section above is composed by loessic material with a group of
slightly browner horizons (1e5 cm). The section is ended by a dark
brown aggraded Chernozem-type Holocene soil horizon.
4.1.2. Intermediate Predmostí u Prerova section
In contrast to the cultural layer excavated in the DV II sections, in
which burnt charcoal is a conspicuous hearth component, burnt
mammoth bones predominate here, suggestive of a difference in
resource availability between the sites (Beresford-Jones et al.,
2010). However, another, microcharcoal containing layer was
micromorphologically confirmed the cultural layer. The lithological
section of Predmostí (Fig. 2) contained a dark brown horizon of reFig.
2. The sedimentological description of loess sections Dolní Vestonice, Predmostí and Hostálkovice together with the main geochemical, magnetic and grain size proxies.
L. Lisá et al. / Quaternary International 351 (2014) 25e3728
Fig.3.Thegrainsizedistributionwithinstudiedsites.
L. Lisá et al. / Quaternary International 351 (2014) 25e37 29
deposited arctic soil in the very bottom followed by a thick cultural
layer containing mammoth bones and burned bones together with
charcoal and loess-like sediment intercalations (Fig. 2). There is
evidently slight re-deposition by gelifluction. This layer is overlain
by loess deposits with a number of features typical of frost action,
including frost wedges and other micromorphologically detected
features. Three thin gley horizons were present. The upper part of
the section continues with monotonous loess deposition containing
thin darker layers containing decomposed organic matter. The
section is capped by a Holocene Cambisol.
4.1.3. Northern Hostálkovice near Petrkovice loess like sedimentary
section
Approximately 1.5 m thick sedimentary cover (Fig. 2) lies on the
ridge between Petrkovice and Hostálkovice. The geological background
of Hostálkovice section is composed of re-deposited terrace
deposits. Colluviated loess-like deposits include approximately
30 cm of the section. Gravettian artefacts are distributed mainly on
the contact of terrace deposits and loess-like sediments (Fig. 2)
(Neruda and Nerudová, 2000), but occasionally were detected
within loess-like sediments above. Loess-like deposits contain
small frost edges filled by clays as a record of boreal illuviation. The
section is capped by a Holocene Luvisol, lately degraded into
Pseudogley.
4.2. Microstratigraphy and micromorphology
4.2.1. Dolní Vestonice
The base of the section is composed of re-deposited interstadial
soil of the boreal to arctic brown soil type with ferric oxide nodules
(Fig. 4C), interpreted as the consequence of relatively humid conditions
causing erosion and reduction processes. This soil can be
Fig. 4. Typical micromorphogical features from Dolní Vestonice site: A e loess s.s.; B e initial soil horizon with visible brunification, location above Gley II.; C e redeposited arctic
brown soil on the base of section with, visible FeOH nodules due to the gleying; D e Gley II with leaching, but without FeOH features typical of gleying; E À horizontal pores
documenting phases of freezing and thawing, location above the cultural layer; F e charcoal distributed widely within the cultural layer. This layer also contains redeposited arctic
brown soil material.
L. Lisá et al. / Quaternary International 351 (2014) 25e3730
interpreted as an early stage cambisol. Gelifluction features are
connected mainly with the cultural layer (Fig. 4F), which show a
continuing relatively cold and humid environment. Freezing e
thawing features (Fig. 4E) above the cultural layer indicate frost
heaving, related to the development of ice lenses as the consequence
of cold and relatively humid conditions. Those features are
not very common, in contrast to Predmostí and Hostálkovice. Two
horizons of the frost gley surprisingly do not contain ferric oxide
(Fig. 4D) nodules. The absence of freezing e thawing features toward
the Holocene layer is probably the result of a cold and dry
LGM environment. The slightly darker horizons differ from pure
loess (Fig. 4A) by initial brunification (Fig. 4B). The presence of
darker horizons (Fig. 4) within this part of the section is therefore
the result of transitory periods of increased humidity and initial
stages of pedogenic weathering.
4.2.2. Predmostí
Re-deposited interstadial soil of the boreal to arctic brown soil
type at the base (Fig. 5A) has ferric oxide nodules formed under
relatively humid conditions causing erosion and reduction processes.
A thick cultural layer with bioturbation (Fig. 5B) indicates
stable humid conditions. The cultural layer contains frequently
fragments of burned bones (Fig. 5B), but little or no charcoal. A layer
which contains microcharcoal was micromorphologically identified
above the first cultural layer. The presence of freezing and
thawing structures (Fig. 5C) above the cultural layer is the result of
persistent cold and relatively humid conditions. The presence of
frost wedges (without flat bottoms) and gleying above (Fig. 5D) is
the result of cold, humid conditions and probably also an initial
stage of permafrost. Continuing freezing and thawing features toward
the Holocene horizon with thin horizons containing
Fig. 5. Typical micromorphological features from Predmostí and Hostálkovice sections: A e redeposited arctic brown soil at the base of Predmostí section containing nodules of
FeOH; B e cultural layer with burned and unburned bones from Predmostí; C e horizontal pores documenting phases of freezing and thawing, location above the cultural layer in
Predmostí and appearance of such features within all rest of section; D e Gley horizon with FeOH nodules from Predmostí; E À horizontal pores documenting phases of freezing and
thawing (Hostálkovice). Those pores were secondary during Holocene pedogenesis, iluviated by clays; F e Luvic horizon from locality Hostálkovice.
L. Lisá et al. / Quaternary International 351 (2014) 25e37 31
decomposed organic matter and initial stages of brunification is the
consequence of a cold and relatively wet LGM environment with
short stages of increased humidity.
4.2.3. Hostálkovice
Terrace sediments on the base of the section are partly distributed
within the loess-like deposits, overlain by unsorted sediment.
This record is the result of gelifluction. The presence of ferric hydroxide
nodules and gleying is the consequence of a wet environment
responsible for erosion and reduction processes, probably
under permafrost conditions. The Gravettian artefacts are more or
less incorporated into the re-deposited terrace and loess-like sediments
above, probably the result of post-sedimentary cryoturbation.
Freezing and thawing features (Fig. 5E) up to the
Holocene soil and within the cultural layer can be attributed to
persistent cold and relatively humid LGM conditions. Those features
are infilled by clay illuviation as a consequence of Holocene
pedogenic processes. Desiccation cracks 50 cm below the surface
(Fig. 2) are the result of extremely cold and dry conditions. Boreal
clay illuviation is the result of the Bölling climate. The sediment was
lately influenced by Holocene illimerisation (Fig. 5F).
4.3. Frequency dependent magnetic susceptibility
The values of cfd are basically a concentration-dependent
parameter. It depends on the grain-size and amount of magnetic
materials present in the sediment, indicating the proportion of fine
viscous grains close to the SP/SD boundary (w0.02 mm) in the total
(Thompson and Oldfield, 1986). This grain size fraction formed
during pedogenesis (Evans and Heller, 2003). cfd vary considerably
within the studied localities (Fig. 2), but the trends in Dolní
Vestonice and Predmostí are more or less similar. The highest
values were detected within the horizon with re-deposited interstadial
arctic brown soil (Cambisol) and within Holocene soil cover,
whereas the loess typically has lower values (Fig. 2). Predmostí
shows a relatively increasing trend of values, in comparison with
the consistency at Dolní Vestonice. In the case of Dolní Vestonice,
higher values were obtained also within horizons with initial soil
horizons. In the case of Hostálkovice, the highest values were
detected within the Holocene Luvisol. The record of the
Hostálkovice section shows high variability with slightly increasing
trend toward the Holocene soil (Fig. 2).
4.4. Geochemistry
The geochemical record of the profiles shows numerous similarities
and is influenced by lithology (Fig. 2). Cation Exchange
Capacity (CEC) of Dolní Vestonice shows a relatively stable trend
with microfluctuation, except for enhancement within the lower
part of the section, where re-deposited interstadial soil and cultural
layer were identified. Increased values were found in the loess with
initial pedogenesis, and a slightly increased trend is visible in the
upper part of the profile (Fig. 2).
The profile in Predmostí shows a similar trend of CEC to Dolní
Vestonice. The elevated values are visible mainly within the lower
part of the section where the relicts of interstadial soil were
detected. In the middle part of the profile with gley and loess horizons,
a stable trend is apparent with slighter higher values in gley
horizons. In the upper loess above the gley III increasing trend of
values up to the Holocene soil is apparent.
In Hostálkovice, the highest CEC values were detected within
the base of the section where the weathered sandy loam with
carbonate pebbles was detected. A sharp decrease of those values
follows the appearance of pure loess-like deposits with the artefacts.
The percentage content of Na shows a slightly declining trend
in the lower part of the profile in Dolní Vestonice, whereas in
Predmostí a slightly increasing trend in the whole profile is visible.
Mg and Ca contents of the DV profile show the same increasing
trend up to the layer of loess with initial pedogenesis. Above this
layer, Ca increases whereas Mg begins to decrease to the top of the
profile. Ca and Mg content of the Predmostí show slightly
increasing trends with relative stagnation in the upper part, above
the gley III. In general, contents of Ca and Mg show the highest
variations within the gley horizons and initial soil formations above
those horizons in both sections. MgO/CaO ratio shows a gradual
decrease in both profiles, but in the case of Predmostí this trend is
less apparent. For the Hostálkovice profile, the great difference in
elements concentration between the lower and upper part is
typical. Ca and Na contents are lowest in the horizon with weathered
sandy loam and high in loess-like sediment, whereas the Mg
content shows the opposite trend.
Another sharp decrease of measured components is visible
within E and A horizons of the Holocene Luvisol. The contents of
organic matter within the sections have more or less the same
trend: the most obvious is the enhancement of organic matter
within the interstadial brown soil of Dolní Vestonice and Predmostí
as well as within the Holocene soil formation in all three localities.
For Hostálkovic, a stable trend is typical, with a slight increase
below the Holocene soil.
4.5. Grain size
Grain size measurements show the same significant trend in all
three studied localities. Toward the Holocene layer significant
coarsening of sand fraction is obvious (Figs. 2 and 3), while toward
the north there is a fining trend. Dolní Vestonice section has
probably the best preserved long-time depositional record, and
consequently the deposits have much more fine composition than
in other studied localities (Figs. 2 and 3). It is also possible to see a
connection between the appearance of darker, more humid layers
and the contemporary increase of clay fraction (depth about 1.2,
1.8e2.2 and between 3 and 4 m). In the case of Predmostí and
Hostálkovice this connection was not found. Predmostí and
Hostálkovice sections display much coarser deposits and the trend
of coarsening is visible not only toward the Holocene but also toward
the north, toward the edge of the North European glaciation.
Predmostí section has a visible enhancement of sand fraction
within 1.0e1.5 m where the cultural layer was detected. In the case
of Hostálkovice, there is a visible enhancement of clay at the
expense of silt in the upper part of the section due to the Holocene
pedogenic processes (Figs. 2 and 3).
4.6. Dating
A sufficient amount of pure quartz grains could be extracted
from all samples. The quartz extracts showed satisfactory luminescence
characteristics in terms of brightness (clearly distinguishable
from background), OSL decay (dominated by the fast
component), recycling ratio (consistent with unity), recuperation
(generally less than 1% of the sensitivity corrected natural OSL
signal) and dose recovery (a known dose given to a bleached
sample prior to any heating can be accurately measured). These
characteristics suggest that the samples are well-suited for optical
dating. Sample GLL-091927 behaved differently from the other
samples, however, in that a poor dose recovery was achieved using
a preheat for 10 s at 240 C; a lower preheat (200 C) was required
to achieve a good dose recovery. The ages are consistent with the
stratigraphic position of the samples. Based on the observed spread
in De (large aliquots), the date for sample GLL-081901 is not thought
L. Lisá et al. / Quaternary International 351 (2014) 25e3732
to be an accurate sedimentation age. This sample may be affected
by postdepositional mixing and/or incomplete resetting.
4.6.1. Luminescence characteristics and De-determination
Fig. 1 shows a representative luminescence decay and growth
curve for sample GLL-081902. The luminescence signal decays
rapidly with stimulation time (Fig. 1, inset); this is characteristic for
quartz dominated by the fast component. The doseeresponse curve
can be approximated satisfactorily by the sum of a single saturating
exponential and a linear component. Fig. 1 also illustrates the
generally good behaviour of the samples in the SAR protocol; the
recycling ratios are close to unity (indicating that sensitivity
changes occurring throughout the measurement procedure are
accurately corrected for) and the growth curves pass close to the
origin (demonstrating that recuperation is negligible).
Fig. 2 summarises the dose recovery data. Within analytical
uncertainty, the measured dose does not differ from the given dose
by more than 5% (Fig. 2A); the average recovered to given dose ratio
for the five samples is 1.01 Æ 0.02. Fig. 2B shows the corresponding
values for the recycling ratio and recuperation; the average values
are 0.98 Æ 0.01 and 0.05 Æ 0.01%, respectively. For each sample, at
least 18 replicate measurements of De were made. Values were
accepted if recuperation did not exceed 5% of the corrected natural
OSL signal and if the recycling or depletion ratio did not deviate by
more than 10% from unity. The average De’s (Æ1 standard error) are
summarised in Table 1.
4.6.2. Dose rate determination
The radionuclide activity concentrations and calculated total
dose rates are given in Table 1.
4.6.3. Optical ages
Table 1 summarises all analytical results, and shows the calculated
optical ages. The present-day dose rate was assumed to have
prevailed throughout the entire period of burial. Uncertainties on
the luminescence ages were calculated following the error assessment
system proposed by Aitken and Alldred (1972) and Aitken
(1976). All sources of systematic uncertainty were as quantified
by Vandenberghe et al. (2004; see also Vandenberghe, 2004).
For most samples, the systematic uncertainty is dominant in the
overall uncertainty on the ages and varies between w9 and 10% (1
sigma). For sample GLL-081901, both the random and systematic
uncertainty are w10%.
5. Discussion
5.1. Sedimentary and micromorphological record of Middle
Pleniglacial (MIS3) and Upper Pleniglacial (MIS 2) in Moravia
The environmental record of the Middle and Upper Pleniglacial
in Moravia was studied in detail mainly in context of loess deposits
(Lozek, 1953, 1964; Kukla, 1975; Frechen et al., 1999; Antoine et al.,
2013). The Middle Pleniglacial in Europe is marked by the appearance
of brown soil complexes as Stillfried-B from Lower Austria
(Haesaerts et al., 2003), Vytachiv soil complex of Ukraine
(Gerasimenko, 2006), the Gräselberger and Lohne Boden in Germany
(Frechen, 1999; Antoine et al., 2009) the Saint-AcheulVilliers-Adam
soil complex in Northern France (Antoine et al.,
2003), and Les Vaux soil in Belgium (Haesaerts, 1985). The soil
development in this case corresponds to warmer and more humid
conditions and it is widely associated with the Hengelo and
Denekamp insterstadials. Those periods were interrupted mainly
by the phases of erosion, and thus the sedimentary record is usually
very fragmented. In Moravia the three interstadials of the Middle
Pleniglacial are supposed to be preserved as the PKI pedo-complex
described by Klima (1969) and dated at w30e35 ka, and by the
Bohunice soil (Valoch, 1976) dated at w45e50 ka (Richter et al.,
2009). Antoine et al. (2013) mentioned erosion processes resulting
from warming phases of one of those interstadials that
enhanced the seasonal degradation of the permafrost active layer
leading to solifluxion-related deformation and alteration of the gley
horizon preserved above the re-deposited interstadial soil.
Two sections included in our research, Dolní Vestonice and
Predmostí, contain re-deposited arctic brown soil (Cambisol),
which corresponds to one or more of those interstadials. In both
cases, the soil sediment was re-deposited and contains ferric oxide
nodules indicating the presence of water and buried organic matter
(Fig. 4). Berendorf-Jones et al. (2011) described this horizon as an
Interstadial A Cambisol horizon with the weak B-horizon above and
covered by redeposited reworked palaeosol loam. However,
micromorphological study did not confirm preservation of the in
situ A horizon. A similar situation appeared in case of Predmostí
locality. The weak interstadial soil horizon was eroded and redeposited.
The interstadial soil was not preserved at Hostálkovice.
This finding corresponds to the results of the excavations of Neruda
and Nerudová (2000). This type of paleosol is not known from this
area, probably because of strong erosion and fragmentation of the
sediment record and also because the environment of Northern
Moravia and Lower Silesia was probably generally much colder
than Central and Southern Moravia. Due to the fragmentation of
sedimentary record of the Hostálkovice section, it is quite difficult
to use it for geochemical comparison with the sedimentary record
preserved in central and southern Moravia. The first OSL data from
Ostrava region concerning this context estimated the base of the
section at 50 ka, which indicates that the arctic soil did not develop
here or was removed by erosion.
Typical cultural layers containing charcoal or burned bones
were described only in Dolní Vestonice and Predmostí, while in
Hostálkovice only the accumulations of artefacts were detected. 14
C
data recently published by Berensdorf-Jones et al. (2011) from the
DV II show a wide range between 25.570 and 28.850 ka uncal. After
Table 1
Radionuclide concentrations used for dose rate evaluation, estimates of past water content (F*W), calculated dose rates, equivalent doses (De), optical ages, and random (sr),
systematic (ssys) and total (stot) uncertainties. The uncertainties mentioned with the De and dosimetry data are random; all uncertainties represent 1s.
Sample
(field code)
Sample
(GLL code)
Depth
(cm)
234
Th
(Bq kgÀ1
)
226
Ra
(Bq kgÀ1
)
210
Pb
(Bq kgÀ1
)
232
Th
(Bq kgÀ1
)
40
K
(Bq kgÀ1
)
F*W
(%)
Total dose rate
(Gy kaÀ1
)
De (Gy) Age
(ka)
sr
(%)
ssys
(%)
stot
(%) (ka)
THV1 081901 35 42 Æ 3 45 Æ 1 39 Æ 1 49.5 Æ 0.3 573 Æ 4 24 Æ 6 2.95 Æ 0.02 15 Æ 2 (17) 5.3 9.9 9.8 14.0 0.7
THV2 081902 65 36 Æ 2 48 Æ 1 42 Æ 2 52.7 Æ 0.5 600 Æ 5 25 Æ 6 3.03 Æ 0.03 77 Æ 2 (18) 26 2.3 10.2 10.5 3
HB13 091927 160 36 Æ 3 43 Æ 1 40 Æ 2 47.7 Æ 0.4 521 Æ 5 21 Æ 5 2.81 Æ 0.03 141 Æ 4 (24) 50 3.3 9.1 9.7 5
DV2/2 091902 265 36 Æ 2 43 Æ 1 39 Æ 1 52 Æ 1 559 Æ 5 23 Æ 6 2.86 Æ 0.02 92 Æ 6 (17) 32 6.1 9.8 11.5 4
DV2/1 091901 435 45 Æ 3 49 Æ 1 41 Æ 2 57 Æ 1 482 Æ 5 23 Æ 6 2.78 Æ 0.02 115 Æ 5 (18) 41 4.2 9.9 10.7 4
Radionuclide concentrations used for dose rate evaluation, estimates of past water content (F*W), calculated dose rates, equivalent doses (De), optical ages, and random (sr),
systematic (ssys) and total (stot) uncertainties. The uncertainties mentioned with the De and dosimetry data are random; all uncertainties represent 1s.
L. Lisá et al. / Quaternary International 351 (2014) 25e37 33
calibration, this fits the date from the cultural layer by OSL dating,
32 ka. The artefact accumulation from Hostálkovice was dated as
26 ka, which make the finding a little bit older than the findings
from nearby Petrkovice (Svoboda, 2008).
The tundra gley horizons preserved above the soil sediments of
the Middle Pleniglacial were described in Dolní Vestonice (Klima
et al., 1962; Antoine et al., 2013) and interpreted as cold humid
episodes of the Middle and Upper Pleinglacial. In the old Vestonice
brickyard, Antoine et al. (2013) have recently described one gley
horizon connected with the Middle Pleniglacial which underwent
strong solifluction process due to one of the humid interstadial
phases of the Middle Pleniglacial (frost creep). The solifluction
resulted in thin, discontinuous undulated iron oxide bands
throughout the unit, and two gley horizons connected with the
Upper Pleniglacial. The section situated above the old brickyard
displays only two gley horizons which are in situ and have no ferric
oxide nodules or accumulations. The third gley horizon was probably
redeposited together with the paleosol, which would explain
redoximorphic features founded within this redeposited horizon.
Such an interpretation would also fit to the findings of Antoine et al.
(2013) from the old brickyard. It is quite possible that those ferric
oxide accumulations described by Antoine et al. (2013) were
formed mainly due to the specific geomorphologic position in the
landscape. Berensdorf-Jones et al. (2011) described from this section
only lenses of gley above the cultural layer and gleyic features
from the cultural layer, but not from redeposited soil below. Our
OSL date sampled in the uppermost part of the upper gley horizon
was estimated as 32 ka. That position in the old brickyard was in
contrast to the date by Fuchs et al. (2012) at 21.7 ka.
One or more gley horizons together with frost features including
frost wedges were also mentioned by Zebera et al. (1955) and lately
by Svoboda et al. (1994) in Predmostí with no further details of
interpretation. Demek and Svoboda (2008) described strong
leaching and the presence of frost wedges in Petrkovice. In the
same publication, Svoboda (2008) partly rejected Demek and
Svoboda’s interpretation, and interpreted those wedges as the
result of Holocene pedogenesis. According to our OSL data, the
infilling of the frost wedges is estimated at 5.3 ka, but the infilling
could be much younger than the development of the wedges.
According to Antoine et al. (2013) the transition from Middle
Pleniglacial gley horizons to the Upper Pleniglacial loess in Dolní
Vestonice is abrupt and marked by a drastic increase in sedimentation
rate due to a return of cold and arid conditions. In the studied
sections, this phase of the sedimentary record is quite homogenous
and the cold and arid conditions are recorded by the increased
number of frost features, which are much more evident in
Predmostí and Hostálkovice. In the case of Vestonice and
Predmostí, the sedimentary record of wind deposition is interrupted
by thin layers of organic-matter rich layers corresponding to
short phases of increased humidity. Toward the north there is an
evident decrease of the mass of sediment, which could correspond
to the increased wind intensity due to the geomorphology and
position much closer to the North European glaciation that did not
allow aeolian material deposition.
5.2. The interpretation of geochemical, magnetic and grain size
proxies of studied sections in context of Middle and Upper
Pleniglacial
The profiles from Dolní Vestonice and Predmostí are much more
suitable for detailed correlation and paleoenvironmental interpretation
from proxy analyses than is Hostálkovice. The reason is a
fragmentation of the sedimentary record and weaker pedogenesis
in the case of Hostálkovice, where the paleoenvironmental record
was mainly inferred from micromorphological and sedimentological
approaches.
Grain size records of Dolní Vestonice and Predmostí show
similar features. Above the interstadial soils, the silt fraction
continuously decreases, whereas the sand fraction of the sediment
shows an increasing trend. Based on the interval of a higher sand
input it is possible to correlate these profiles (Fig. 3). Several cycles
can be seen, each being characterised by an abrupt increase of the
sand component, followed by a short-term decrease. In these sites
strong colluvial or water transport has not been noted. Therefore,
these variations can be entirely attributed to the input of aeolian
sand associated with climatic deterioration, increase of wind intensity
and higher accumulation rate during MIS 2. Grain-size analyses
from both sites are generally in accordance with previous
measurements from the Upper Weichselian part of the old brickyard
profile in Dolní Vestonice (Shi et al., 2003; Antoine et al., 2013).
Inputs of coarse aeolian material during the Upper Pleniglacial
were also reported and correlated within several sites from subAtlantic
region to the western Ukraine (Antoine et al., 2009;
Bokhorst et al., 2010; Rousseau et al., 2011) as well as in China Loess
Plateau (Nugteren et al., 2004). These events were correlated with a
dust median in NGRIP record and associated to Heinrich events
H3eH1 (Antoine et al., 2009). While a gradual coarsening trend is a
significant feature in Dolní Vestonice, in the upper part of
Predmostí this trend is not so apparent. That can be a signal of
lower wind intensity in the final phase of the Upper Pleniglacial in
the Central Moravia in comparison with South Moravia. A distinctly
higher percentage of sand in the sediment of Dolní Vestonice as
compared with Predmostí indicates lower energy of wind transport
during Upper Pleniglacial in Central Moravia. Evident fining of the
grain composition toward to the north is also visible (Fig. 3),
together with the progressive reduction of the thickness of the
deposited material. The fining trend probably reflects the changing
provenance (Lisá, 2004; Lisá and Uher, 2006; Lisá et al., 2009)
especially the possible appearance of glacial deposits (Lisá, 2004)
toward the north. The geomorphology and the lack of westerly
situated wide valleys with thick alluvial plain also play a role.
Higher values of frequency dependent magnetic susceptibility
suggest the presence of ultra-fine grained (pedogenetic) magnetite
or maghemite (Worn, 1998; Liu et al., 2005). In Dolní Vestonice and
Predmostí, slightly higher values were found in the horizons with
initial pedogenesis (and gley horizons) and significant high values
in redeposited brown soil horizons. The magnetic enhancement is
probably caused by increased activity of soil bacteria during the
Middle Pleniglacial and climatically favourable periods (microinterstadials)
of the Upper Pleniglacial. Good correlation of the
frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility with the organic
content was found in both sections. That denotes a connection
between vegetation development (humid climate?) and the intensity
of pedogenesis. In contrast, weak magnetic signal of pure
loess accumulation indicates colder (and drier) condition and
minimal pedogenetic processes. With regard to relatively narrow
provenance source of the Moravian loess during Upper Pleistocene
(Lisá, 2004), changes in the chemical composition in the profiles
could relate to postdepositional processes.
Continuously decreasing MgeCa ratio (expressed here as MgO/
CaO) in the pedo-sedimentary record could be caused by gradual
decline of precipitation in the study area during MIS 2. Mg and Ca
are present in primary carbonates, abundant in the loess deposits.
Free Mg content can be enhanced by weathering of pyroxene,
amphibole, and biotite, and Ca mainly from Ca-feldspar. Mg is
retained much more strongly on clay than Ca, due to the large
difference in atomic diameter (Perel’mman,1977). A higher amount
of percolating rainwater therefore leads to stronger leaching of Ca
relative to Mg and increasing of Mg/Ca ratio (MgO/CaO) (Bokhorst
L. Lisá et al. / Quaternary International 351 (2014) 25e3734
et al., 2009). Both elements are also taken up by plants, although Ca
is much more important with a biogenic coefficient of 0.17, versus
0.02 for Mg (Perel’man, 1977). The ratio could be, therefore, also
influenced by the density of the vegetation cover. In comparison
with the decreasing trend in Dolní Vestonice, Predmostí shows a
slightly increasing MgO/CaO trend, suggesting wetter conditions in
Central Moravia during MIS 2.
During chemical weathering of loess, ion exchange and layers
transformation of clay minerals occurs, that leads to modified of
their structure and clay neoformation. The [Cu(trien)]2þ
ion is
rather selective to expandable clay minerals, and thus increased
CEC values are most likely attributable to a higher concentration of
the most common expandable clay minerals, i.e. smectite structures,
whereas lower concentrations indicate increased presence of
the weak expandable clay mineral, i.e. illite (Bábek et al., 2011). The
structure of expanded clay minerals is typical for more humid environments,
and its low amount in the sediment suggests that
conditions were likely arid (and acidic) and they has been largely
depleted or least altered. The smectite/illite ratio in the loess series
can be used as a proxy for humidity. Even if CEC has rarely been
used for loess/paleosols sequences, several studies suggest CEC can
be correlated with other indicators of weathering intensity related
to precipitation such as magnetic susceptibility, diffuse reflectance
spectroscopy and element ratios of Rb, Ca and Sr (Maher, 1998;
Bokhorst et al., 2008; Bábek et al., 2011). In DV and Predmostí, that
is suggested by an apparent relationship of CEC with MgO/CaO ratio
and magnetic susceptibility that denotes a connection of weathering
intensity with pedogenesis and amount of precipitation.
In general, the sedimentological, magnetic and geochemical
results from all sections show significant climatic deterioration in
Upper Pleniglacial by comparison with Upper Middle Pleniglacial
conditions. That is recorded as gradual increasing wind intensity
and a relative decline of precipitation. Nevertheless, in comparison
with Dolní Vestonice, the proxy record from Predmostí suggests
relatively more favorable climatic conditions.
5.3. Gravettian migrations during the Middle and Upper
Pleniglacial within Moravian valleys
One of the goals set at the beginning of this paper was to discuss
reasons which enabled humans during the Upper Pleniglacial to
exploit the North European Plain, and subsequently even colder
regions. One of the possible explanations is the presence of the
water in the cold, and subsequently very dry glacial landscape (Lisá
et al., 2013). Humidity seems to be the most important factor for the
presence of vegetation, and subsequently animals and humans. The
most important factors limiting the presence of human camps in
the landscape is the presence of tectonically predisposed wide
open valleys with the river network and with the close proximity of
narrowing in the landscape. Oliva (2007) and Svoboda et al. (2003)
discuss the importance of the presence of a river network. During
the Glacial period, braided rivers (French et al., 2007) resulting from
appreciable sediment load, rapid and large variations in discharge,
and erosion formed the fluvial landscape of the Paleolithic in
Central Europe. The alluvial zone differed from the recent one quite
significantly. The presence of water in the landscape raised the
temperature below rivers and along the margins, which resulted in
further melting of permafrost along the banks and distinct bank
morphology. Tectonic activity often brings water to the surface as
course and springs. Deep water circulations were probably alsi
active during the LGM.
Another important factor is the precipitation, which was
probably distributed differently within the Moravian landscape. As
visible from the sedimentological micromorphological and the
geochemical record, Central and Northern Moravia was during the
Middle and Upper Pleniglacial more humid than Southern Moravia.
This fact can be connected with the more hilly geomorphology
(Czudek, 1997), but also with the shorter distance from the North
European glaciation. The proposed movement to the more cold,
but subsequently also more humid regions in the transect from
the Danube to the North European Plains can be compared with
the movement to the Carpathians valleys as described by Svoboda
(2001). Those valleys were described as warmer refugia (Musil,
2003), but the key factor was possibly the presence of humidity.
Together with the possible presence of permafrost, such areas
were much more suitable for the vegetation growth than the drier
south. Rich vegetation growing over permafrost, because the
permafrost layer catches the humidity, are known from recent
arctic areas (Beilman, 2001; Payette et al., 2004). The presence of
water connected with growing vegetation is one of the limiting
factors of mammoth migrations (Gröning and Saller, 1998), and
therefore also the limiting factor for Gravettian hunters’
migrations.
6. Conclusions
Studied loess sites from Northern, Southern and Central Moravia
provide a suitable archive for detailed study of the palaeoenvironmental
changes during Upper Paleolithic period. Using a
multi-proxy approach combining micromorphological, sedimentological,
rock-magnetic, and geochemical methods, we have
demonstrated that:
1. The sedimentary record within the studied transect differs, the
amount of deposited or preserved sedimentary record decreases
toward the north.
2. The most evident difference in micromorphological record is
the increasing presence of freezing and thawing features toward
the north. The strong postsedimentary influence at
Hostálkovice precluded detailed study.
3. The particle grain distribution record of three studied Upper
Palaeolithic loess sites show a progressive coarsening of the
loess deposits during the Upper Pleniglacial. A progressive
fining is visible toward the North European glaciation.
4. The geochemical record of the studied sections shows
numerous similarities and is influenced by lithology. Cation
Exchange Capacity (CEC) of Dolní Vestonice shows a relatively
stable trend with microfluctuations except for enhancement
within the lower part of the section, where the re-deposited
interstadial soil and cultural layer were identified. Increased
values were found in the loess with initial pedogenesis, and a
slightly increased trend is visible in the upper part of the profile.
The profile in Predmostí shows a similar trend.
Hostálkovice section displayed the highest CEC values within
the base, due to the weathered sandy loam with carbonate
pebbles. A sharp decrease of those values follows the appearance
of pure loess-like deposits with the artefacts.
5. New OSL Ages were determined for Dolní Vestonice, and the
first OSL dating for Hostálkovice. In Dolní Vestonice the age of
the cultural layer was estimated to 41 ka and the age of the gley
layer to 32 ka. Hostálkovice, the age of the base of the section
was estimated to 50 ka, the position of artefact findings 26 ka,
and the infilling of frost edges 5.3 ka. OSL dating for Dolní
Vestonice and Hostálkovice brought slightly older dates than
expected.
6. The reason that humans could exploit the North European Plain
and even colder regions could have been the presence of water
in the cold and arid glacial landscape. According to sedimentological
and geochemical records, the more northerly regions
were more humid than the regions to the south.
L. Lisá et al. / Quaternary International 351 (2014) 25e37 35
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Archaeological Department
of the University of Cambridge and the European Commission
Marie Curie Intra-European Fellowship program for support. This
research was also financed by the institutional research plan of the
Institute of Geology AS CR, v. v. i, No. AV0 Z 30130516 and by the
Institutional research plan of FWT Mendel University in Brno, No.
MSM 6215648902. We would like to thank Dr. M. Chadima from
Agico a.s. company for allowing measurement of magnetic properties
of studied sediments, to Prof. Jirí Svoboda and Martin K. Jones
to provide us with access to the excavation in Dolni Vestonice, to
Mgr. P. Drechsler for providing access to the section in Predmost,
and especially to dr. Peter Neruda for the possibility to sample
material from the Hostálkovice locality. Authors would also like to
thank Alena Samonilová for the very helpful comments and editing
of the English text.
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5.4. Glacigenní procesy
Mentlík P., Minár J., Břízová E., Lisá L., Taborik P. & Stacked V. (2010): Glaciation in the
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114
Glaciation in the surroundings of Prášilské Lake (Bohemian Forest, Czech Republic)
Pavel Mentlík a,
⁎, Jozef Minár e,f,1
, Eva Břízová b
, Lenka Lisá c,d,2
, Petr Tábořík f
, Václav Stacke f
a
Department of Geography, University of West Bohemia in Pilsen, Veleslavínova 42, 306 19, Plzeň, Czech Republic
b
Czech Geological Survey, Klárov 3/131, 118 21 Praha 1, Czech Republic
c
Geological Institute Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Rozvojová 269, 16500 Praha 6, Czech Republic
d
Department of Archaeology, Cambridge University, United Kingdom
e
Department of Physical Geography and Geoecology, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynská dolina, 842 15 Bratislava 4, Slovakia
f
Department of Physical Geography and Geoecology, University in Ostrava, Chittussiho 10, 710 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
a b s t r a c ta r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 2 August 2008
Received in revised form 27 November 2009
Accepted 3 December 2009
Available online 16 December 2009
Keywords:
Pleistocene glaciations
Prášilské Lake
Bohemian Forest
Šumava
Sedimentology
Chronology
Comprehensive geomorphological and sedimentological analyses confirmed three phases of Würm glaciation
in the surroundings of Prášilské Lake and Stará Jímka, in the Bohemian Forest (Šumava Mountains). Glaciations
were affected by a steep east-facing slope, by plateaus on the adjacent ridges and by local geological conditions.
A small valley glacier (about 2 km long and 50 m thick) occurred during the first phase. In the second phase, a
glacier–rock glacier developed, probably based on remnants of the valley glacier. During the last phase glacial
activity was divided into Stará Jímka and the stepped cirque of Prášilské Lake. A further shallow (∼3 m deep)
lake in Stará Jímka was dammed by slope movements after deglaciation (∼14 cal. ka BP) and survived until
∼4 cal. ka BP. The Late Pleistocene chronology of the Bohemian Forest seems to be related more closely to the
Alps than to northern Europe. In the mid-mountains of central Europe, Pleistocene glaciation decreases
significantly eastward, because of increasing continentality. The presence of plateaus (deflation areas), around
1300 m altitude, across the approach of westerly winds was important for the development of glaciers in the
Bohemian Forest. The termination of glaciation before the Younger Dryas is specific to the Bohemian Forest in
comparison with the Vosges and Krkonoše Mountains.
© 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Although much attention has been paid to glaciations in Europe (e.g.,
Ehlers and Gibbard, 2004a,b), some areas remain little known. The Czech
part of the Bohemian Forest (in Czech, the Šumava) is an example of such
omission, where research was difficult because of proximity to the former
‘Iron Curtain’ border. The position of the Bohemian Forest between
previously glaciated regions — Scandinavia and the Alps in a latitudinal
direction, and the Vosges and Western Carpathians in a longitudinal
direction— is importantforthechronological correlationspresented here.
Two basic concepts for the Pleistocene glaciation of the Bohemian
Forest have been postulated. Bayberg (1886) and Preihäusser (1934)
assumed an extensive glaciation (an ice cap on the Šumavské Plateau
with outlets filling the valleys of the bigger rivers, e.g. the Vydra and
Otava). On the contrary, Rathsburg (1928) argued that glaciers were
located in cirques with tongues only overlapping the sills. The second
hypothesis was supported by later research on the Czech side of the
Bohemian Forest (Šumava) (Votýpka, 1979; Mentlík, 2002, 2005, 2006;
Vočadlová and Křížek, 2005). On the Bavarian side of the Bohemian
Forest, however, evidence of a valley glacier up to 3 km long was found
in the Arber area (Pfaffl, 1998; Raab and Völkel, 2003; Reuther, 2007)
and the presence of glaciers up to 7 km long was postulated by Hauner
(1980) for the Rachel–Lusen area.
Papers dealing with the glaciation of the Czech part of the Šumava
or Bohemian Forest are outdated (Kunský, 1933; Votýpka 1979) or
partial (Mentlík, 2002, 2005, 2006; Vočadlová and Křížek, 2005). Our paper
presents the first comprehensive study of a previously glaciated area
(the surroundings of Prášilské Lake) in the Šumava using detailed
research with dating techniques and a multi-technique and multidisciplinary
approach.
This study presents the extent, character and chronology of
glaciations. Our results demonstrate a greater diversity of glacial
forms than has been mentioned previously (Votýpka, 1979; Raab and
Völkel, 2003) and the former presence of an extra post-glacial lake
(Stará Jímka).
2. Regional setting
Two glacial cirques creating a step-like system are the predominant
erosional glacial forms on the east flank of Poledník Mountain
Geomorphology 117 (2010) 181–194
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +420 777646307; fax: +420 377636582.
E-mail addresses: pment@kge.zcu.cz (P. Mentlík), minar@fns.uniba.sk (J. Minár),
eva.brizova@geology.cz (E. Břízová), lisa@gli.cas.cz (L. Lisá), petr.taborik@volny.cz
(P. Tábořík), vaclavstacke@seznam.cz (V. Stacke).
1
Permanent address. Department of Physical Geography and Geoecology, Comenius
University in Bratislava, Mlynská dolina, 842 15 Bratislava 4, Slovakia.
2
Permanent address. Geological Institute Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic,
Rozvojová 269, 16500 Praha 6, Czech Republic.
0169-555X/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.12.001
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Geomorphology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/geomorph
(1315 m asl), 3.5 km south of Prášily village (Fig. 1). Prášilské Lake
(49° 04′ N.,°13° 24′ E.) lies in the well-developed, almost semicircular
lower cirque (length 411 m; width 386 m; height of the headwall
141 m) at altitude 1079 m (Fig. 1). The cirque aspect is almost east
(azimuth of the median axis: 88°). The second, shallower, more open
cirque lies about 25 m higher (length 364 m; width 502 m; height of
the headwall 119 m). The plateaus on the adjacent ridges (area
170000 m2
) (Fig. 1) were important as deflation source areas aiding
development of the glaciers (Steffanová and Mentlík, 2007).
Stará Jímka is a 1015-m long and ∼70-m wide depression lying
∼800 m SSE of the lake, located between the wall and the linear steep
slope (∼35°) with a predominant eastward aspect (Fig. 1).
The geological conditions are summarized in the 1:50000 geological
maps of Pelc and Šebesta (1994). Although crystalline rocks such as
gneiss, migmatite, and quartzite are predominant, relatively small
granite areas are morphologically significant (particularly two zones
above the lake) (Fig. 2).
3. Materials and methods
Detailed geomorphological mapping by means of elementary
forms of relief formed the basis for our multidisciplinary research.
Elementary forms are geomorphic primitives delimited by discontinuity
of altitude or its derivatives, and characterized by internal
uniformity of altitude or some of its derivatives (Minár and Evans,
2008). Mapping of elementary forms was used for two reasons:
(i) elementary forms have strong morphogenetic significance:
their properties and discontinuities should be genetically interpretable
(Minár and Evans, 2008); and
(ii) their systematic mapping and analysis leads to a holistic understanding
of the area of interest (Minár and Evans, 2008) and is a
good base for multidisciplinary research.
Investigation of landform genesis and chronology involved multidisciplinary
research using sedimentological methods, pollen analysis
and relative and absolute dating. Geophysical profiling was used for
detection of the internal structure of the landforms and thickness of
the sediment.
To distinguish textural groups of sediment, particle size wasanalyzed
in the laboratory of the Department of Physical Geography and
Geoecology at the University of Ostrava, Czech Republic. The samples
were sieved down from 10000 to 0.001 µm and the data obtained were
entered into a “Gradistat” spreadsheet (Blott and Pye, 2001).
Three methods were used to investigate the origin of the sediments:
analysis of particle morphology (shape and roundness), analysis of clast
macrofabrics (Benn and Evans, 1998; Hubbard and Glasser, 2005) and
analysis of features on the surfaces of quartz grains by SEM (exoscopy).
For analysis of particle morphology the direction and dip as well as
the size of the a-, b- and c-axes were measured for each particle.
Roundness was classified visually according to Powers' (1953) scale.
Measurements of the axes were plotted on a “tri-plot” spreadsheet
(Graham and Midgley, 2000); C40 (shape) and RA (roundness)
indexes were calculated (Benn and Ballantyne, 1994; Harris et al.,
2004). Finally, results were plotted on the RA/C40 diagram (Benn and
Ballantyne, 1994). This approach was used to discriminate different
sedimentological facies and environments (Hambrey and Ehrmann,
2004). Data from the surroundings of near Laka Lake (Mentlík, 2005)
were also included, for the sake of completeness (better distinguishing
of facies and environments).
Fig. 1. Location of the area of interest in its European context; morphometric features of the cirque system on the left.
182 P. Mentlík et al. / Geomorphology 117 (2010) 181–194
Clast macrofabrics were analyzed with a two-dimensional rose
diagram and a three-dimensional contour data diagram. GEOrient 9.2
software (Holcombe, 2005) was used to create the diagrams and for
consequent statistical analysis.
Samples for exoscopy observations were wet-sieved (fraction 0.25–
0.50 mm) and the calcium carbonates, iron staining, and adhering
particles were removed by boiling for 20 min in 10% hydrochloric acid
and stannous chloride solution. 30 to 50 grains were then picked
randomly, mounted on double-sided graphite adhesive (which is fixed
on aluminum specimen stubs), and gold coated for viewing by scanning
electronic microscopy (SEM) (Krinsley and Doornkamp, 1973).
Samples were taken within the study area firstly from sites where
the genesis of the forms was obvious (debris flows, eluvium, and
glacial deposits). They were used as standards for subsequent research
and statistically interpreted in histograms (according to Helland et al.,
1997; Fuller and Murray, 2002; Mahaney, 2002). Subsequently, the
samples with uncertain origin were compared with the standards. This
process is necessary for use of SEM in an area where glacial transport
distances are short, implying that confusion with grains from different
processes (colluvial and fluvial) is likely.
The samples for pollen analysis (sampling interval of 5 cm) were
treated by the usual laboratory methods applied for the separation of
Quaternary sporomorphs (Erdtman, 1954; Overbeck, 1958; Faegri,
1964). Pollen grains of trees and shrubs, herbs, and spores of ferns and
other microfossils were identified and counted in each sample.
Identification was based on keys and pollen atlases (Reille, 1992,
1995, 1998) and the Czech Geological Survey's pollen reference
collection deposited in Prague. Spores of Bryophyta and selected Fungi
as well as some Rhizopoda, Rotatoria, Tardigrada, etc. were also
identified and counted on the pollen slides. Special attention was
paid to coccal green algae. The sediments were stratigraphically
classified after Firbas (1952). The pollen diagram is presented as a
percentage pollen diagram, produced with the PC program POLPAL
(Walanus and Nalepka, 1999). Pollen percentage was based on the
total sum of AP+NAP=100% (AP = trees and shrubs, NAP = herbs).
The counts of microfossils of other plants and animals were also
related to this sum.
Twoapproaches were used for dating thelandforms: relative(position
of glacial landforms, Schmidt hammer test, and analysis of roughness of
rock surfaces) and absolute (conventional and AMS 14
C dating).
It was expected that forms more distant from the source of
glaciation would be older (Hubbard and Glasser, 2005). This relative
age expectation was tested by measurement of intact rock strength
(IRS) with a Schmidt hammer (Mathews and Shakesby, 1984; Goudie,
2006), and by analysis of rock surface roughness (Mentlík, 2006).
Two approaches to use of a Schmidt hammer were employed. First,
larger datasets (n>60) were generated using the approach published
by Hubbard and Glasser (2005). But the number of measurements was
limited by the quantity of appropriate blocks on each form. Thus, a
second approach, demanding a smaller number of blocks (Evans et al.,
1999), was used simultaneously. The specific Rmax value was calculated
for each landform: methodological details are given in Mentlík (2006).
Using both methods allows comparison of two independent views of the
relative age of the landforms, and permits dating of landforms with too
few suitable boulders for the first method.
Parts of a core taken in Stará Jímka were dated by conventional and
AMS radiocarbon dating, in the laboratory of Gliwice Absolute Dating
Methods Centre (GADAM), Institute of Physics, Silesian University of
Technology, Poland.
Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), a technique of geophysical
sounding, was used for identification of the subsurface structure
of glacial landform complexes, as in Otto and Sass (2006). The ERT
technique (together with ground-penetrating radar and seismic
refraction) seems to be appropriate for determining the depth and
internal structure of a form (Schrott and Sass, 2008). The Wenner array,
a technique suitable for identification of horizontal structures (Schrott
and Sass, 2008), was used preferentially (besides the Wenner–
Schlumberger and the Dipol–Dipol arrays).
The parameters of fissure surfaces were measured on 89 outcrops,
for determination of structural predisposition of glacial erosional forms.
Fig. 2. Geological conditions and their relation with morphology of the lower cirque.
183P. Mentlík et al. / Geomorphology 117 (2010) 181–194
4. Results
4.1. Connection of geological condition and glacial activity
The following geological features (and their combination) are
important factors for development of the step-like cirques (Fig. 2):
(i) fissures of crystalline rock depending on gneissic schistosity
with predominant direction NW–SE — determining development
of the southern part of the lower cirque and the northern
rim of the higher cirque (Fig. 2);
(ii) fissures of granites with predominant directions 120–130° and
20–50°, determining development of the northern part of the
lower cirque (Fig. 2); and
(iii) the boundary between crystalline rocks and granites running
across the lower cirque, a structural weakness crucial for its
development (Fig. 2).
In comparison, the homogenous geological conditions of the gneiss
slope above Stará Jímka were unfavourable for development of a
glacial cirque, and a linear slope developed there.
4.2. Chronology of glaciation in the Prášilské Lake area
Three main phases of glaciation were distinguished by geomorphological
mapping in the Prášilské Lake area (arranged from the oldest and
most extensive to the youngest and smallest): the small valley glacier,
the combined glacier–rock glacier, and the cirque phase.
4.2.1. The small valley glacier phase
Three types of glacial landforms of this phase were found (I. on
Fig. 3): remnants of terminal and lateral frontal moraines, and a block
field.
The remnants of the terminal moraine have two spatially
connected parts, which are separated by the stream of Jezerní Brook.
A 5 m high step created by granite blocks is presented on the left side
while a degraded moraine wall exists on the right side (Fig. 3). The
step lies partly on the slope and has probably been remodelled by
gravitational processes, while the degraded moraine wall occurs on
the flat bottom of the valley and is better preserved. However, its level
of preservation is significantly poorer than that of the moraines of the
younger cirque phase. It is continued southward by a degraded lateral
moraine preserving as a step with sporadic erratics. The farthermost
position of the terminal moraine shows a maximum glacier length of
∼2060 m.
The upper moraine (Fig. 3; photo on the left) is created by granite
boulders and blocks (frequently more than 4 m long). These stones are
erratics that were transported from the granite parts of the cirque onto
the schist bedrock. The form was classified as a remnant of an upper
moraine — due to the unrounded shape of the blocks, continuous
character of the accumulation and its position behind remnants of
the frontal moraine. These geomorphological evidence (remnants
of the lateral moraine on the east side of the valley, and the block field
of the upper moraine at the rim of the cirque, representing the margin
of the glacier) were used to reconstruct the width (∼760 m), thickness
(∼54 m) and surface inclination (∼6°) of the former glacier (in the
cross profile) (Fig. 4). The inclination of the cross profile can indicate
Fig. 3. Landforms and selected documentary materials in the surroundings of Prášilské Lake (location on Fig. 1).
184 P. Mentlík et al. / Geomorphology 117 (2010) 181–194
an important source of ice from the cirques area, though the glacier
probably filled the whole valley head.
The sediment of this glaciation was classified as a unimodal, extremely
poorly sorted, gravelly muddy sand. The hypothesis that the
sediments were deposited by a glacier was supported by orientation of
macrofabric (22.5% of clasts in one 10°) sector — stronger than in the
other sedimentological environments (between 10.7% and 13.7% per
sector; apart from 21.2% for the front of the lobe of the glacier–rock
glacier;see Fig. 3). Additionally,the main macrofabric directionspointto
the cirque area (main source of the ice), such that accordance between
directions of the main macrofabric and ice flow is evident (Fig. 3).
In comparison with sediments of the other phases, the following
facts also support the suggestion of longer glacial transport:
(i) the values of clast shape (C40 36%) and roundness (RA 30%) are
lower (Fig. 5); and
(ii) significant striation was found on clasts, but was absent in
sediments of the other phases.
SEM could not be used to analyze this phase because of high
incrustation on the surfaces of quartz grains. This does, however,
support a relatively longer time since deposition.
Due to lack of natural exposures, incorporation of older sediments
and landforms into these forms cannot be ruled out, even though the
spatial connectivity of the forms suggests development during a single
glacial event.
4.2.2. The glacier–rock glacier phase
Forms connected with phase II. are morphologically significant and
consistent, creating a lobe ∼1500 m long: elongate below the steep
east-facing slope, 200–300 m wide and ∼12 m high (Figs. 3 and 6).
The lobe begins in front of the lake, it is superimposed on the southern
part of the granite block field and it declines at the end of Stará Jímka,
near the valley head (Fig. 6).
According to results of geophysical investigation the morphology
and internal structure of the lobe are similar in front of the cirques and
in Stará Jímka (Fig. 7). The form is distinctively delimited at the
bottom (the sediment thickness is about 20 m, decreasing away from
the cirques and the steep slope above Stará Jímka) (Fig. 7). The lobe
and the moraine walls (that in front of Stará Jímka and the outer
moraine wall of the lower cirque) create unity suggesting compression
of previously created sediments of the lobe by later glacial
advance (Fig. 7; Geophysical profiles 1 and 3).
The lobe is cut by a stream ravine (∼12 m deep and ∼280 m long)
running from Stará Jímka (Fig. 3, and photo on the right of Fig. 6),
creating a useful exposure of sediments on its left bank. Three hypotheses
for the origin of this lobe-shaped form, from the results
of geomorphological analysis, were tested by sedimentological
methods:
(i) repeated spreading of glaciers creating a “continuum” of frontal
moraines, suggesting predominantly glacial origin;
(ii) occurrence of a “periglacial rock glacier” (also known as talusderived
or protalus rock glacier: Benn and Evans, 1998), suggesting
a predominantly colluvial origin; and
(iii) activity of a glacier–rock glacier combination (Johnson, 1980;
Whalley and Martin, 1992; Benn and Evans, 1998), suggesting a
mixture of colluvial and glacial sediments.
Two samples were taken for analysis of particle morphology and
clast macrofabrics from the very front part and the middle part (30 m
from the head of the ravine) of the lobe. Both samples were taken 5 m
above the bottom (Fig. 6). The sediment characteristics can be described
as trimodal (middle gravel 29.5%, fine sand 9.3% and clay 20.9%) very
poorly sorted muddy sandy gravel, and bimodal (31.5% medium gravel
and 9.2% clay) extremely poorly sorted gravelly muddy sand.
Greater orientation of macrofabrics in the front part of the lobe
(23% in one sector, standard deviation 1.3 and circular dispersion
2.02) indicates glacial origin of the sediment (these characteristics
were similar to the sample from the small valley glacier phase)
(Fig. 3). Significantly lower roundness (RA 64.7%) and different shapes
Fig. 4. Reconstruction of thickness and inclination of the former surface of the glacier — small valley glacier phase (location on Fig. 3).
Fig. 5. Results of analysis of clast shapes and roundness from the surroundings of
Prášilské and Laka lakes.
185P. Mentlík et al. / Geomorphology 117 (2010) 181–194
(C40 59%) suggest shorter transport than in sediment of the small
valley glacier phase (Fig. 5).
The orientation of macrofabrics from the second sample was lower
(12.2% in one sector, standard deviation 1.4 and circular dispersion
32.77) while the roundness and shape of clasts were similar (RA 56%
and C40 45%) (Fig. 5). This is consistent with different origins for the
front part (glacial) and the middle part (colluvial).
To collect further evidence for the origin of the lobe, the left
bank of the ravine was sampled in a 3 by 5 grid. Micromorphological
structures on the quartz grain surfaces were observed by SEM, and
probable origin at a particular place was postulated (Fig. 8). The set of
features typical for glacial transport were remarkably well-developed
in all samples at the very front part of the lobe — e.g. small (78%) and
large (56%) conchoidal fracture, straight (67%) and arcuate (67%)
steps, and edge abrasion (61%). Characteristics suggesting longer
weathering were not significant (e.g., chemical V-shaped pits 0%,
limited silica precipitation 17%, and extensive silica precipitation 5%)
(Fig. 8).
Samples from the middle and end parts of the lobe, however,
suggest colluvial and/or glacial sediment transported for a short
distance (Fig. 8). Mechanical features typical of glacial transport were
relatively limited — e.g. small (8%) and large (8%) conchoidal
fractures, straight (28%) and arcuate (16%) steps, and edge abrasion
(20%) were found on few grains. Nevertheless, features suggesting
longer weathering without remodelling by glacial transport (typical
for eluvium or sediment from short — 100–200 m — debris flows)
were found — e.g. chemical V-shaped pits (13%), limited (28%) and
extensive (52%) silica precipitation. Grains with combinations of these
features were classified as glacial sediment transported for a short
distance.
These results accord with the third postulated hypothesis,
suggesting a glacier–rock glacier origin for the lobe and eliminating
wholly gravitational or wholly glacial origins.
4.2.3. The cirque phase
Two further accumulation forms developed when the glacier of
phase III. occurred in the cirques, and remnants of a glacier survived
shaded by the slope in the Stará Jímka area:
(i) two end moraines in front of Prášilské Lake (Fig. 3). The outer
moraine, terminal for this phase, is up to 12 m high. It is
southeast of the lake and has an asymmetrical position in
relation to the lower cirque (Fig. 3). Thus, development by
activity of a step-like cirque system is suggested for three
reasons: asymmetrical position of the outer moraine wall
towards the lower cirque suggests mass coming from the upper
cirque; there are no morphologically significant moraines in
front of the higher cirque; and on current relief (from DEM
analysis) all mass flows from the bottom of the upper cirque
into the lower.
The shape of the inner (recessional) moraine (damming the
current lake) accords with the sill of the lower cirque. We infer
that this moraine developed when the quantity of snow
deflated from the plateau decreased, and the activity of the
(step-like) cirque glacier system terminated (glacial activity
was restricted to the lower cirque).
Fig. 6. Landforms and selected documentary materials in the surroundings of Stará Jímka (location on Fig. 1).
186 P. Mentlík et al. / Geomorphology 117 (2010) 181–194
Fig. 7. Geophysical (ERT) profiles in the surroundings of Prášilské Lake (location on Fig. 3) and Stará Jímka (location on Fig. 6).
187P. Mentlík et al. / Geomorphology 117 (2010) 181–194
(ii) 770 m long wall lying below the linear part of the slope in front
of Stará Jímka (Fig. 6).
The wall narrows from north (∼220 m) to south (∼160 m wide).
All of the proximal side has a similar inclination (∼20°) but the distal
slope is gentle in the north (∼11°) and steeper in the south (∼19°)
(Fig. 7; Geophysical profiles 2 and 3).
From the geophysical results, the original lobe of glacier–rock glacier
sediment was compressed by a later glacier forming the walls (Fig. 7;
Geophysicalprofiles2 and3).This oscillationprobablycorrespondedwith
the lowercirquewalldevelopment(I.—earlieroscillation).Consequently,
remnant ice prevailed in the central part of Stará Jímka and material
coming from the slope accumulated in front of this ice created a partly
separated wall (this wall is not significant morphologically now because
of a peatbog flattening the relief — Fig. 7; Geophysical profile 2).
The sediment of this accumulation was classified as polymodal
(medium gravel 14.2%, 9.5% fine sand, 10% very fine sand and 16.7%
clay) extremely poorly sorted, muddy sandy gravel. No particular
orientation of clasts was found (10.7% in a sector, standard deviation
1.9, and circular dispersion 15.67) (Fig. 6). Roundness (RA 81%) and
shape (C40 46.9%) indicate a very short transport. These characteristics
are similar to those of glacio-colluvial sediments from the middle part
of the glacier rock–glacier phase lobe (Fig. 5). SEM analysis, however,
points to glacial modification of the sediment (significant glacial
features include small 76% and large 30% conchoidal fractures, straight
58% and arcuate 37% steps, and edge abrasion 57%).
Very low sorting, orientation and shaping of the clasts combined
with the glacial features on the surface of the quartz grains imply a
combination of glacial and colluvial processes.
Stará Jímka is divided into three main parts (Fig. 6):
(A) shallow (max. 1 m deep) frontal part in the north;
(B) ∼5 m deep part where a core was taken (Fig. 9), showing no
significant human influence; and
(C) ≤5 m deep artificially dammed part — a reservoir (used for
floating logs) — the sediments were possibly removed during
clearing of the reservoir.
The boundary between parts A and B is created by a natural dam
(∼70 m wide and ∼50 m long). This is complemented by a
Fig. 8. Results of SEM analysis of the lobe-shaped (glacier–rock glacier) form (location and photo on Fig. 6); the range of microstructures commonly observed on studied material
(according to Bull, 1978; Helland et al., 1997; Fuller and Murray, 2002).
188 P. Mentlík et al. / Geomorphology 117 (2010) 181–194
semicircular scarp on the adjacent east-facing slope, which probably
presents a root area of slope deformation. According to radiocarbon
dating and pollen analysis, the depression was dammed directly after
deglaciation and before 14 cal. ka BP (Figs. 9 and 10; Table 1).
The former existence of a lake isconfirmed by thepresence of aquatic
organisms (Isoëtes and algae) in the core (Fig. 10), and of Late Glacial
lake sediment in both the core (Fig. 9) and ERT sounding (Fig. 7).
4.3. Relative dating of landforms
The proposal of three phases of glaciation was supported by the
Schmidt hammer results (Fig. 11). This test was applied north of
Prášilské Lake, where boulders of granite cover all glacial landforms.
Relative dating confirmed the graded sequence of the phases — the
older (small valley glacier phase) was the most extensive, while the
youngest was connected with the cirques or with the east-facing
linear slope (Fig. 11). Within each mapped landform the weathering
of boulders was similar: Coefficients of Variation (Fig. 11) were <15%.
However, there are two exceptions. Higher coefficients were found
firstly in deposits of the oldest glaciation, and secondly on boulders
covering the headwall (Fig. 3). Weathering over a long time period
possibly caused differences between boulders of the oldest phase (the
weathering probably exceeded the range of sensitivity of the Schmidt
hammer test). Conversely, variation between relatively older and
younger boulders on the headwall suggests continuous activity of
rock falling during the Holocene.
5. Interpretation and discussion
Three phases of glaciation (Table 1) were reconstructed in the
surroundings of Prášilské Lake and Stará Jímka. The remnants of the
most extensive glaciation suggest the former existence of a small valley
glacier filling the head of the valley. The distribution of geomorphological
forms and the surface inclination of the reconstructed glacier
confirm a connection between the glacier, the steep east-facing slope
and the deflation plateau (Steffanová and Mentlík, 2007). The
approximate altitude of deflation plateaus in the Šumava Mountains
was ∼1200–1300 m asl (the average altitude of the highest points of the
headwalls of six Šumava glacial cirques was 1285 m). Snow was
deflated from the plateau, accumulated to leeward, and further
transported by snow avalanches. Such connection between the plateau
and the cirques implies predominant westerly winds when the glaciers
developed, and supports the conclusions of Renssen et al. (2007) that
west or northwest winds were dominant in Central Europe during the
Weischselian Late Pleniglacial.
We suggest that glacier developmentfollowed thebuild-up of a snow
cap on the plateau ∼1300 m asl, providing a source for enhanced snow
deflation as described by Nesje and Dahl (1992) for western Norway.
If we compare the calculated size of former glaciers from the
surroundings of Prášilské Lake and Kleiner Arbersee (Raab and Völkel,
2003) (Table 2), length, and width are similar but the thickness of the
Prášilské Lake glacier was only half of that at Kleiner Arbersee. This is
probably due to the lower altitude of deflation plateaus on adjacent
ridges (less than 100 m) and also the lower relative height of the
headwall in the Prášilské Lake area (Table 2).
Conversely, longer former glaciers (up to 7 km) were suggested by
Hauner (1980) for the eastern part of the Bavarian Forest (Rachel–
Lusen area) with valleys heading south. More favourable conditions
for glaciers there might come from the larger and higher (more than
1300 m) deflation plateaus. However, this difference remains as an
issue for future research.
The second glacier–rock glacier phase (Table 1) is represented by
the elongated lobe-shaped form below the steep slope facing east. The
glacial front part and the colluvio-glacial body support the hypothesis
of glacier–rock glacier origin. The development of glacier–rock
glaciers has been described also from other mountain areas (Whalley
and Martin, 1992). For the Prášilské Lake area, the development can
be summarized as follows:
(i) after retreat of the small valley glacier, remnants of glacier ice
were preserved in the shadow of the steep slope facing east;
(ii) debris from the slope fell on the glacier remnants and the weight
of this sediment reactivated glacier flow; while the front part was
moving, producing glacial features in the frontal deposit, debris
was falling on the rest of the form leading to the colluvio-glacial
features which predominate in the middle part; and
(iii) flow velocity reduced and finally stopped due to thinning and
ablation of the ice.
This concept suggests a direct connection between first two phases,
as remnants of the reduced glacier provided a basis for the glacier
rock–glacier phase.
Fig. 9. Core profile and results of radiocarbon dating — the filled lake in Stará Jímka (location on Figs. 6 and 7 — Geophysical profile 2).
189P. Mentlík et al. / Geomorphology 117 (2010) 181–194
Fig.10.ResultsofpollenanalysisofthefilledlakeinStaráJímka(locationonFigs.6and7—Geophysicalprofile2).
190 P. Mentlík et al. / Geomorphology 117 (2010) 181–194
These Bohemian Forest landforms have generally been interpreted
as glacial rather than periglacial (Kunský, 1933; Raab and Völkel,
2003; Vočadlová and Křížek, 2005). Absence of rock glaciers and
related forms in the Bohemian Forest and in the whole Czech Massif
seems to be very unlikely — rock glacier sediments were observed
only in the Krušné Hory Mountains (Růžičková et al., 2001) and the
Hrubý Jeseník (Czudek, 1997). This is unexpected, in comparison with
other European regions (Harrison et al., 2008).
The final cirque phase (Table 1) was probably connected with a
cooler and/or wetter climate and/or strong wind activity favouring
snow accumulation in the cirques. Both cirques and Stará Jímka
contained ice at the start of this phase, but finally glaciation was
limited to the lower cirque.
According to the radiocarbon dating and pollen analysis (Figs. 9
and 10), the development of geomorphological conditions in the Late
Glacial and Holocene may be summarized as follows:
(i) the end of glaciation before ∼14cal. ka BP: the area was ice free
before the Younger Dryas. This accords with the conclusions
of Raab and Völkel (2003) from the surroundings of Kleiner
Arbersee and of Pražáková et al. (2006) from Plešné Lake:
the deglaciation of that area is dated at 14.6cal. ka BP. But the
lack of glacial activity in the Younger Dryas distinguishes the
Bohemian Forest from some other middle-mountain areas in
Central Europe — the Vosges (Mercier and Jeser, 2004) and the
Krkonoše Mountains (Mercier et al., 2000; Bourlès et al., 2004);
(ii) instability of slopes connected with higher activity of mass
movements occurred in a paraglacial phase after deglaciation. A
landslide occurred around 14 cal. ka BP and a lake (∼ 3 m deep)
was dammed in Stará Jímka;
(iii) cold conditions, documented by aquatic psychrophile algae
(Pediastrum boryanum var. longicorne and P. integrum), persist
in the profile until ∼ 10 cal. ka BP (Fig. 10) — implying periglacial
conditions in the shaded areas of the headwall and the
cirques. Higher activity of slope mass movements (rockfall and
sliding) predominated until development of forest around
10 cal. ka BP stabilized the slopes. This event was connected
with lower abundance of Betula nana, Juniperus, and Salix
(probably shrubs growing around the lake) (Jankovská, 2006)
and Helianthemum (growing on the free rock surfaces of the
headwalls). Conditions in the Bohemian Forest were significantly
milder than in the Krkonoše (Mercier et al., 2000;
Bourlès et al., 2004) and even Vosges where permanent ice
cover seems to have disappeared around 6 ka (Mercier and
Jeser, 2004, p. 117).
(iv) The lake was infilled ∼4 cal. ka BP, when aquatic organisms
(e.g., Isoëtes and various aquatic algae) disappeared (Fig. 10).
Comparison of our results with the conclusions of other work on
the glaciation of the Bohemian Forest is problematic because authors
have used different methods for evaluating the numbers of glacial
readvances (Table 3). Some authors described the quantity of
moraines (e.g. the four moraine walls of Raab and Völkel (2003)),
while others tried to reconstruct phases of glaciation. Authors using
the second approach included moraine walls and other (e.g., steplike)
landforms. We prefer this second approach, considering both the
Table 1
Summary of landscape development in the surroundings of Prášilské Lake.
Phase of landscape
development
Prášilské Lake area
(cal. 14
C BP)
Type of glacial activity in the
Prášilské Lake area
The Alps (Preusser, 2004; Ivy-Osch et al., 2008)
(cal.14
C BP)
North Atlantic region
(Björk et al., 1998)
Small valley glacier phase ? Specific valley glacier (connected
with the steep and high east-facing
slope and deflation plateaus)
LGM before 18–19 ka GS-2c 21000–18500
Glacier–rock glacier phase ? Glacier–rock glacier activity
connected with the steep eastfacing
slope
Oldest Dryas Phase of early Late
Glacial ice decay
18–17 ka GS-2b 18500–16500
Cirque phase Before 14 ka Step-like cirque system activity;
Glacier in Stará Jímka
Gschnitz 16–17 ka GS-2a 16500–15000
Cirque glacier (glacier activity only
in the lower cirque); remnants of
ice in Stará Jímka
Clavadel or Daun Before 14.7 ka
Paraglacial phase sensu stricto ∼14 ka Unloading of slope: slope
movements damming the lake in
Stará Jímka
Bølling/Allerød – 12.9–14.7 ka Gl-1 15000–13000
Periglacial processes ∼ 14–10 ka Shrubs —higher activity of rock
falling, gelifluctin
Younger Dryas Egesen >12.9 ka GS1 13000–11500
Recent geomorphological
processes
∼10 ka–present Occurrence of forest (Fagus, Picea,
and Abies) and recent
geomorphological conditions
(fluvial activity, rockfall etc.)
Holocene
Fig. 11. Results of Schmidt hammer test in the surroundings of Prášilské Lake
(v=Coefficient of Variation; s=standard deviation).
191P. Mentlík et al. / Geomorphology 117 (2010) 181–194
number and the character of glacial landforms in reconstructing the
glacial history of the area. According to our results (Table 3), between
two and four glacial phases (stadials) occurred in the Bohemian Forest
during the last cold period (Würm/Weichselian).
Data on glaciation of the Bohemian Forest can provide connections
between European stratigraphical systems in longitudinal directions,
with northern Europe and the Alps (Table 1), in terms of:
(i) at least two periods of glacial activity (cold), with the older
period being more extensive;
(ii) in a more temperate period between these two the glacier
retreated and the glacier–rock glacier developed;
(iii) 32.4±9.4 ka BP (IRSL age) is a maximum age for glaciation in the
Bavarian Forest (Raab and Völkel, 2003). This supports the idea
that the most extensive Weichselian glaciation probably occurred
in MIS 2, as in the Alps (between 21–24 ka BP: Preusser,
2004) and the Vosges (Mercier and Jeser, 2004); and
(iv) glaciation in the Bohemian Forest finished before the Bølling/
Allerød and occurred in conditions colder and/or more humid
than in the Younger Dryas, when the cirques were ice free
(Raab and Völkel, 2003; Pražáková et al., 2006).
We also compared our results and the data from the Alps (Preusser,
2004 and Ivy-Osch et al., 2008) and northern Europe (Björk et al.,
1998) (Table 1). The small valley glacier phase can be correlated with
the Last Glacial Maximum in the Alps (before 18–19 ka), MIS 2 and
stage GS2a in northern Europe. The glacier–rock glacier phase can be
correlated with Late Glacial decay in the Alps (17–18 ka BP) and stage
GS2b in north Europe (Table 1). Two colder glacial oscillations
occurred in the Prášilské Lake area (documented by two moraine
walls in the cirque) between the LGM and Bølling/Allerød (stage G1-1
in the north Europe). The first one might correspond with the Gschnitz
cold phase in the Alps (16–17 ka BP) (Preusser, 2004) and the second
one with Clavadel or Daun phases (dated before 14.7 ka in the Alps).
This cold period was not significantly distinct in northern Europe
(Björk et al., 1998). Thus we suppose that the glacial chronology of the
Šumava Mountains relates to climatic conditions similar to glaciations
in the Alps (which are closer than southern Norway).
In a latitudinal direction, it is possible to distinguish a significant
eastward decrease in intensity of glaciation in European Hercynian
massifs during the last cold period. Valleyglaciers (more than 40 km long
on the western side and 15 km on the eastern side) occurred in the
Vosges (Mercier and Jeser, 2004), a small icecap in the Schwarzwald, and
repeated glaciations despite relatively low altitude (Brocken 1142 m asl)
in the Harz (Fiebig et al., 2004). In contrast, cirque glaciers and small
valley glaciers (lengths up to 3 km) existed in the Šumava, connected
with ridges with altitudes ∼1200–1300 m. Finally, small cirque-shaped
forms (Malá and Velká Kotlina valleys) existed below ridges with
altitudes ∼1400 m in the Hrubý Jeseník (Czudek, 1997, 2005) farther
east. The difference between sizes of glaciers in the Czech part of the
Bohemian Forest (valleys facing north) and in the German part (valleys
facing south), where Hauner (1980) described valley glaciers with
lengths up to 7 km, remains as a question for future research.
A glacial origin has also been proposed for the cirque-shaped form
below Klínovec Mountain. (1244 m asl, in the Krušné Hory Mountains),
however Král (1968) argued that it is a remnant of a large rockfall.
Similarly, the extensive moraine system described by Pelíšek (1953)
below Smrk Mountain (1276 m asl) in the Moravskoslezské Beskydy is
more likely a remnant of extensive debris flow activity in the Late
PleistoceneandHolocene(Páneketal.,2009).Asglaciersrequiredsummit
altitudes of ∼1200–1300 m asl in the Bohemian Forest, it is probable that
lower mountains such as the Krušné Hory did not have sufficient altitude
for development of glaciers, whereas drier conditions associated with
greater continentality in the eastern Czech mountain ranges (the
Moravskoslezské Beskydy) were insufficient for development of glaciers.
Glacial forms in the Bohemian Forest have been investigated by
geophysical methods for the first time. As well as the ∼20 m thick layer
of sediment connected with the glacial landforms, a thick layer (more
than 70 m) of unconsolidated sediment was found by the ERT method.
The slope above Stará Jímka, and the headwall of the lower cirque, fall
very steeply below this material. We hypothesize that the valley is
filled by sediment, which may be connected with older glaciations,
and we are able to see only the upper parts of the erosional forms at
present: further work on these sediments is required.
6. Conclusions
(i) The development of erosional glacial forms in the Prášilské
Lake area is significantly influenced by a combination of
geological conditions (fissures of granites, foliation of crystalline
schists, and bedrock boundaries);
(ii) geomorphological methods show the presence of small valley
glaciers (up to ∼2 km long) in the Czech part of the Bohemian
Forest at the LGM, followed by cirque glaciers in two stadials
possibly correlated with the Gschnitz and Clavadel or Daun
cold phases in the Alps. The exact timing, however, must be
established by absolute dating. Our results suggest close
climatic relations of the Bohemian Forest with the Alps rather
than with northern Europe;
(iii) the termination of glaciation before the Younger Dryas in the
Bohemian Forest contrasts with that in the Vosges and Krkonoše
Mountains;
(iv) in comparison with other previously glaciated areas in central
Europe a significant differentiation of glacial landforms was
found in the surroundings of Prášilské Lake. Apart from moraine
walls, the presence of a glacier–rock glacier combination and of
glacio-colluvial formations was determined. Such forms may
have been omitted or misinterpreted in similar areas in the
Bohemian Forest and Czech Massif;
Table 2
Comparison of opinions about former glaciers in areas of selected glacial lakes in the Bohemian Forest.
Area Maximal
length
Maximal.
width
Maximal
thickness
Lower extension of
glacier
Authors Altitude of adjacent
deflation plateau
Highest point in the
cirque surroundings
Surroundings of Kleiner Arbersee 2600 m 800 m 115 m 830–880 m asl Raab and Völkel (2003) ∼1300 m 1456 m asl
Surroundings of Prášilské Lake 2060 m 760 m 51 m 1025 This work ∼1200 m 1315 m asl
Table 3
Comparison of ideas on glacial sequences in surroundings of selected glacial lakes in the
Bohemian Forest.
Area Character of glaciation, morphology, and age Authors
North cirque of
Grosse Rachel
4 moraine walls; Würm Pfaffl (1998)
Grosse Arbersee 4 moraine walls; Würm Pfaffl (1998)
Kleiner Arbersee 4 moraine walls; Würm Raab and Völkel
(2003)
Plešné Lake Basal accumulation (probably cryogenic),
frontal and passive moraine; 2 phases
Votýpka (1979)
Černé Lake At least 3 generations of moraine walls Vočadlová and
Křížek (2005)
Prášilské Lake 3 phases of glaciations This work
Laka Lake 3 moraine walls (2 phases of glaciations) Mentlík (2005)
192 P. Mentlík et al. / Geomorphology 117 (2010) 181–194
(v) a shallow (∼3 m deep) lake existed in Stará Jímka from 14 to
4 cal. ka BP. The lake was dammed by slope movements in a
paraglacial phase after deglaciation;
(vi) comparison with results from the other middle-mountain areas
in the Czech Massif suggests dependence of glaciation on
altitude (∼1200–1300 m) and confirms the eastward decline of
humidity and thus of glaciation; and
(vii) although the thickness of glacial sediments belonging to the last
glaciation had been identified as ∼20 m, preliminary geophysical
results suggest an infill more than 70 m thick at the head of
the valley, connected with glacial activity. If confirmed, that
would indicate much longer and more complicated development
of the landscape in the Quaternary than has previously
been established from surface evidence.
Acknowledgements
The research was supported by the following grants: grants of the
Czech Academy of Science, KJB300460501 and KJB300460803; the
integrated project (AV0Z30130516—Earth System) of the Geological
Institute Czech Academy of Sciences; grant of Slovak Research and
Development Agency No. ESF-EC-0006-07; and grant (research
program) MZP000257801 (Ministry of Environment, Czech Republic).
Finally, we are very thankful to Dr. Ian S. Evans of Durham University
for his critical reading and useful suggestions that helped improve this
paper. We also thank to Richard A. Marston and three anonymous
reviewers for valuable comments on the manuscript.
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59
GEOGRAFIE • ROK 2011 • ČÍSLO 1 • ROČNÍK 116
LENKA KŘÍŽOVÁ, MAREK KŘÍŽEK, LENKA LISÁ
VÝZNAM POVRCHOVÉ ANALÝZY KŘEMENNÝCH ZRN
PRO STUDIUM GENEZE NEZPEVNĚNÝCH SEDIMENTŮ
KŘÍŽOVÁ, L., KŘÍŽEK, M., LISÁ, L. (2011): Applicability of quartz grains surface
analysis to the study of the genesis of unlithified sediments. Geografie, 116,
No. 1, pp. 59–78. – This paper deals with genetic types of unlithified sediments and their
characteristics with an emphasis on quartz grain surface microrelief. There are various
physical-geographic agents in different sedimentary environments which play an important
role in the origin of certain marks on the surface of sedimentary grains. As a result,
studying the features of quartz grain surfaces enables us to determine the possible origin of
sediments and landforms. Reference samples were chosen from geomorphological landforms
of known origin: a moraine in the Labský Důl Valley, a debris flow in the Důl Bílého Labe
Valley, a flood accumulation and deluvium from the Důl Bílého Labe Valley in the Krkonoše
Mountains and eolian sediment from Klárov in Prague. Significant differences in surface
micromorphology were found among these samples.
KEY WORDS: exoscopy – accumulation landforms – weathering – sediments.
Práce vznikla za podpory projektů GAAV KJB301110804 „Recentní aktivita strukturních
půd ve vybraných oblastech střední Evropy“ a výzkumného záměru MSM 0021620831 „Geografické
systémy a rizikové procesy v kontextu globálních změn a evropské integrace“.
1. Úvod
Nezpevněné sedimenty jsou tvořeny přemístěným a usazeným materiálem,
který vznikl rozpadem hornin. Prostor mezi jednotlivými zrny není vyplněn
tmelem, na rozdíl od zpevněných sedimentů (Kukal 1986). Nezpevněné sedimenty
lze rozlišit podle genetického typu, tedy jejich původu a podmínek
vzniku. Základní genetické skupiny kvartérních sedimentů vyskytujících se
na území Česka jsou: fluviální, ledovcové, eolické, svahové, jezerní a jeskynní
(Růžičková a kol. 2003). Smyslem jejich zkoumání je poznání vývoje a změn
fyzickogeografických podmínek v čase. Jedním z hlavních úkolů geomorfologie
je určení geneze reliéfu, což lze v některých případech odvodit ze znalosti charakteristik
materiálu, který je tvoří. Jednou z metod, která umožňuje odpovědět
na otázky geneze sedimentů a tedy i tvarů jimi tvořených, je exoskopie
neboli studium povrchových textur na křemených zrnech (Margolis, Krinsley
1971; Fitzpatrick, Summerson 1971; Halley, Krinsley 1974; Le Ribault 1975;
Cremer, Legigan 1989; Mahaney 2002). Tato metoda má potenciál, aby byla
v budoucnosti více používaná v geomorfologickém výzkumu. Jedním z cílů
článku je představit tuto metodu, její možnosti a zejména etablovat českou
terminologii, která do dnešní doby buď neexistuje anebo není díky dílčím studiím
ujednocena. Dalším cílem je na vzorových příkladech (morény z údolí
Labe; mury, povodňových sedimentů a deluvia z údolí Bílého Labe a eolického
60
sedimentu z pražského Klárova) demonstrovat, do jaké míry lze exoskopickou
metodou odlišit sedimenty různé geneze.
2. Povrch klastických zrn
Metodu exoskopické analýzy uvedl v roce 1935 André Cailleux pod názvem
morfoskopie písku. Princip metody spočívá ve studiu křemenných zrn, která
během transportu prodělala signifikantní změny na svém povrchu. Typ fluida,
rychlost a délka transportu určuje množství vzniklých texturních prvků
a zároveň interpretovatelnost procesů, jimiž křemenná zrna během transportu
prošla (Le Ribault 2003a). Povrch křemenných zrn je pozorován pod binokulárním
a následně elektronovým mikroskopem při vícenásobném zvětšení.
Ideální velikostní frakce zrn pro tuto analýzu je 300 až 500 µm, protože na
zrnech této velikosti se nejlépe projevují mechanické i chemické vlivy (Le Ribault
1975; Censier, Tourenq 1986; Cremer, Legigan 1989), jejichž procentuální
zastoupení u jemnozrnných sedimentů není zcela jasné (Lisá 2004).
Na povrchu zrn se setkáváme se znaky mechanického nebo chemického původu.
Lze rozlišit stupeň lesklosti (lesklý až matný) a skulpturní znaky (rýhování,
poškrábání, nárazová deprese, vtisky aj.). Matný povrch křemenných zrn písčité
frakce bývá většinou spojován s eolickými pochody, lesklý vzniká nejčastěji
dlouhým transportem ve vodním prostředí řek, nebo vývojem v mořském prostředí.
V pouštních podmínkách je lesklý povrch vysvětlován tenkým povlakem
pouštního laku chemogenního původu (Petránek 1963, Le Ribault 2003b).
3. Mikrotextury podle geneze
Geneze sedimentů určovaná metodou exoskopie odvisí od výskytu charakteristických
mikrotextur (viz tab. 1, obr. 1–5) či jejich souborů na povrchu zrn
(sensu Le Ribault 1975). Jedná se o takové mirkotextury, které vznikly při zvětrávání,
transportu a sedimentaci materiálu a jejichž procentuální zastoupení
většinou nepřevyšuje 60 % (Mahaney, Stewart, Kalm 2001). V rámci jednoho
prostředí mohou být křemenná zrna ovlivněna několika geneticky odlišnými
procesy (Alkaseeva 2005), avšak nejzřetelnější tvary na křemenných zrnech
jsou většinou takové, které vznikly během posledního transportu. Kromě procesu
který se podílel na posledním typu transportu dokáže exoskopie odhalit
na jediném zrnu až 8 epizod vývoje (Le Ribault 1975).
Vztahy mezi eluviálními, fluviálními a eolickými prvky se mění se změnami
klimatických podmínek. Vliv procesů na mikroreliéf zrna závisí také na trvání
transportu a energii transportního média. Intenzita chemické transformace
povrchů křemenných zrn je závislá na době působení chemických procesů, klimatu,
textuře sedimentů, velikosti zrn minerálů a na pozici v půdním profilu
a v reliéfu (Alkaseeva 2005). Při zkoumání vzorků je třeba mít na zřeteli, že
zrna různých genetických typů mohla být během svého transportu smíchána
(Mahaney, Kalm 2000).
61
Tab.1–Základnímikrotexturykřemennýchzrn
MikrotexturaAnglickýnázevCharakteristikaPodmínkyvznikuLiteraturaObr.
Mikrotexturymechanickéhopůvodu:
aLasturnatýlomconchoidal
fracture
Jemnézakřivenélomovéplochysžeb-
rovanýmvzhledem.
Vznikajípřiodlamováníodhor-
ninyvlivemnárazu.Odpovídají
zvláštěglaciálnímaperiglaciál-
nímpodmínkám.
1,5,6,7,8,10,
12,14,17,19,
20,21
2,5
Lineárnísubpa-
ralelnílomy
subparallel
linearfractures
Paralelněseskupenéstupněsvýraz-
nějšímorfologiínežmajílasturnaté
lomy.
2,4,6,12,14,
17,19
bRovnéstupněstraightstepsPodobnélasturnatýmlomům,alestr-
mější,světšíhloubkouarozestupy.
Zpravidlatvoříhranicemezilomový-
miplochami.
2,6,12,14,15,
17,21,22
4
cObloukové
stupně
arc-steps,
arcuatesteps
2,6,12,14,17,
18,20,21,22
4,5
PaprsčitélomyradialfracturesLineárnílomyvybíhajícízestředu
místa,kdedošloknárazu.Srostou-
císilounárazusepoloměrstředu
zmenšuje.
Vznikápřinárazuhorniny,
zvláštěvglaciálnímaperi-
glaciálnímprostředí.
13
dPuklinové
plochy
fracturefacesVelké,hladkéačistéplochypřes
25%povrchuzrna.Mohoubýtlehce
zakřivené,občassenanichvyskytují
lasturnatélomy.
Vznikajípřevážněpřimecha-
nickémzvětráváníavglaciál-
níchpodmínkách.
8,132
AbrazehranedgeabrasionObroušeníhranvlivemtransportu.
Čímdelšítransport,tímrozsáhlejší
abraze.
Nejvýraznějšíueolickéhoasva-
hovéhomateriálu.
eKlikatéhřbítkymeandring
ridges
Jsoutvořenykřemičitýmisraženina-
mi,kterékopírujíporuchynebolomy
napovrchuzrna.
Vznikajívperiglaciálníchaflu-
viálníchpodmínkáchzanízké
kinetickéenergie.
133
fParalelnírýhyparallel
striations
Paralelněvedoucíbrázdyvpovrchu
zrn.
Typicképroglaciálníprostředí.3,5,6,13,14,
15,16
1
62
MikrotexturaAnglickýnázevCharakteristikaPodmínkyvznikuLiteraturaObr.
gV-jamkyV-shapedpitsDrobnýimpaktnítvarsbočnímprofi-
lemvetvaruV.
Glaciálníaeolicképrostře-
díonízkékinetickéenergii,
fluviálníprostředíoprůměrné
kinetickéenergii.
2,3,5,7,8,9,
12,13,15,16
1
Mísovitéjamkydish-shapped
breakage
concavities
Depresemísovitéhotvaru,kterédo-
sahujíoprotijinýmimpaktůmvětších
velikostí.
Glaciální,fluviálníaeolické
prostředíovysokékinetické
energii.
2,4,5,8,9,11
hSrpkovitétvarycrescent-shaped
features
Srpkovitétvaryvznikajícínárazem
čepelovitýchčásticnapovrchzrn.
Glaciálníaeolickýtransport
oprůměrnékinetickéenergii,
fluviálnítransportovysoké
kinetickéenergii.
4,5,9,12,13,
14,19,
2
iRovnébrázdystraightgroovesAbradovanémikroprvkyzpůsobené
rytím.Rovnébrázdyodpovídajíčasto
většísíleamenšímunapětí.
Běžněspojoványsčinností
ledovců,vznikajívšakipři
gravitačníchpochodech.
2,3,8,10,12,
13,16
1,2
jObloukové
brázdy
curvedgrooves2,8,13,19,212
Tvaryvzniklé
drcením
grinding
features
Kruhové,hlubokéstopyskoncentric-
kýmitvary.Mohoubýtnapojenyna
brázdymenšíchrozměrů.
Glaciálníprostředíagravitační
pochody.
5,8,11
Štěpnéplátkycleavageplates,
upturnedplates
Tenképlátkyvystupujícízpovrchu
křemennýchzrn.Nejsnázejsoupozo-
rovatelnénahranáchzrn.
Vznikápřiodlamováníodhor-
niny,výskytjespojovánhlavně
sglaciálnímipodmínkami.
8,10,13,15,
21,22
lPřilnavéčásticeadhering
particles
Malé,plochékřemennéčásticepři-
chycenékpovrchuzrnaelektromag-
netickousilou.Pouloženízrnasena
nichusazujíkřemičitésraženiny.
Glaciálníprostředí,gravitační
pochody.Nazaoblenýchzrnech
senevyskytují.
1,2,4,8,9,
13,15,16,18,
20,21
2,4
63
MikrotexturaAnglickýnázevCharakteristikaPodmínkyvznikuLiteraturaObr.
Mikrotexturychemickéhopůvodu:
TečkovánípittingShlukyvelmimalýchjamek,které
jsouspolehlivějipozorovatelnépři
vyššímrozlišenísnímků.Iniciální
jamkyjsoumaléapostupněsezvět-
šujíasplývají.
Můžebýtzpůsobenoomezenou
expozicízrnvůčitajícívodě
ledovcůmírnéhopásu.Vý-
znamnourolihrajepHprostře-
dí,rozpustnostkřemenerychle
narůstápřipH>9,0.
1,4,6,8,11,13
Orientovanévy-
leptanéjamky
orientedetched
pits
Jamkytriangulárníhotvarusestej-
nýmusměrněním,mohousevelikost-
nělišit.
1,2,3,4,5,6,
7,8,10,15,16,
22
Křemičité
globule
silicaglobulesVysráženékřemičitanypokrývající
povrchzrnamajíformuskrývkynebo
globulí.Kdyžsetytotexturyspojí
nebopřekryjí,utvořísetenkýaž
silnýkřemičitýpovlak,kterýmůže
zakrýttvaryvzniklévpředchozích
prostředích.Vevodnímprostředí
ovysokékinetickéenergiimůžebýt
obroušenazakrytétvarysemohou
opětobjevit.Souhrnějsoutytotvary
označoványjakokřemičitésraženiny.
Vznikajívevlhkémprostředí
snižšírychlostítransportu
avyskytujísenastarších
glaciálníchuloženinách.
2,3,4,5,9,20
lKřemičité
skrývky
silicacapping2,71,3
mKřemičitý
povlak
silicapellicle2,4,5,8,9,13,
20,21
3
Nárůsty
křemenných
krystalů
quartzcrystal
overgrowths
Mají3stadiavývoje:1.vytvoříse
maléorientovanévýčnělky,2.tyse
spojíavzniknouzřetelnéfacety,3.
růstkončíobrostlýmzrnemsevzhle-
demkřemennéhokrystalu.
Vznikajívefluviálníchpod-
mínkáchsnízkourychlostí
proudění.
5,6,8,18,22
Texturyvzniklé
tlakovýmroz-
pouštěním
pressure-solu-
tionfeatures
Velmihluboké,polokruhovitédeprese
soblýmivýčnělky.
Glaciálníprostředí.5,20,22
Citovanézdroje:1–Alkaseeva2005;2–Cater1984;3–Censier,Tourenq1986;4–Clocchiatti,LeRibault,Rodrigo1978;5–Cremer,Legigan
1989;6–Fitzpatrick,Summerson1971;7–Hellad,Juany,Diffendal1997;8–Krinsley,Doornkamp1973;9–LeRibault1975;10–Lindé,
Mycielska,Dowgiałło1980;11–Lisá2004;12–Mahaney1995;13–Mahaney2002;14–Mahaney,Andres1991;15–Mahaney,Kalm2000;
16–Mahaney,Stewart,Kalm2001;17–Mahaney,Vortisch,Julig1988;18–Mellor1986;19–Strand,Passchier,Näsi2003;20–Whalley
1982;21–Halley,Krinsley1974;22–Wilson1978.
64
Obr. 1 – Nejčastější
tvary vyskytující se
na povrchu zrna:
f – paralelní rýhy,
g – V-jamky, i – rovné
brázdy, l – křemičité
skrývky. Vzorek
eolického sedimentu;
Praha-Klárov.
Obr. 2 – Nejčastější
tvary vyskytující se
na povrchu zrna:
a – lasturnatý lom,
d – puklinové plochy,
h – srpkovité tvary,
i – rovné brázdy,
j – obloukové brázdy,
k – přilnavé částice.
Vzorek sedimentu
mury; údolí Bílého
Labe, Krkonoše.
Obr. 3 – Nejčastější
tvary vyskytující se
na povrchu zrna:
e – klikaté hřbítky,
l – křemičité skrývky,
m – křemičitý povlak.
Vzorek fluviálního
sedimentu; údolí
Bílého Labe, Krkonoše.
65
Obr. 4 – Nejčastější
tvary vyskytující se
na povrchu zrna:
b – rovné stupně,
c – obloukové stupně,
k – přilnavé částice.
Vzorek deluvia; údolí
Bílého Labe, Krkonoše.
Obr. 5 – Nejčastější
tvary vyskytující se
na povrchu zrna:
a – lasturnatý lom,
c – obloukové stupně.
Vzorek glaciálního
sedimentu; Labské
údolí, Krkonoše.
66
3 . 1 . E o l i c k é s e d i m e n t y
Tato genetická třída sedimentů je pro exoskopický popis nejvhodnější. Eolická
zrna mají zpravidla nízký, dobře zaoblený reliéf (Mahaney, Stewart, Kalm
2001), jsou matná (Le Ribault 2003b) a lépe zaoblená než fluviální zrna (Lindé,
Mycielska-Dowgiałło 1980). Stupeň zaoblení klesá (zrna jsou nepravidelnější)
s jejich rostoucí velikostí, což je způsobeno pravděpodobně tím, že klesá
i jejich hybnost (Mahaney 2002).
Mikrotextury pozorované na eolických písečných zrnech jsou štěpné plátky,
brázdy přibližně 0,5–10 µm velké, prodloužené prohlubně (Mahaney 2002),
srpkovité tvary, V-jamky, mísovité jamky, přilnavé částice (Lindé, Mycielska-Dowgiałło
1980), tečkování (Lisá 2004), křemičitý povlak (Le Ribault 2003b).
Naopak lineární paralelní lomy a lasturnaté lomy se vyskytují jen minimálně
(Mahaney, Stewart, Kalm 2001).
Některé z impaktních tvarů jsou nalézány pouze na větších písečných zrnech.
Tyto tvary jsou křehké a obvykle byly odstraněny během eolické abraze
a chemického zvětrávání (v horkých pouštních oblastech může pouštní rosa,
která je nasycena CO2, proniknout až do hloubky 2–3 cm; Mahaney 2002). Nejmarkantnějším
znakem jsou srpkovité tvary, které jsou tím více uhlazeny, čím
jsou starší. Eolickými procesy vznikají na křemenných zrnech také V-jamky
a mísovité jamky.
3 . 2 . G l a c i á l n í s e d i m e n t y
Na subglaciálních zrnech vznikají tvary způsobené drcením ve vlhkém
prostředí, ale křemičité sraženiny se vyskytují jen vzácně. Tato zrna bývají
nejvíce náchylná k porušení na svých hranách a rozích, zatímco plochy jsou
zasaženy méně (Halley, Krinsley 1974). Co se týká písků, předpokládá se, že
na těchto zrnech se nalézají pouze zděděné texturní znaky (např. pokud se
zrna v ledovci navzájem nedotýkala kvůli jejich menšímu množství), protože
zvětráváním se zrna pouze uvolnila a dále byla jen pasivně transportována
na povrchu ledovce (Mahaney, Stewart, Kalm 2001). Většina těchto zrn má
vysokou sféricitu a ostrohrannost. Typické jsou pro ně štěpné vločky a přilnavé
částice, ale pozorovány byly také obloukové stupně a lineární i obloukové
brázdy (Halley, Krinsley 1974).
Z exoskopického pohledu jsou glacigenní zrna ostrohranná, nenesou známky
uhlazení ani zaoblení, pokud nedošlo k chemickému nebo mechanickému
přetvoření, a jejich povrch může být jak matný, tak lesklý (Le Ribault 2003b).
Reliéf zrn je proměnlivě hladký (Fitzpatrick, Summerson 1971) až drsný (Le
Ribault 2003b) a relativně vysoký, zvláště oproti zrnům pobřežního a eolického
prostředí (Krinsley, Doornkamp 1973). Na povrchu glacigenních zrn je
možné nalézt nejvyšší počet mikrotextur ve srovnání se zrny, na která působily
jiné geomorfologické procesy (Mahaney 2002). Zatímco na zrnech eolického
a fluviálního prostředí existují podobné mělké, lasturnaté a lineární paralelní
lomy, jejich hranaté tvary, hluboké zasazení do povrchu zrn a časté usměrnění
je jedinečným znakem pro zrna glacigenního původu (Mahaney, Kalm 2000).
Zrna vlečená na bázi ledovce jsou však pravděpodobně méně ostrohranná
a texturovaná než částice pohybující se s ledovcem na jeho povrchu či uvnitř
67
(Dowdeswell 1982). To samé platí pro zrna glacimarinního původu (Strand,
Passchier, Näsi 2003). Všeobecně je mezi englaciálními a supraglaciálními
zrny jen málo rozpoznatelný rozdíl (Halley, Krinsley 1974).
Na stupeň poškození zrn má také vliv mocnost ledovce, kterým jsou zrna
unášena, a délka jejich transportu. U ledovců o mocnosti mezi 200–800 m
(horské ledovce) je výskyt lomů a poruch na povrchu zrna menší (20–30 % zrn
ve vzorku), zatímco u kontinentálních ledovců (mocnost větší než 1000 m) je
větší. Postupné zvyšování mocnosti ledovce tedy způsobuje větší stupeň poškozování
křemenných zrn. Vznikají častěji paralelní hřbítky, lasturnatý lom,
obloukové stupně, srpkovité tvary a hluboké brázdy a povrch zrn je značně
ostrohranný. Stupeň poškození záleží také na pozici vůči ledovci (od nejmenšího
stupně poškození po nejvyšší to jsou zrna supraglaciální, englaciální a bazální)
a zda-li má ledovec chladnou (suchou) nebo teplou (vlhkou) bázi, kde
u suché báze převažuje křehký smyk a u vlhké báze plastický až plasticko-křehký
smyk (Mahaney, Andres 1991; Mahaney 1995).
Za reprezentativní mikrotextury pro glaciální transport jsou považovány
lasturnatý lom, lineární subparalelní lomy, rovné a obloukové stupně a hluboké
brázdy, tvary vzniklé drcením a tlakovým rozpouštěním, paralelní rýhy
a hřbítky, přilnavé částice a štěpné vločky. Vyskytovat se mohou také srpkovité
tvary, štěpné plátky, V-jamky a křemičité povlaky. Pro větší zrna je typický
lasturnatý lom, zatímco pro malá zrna to jsou štěpné plátky a puklinové plochy
podél některých lasturnatých lomů. Pokud byla zrna vystavena drcení, potom
je u nich větší variabilita ve velikosti a rozsahu lasturnatých lomů a štěpných
plátků, než by bylo normální u nezvětralých zrn (Krinsley, Doornkamp 1973;
Mahaney, Vortisch, Julig 1988). Dále se na většině glaciálně transformovaných
zrn běžně vyskytují lineární paralelní lomy, přilnavé částice a V-jamky.
V-jamky mohou vznikat kolizemi ve vodním prostředí, ale jejich velký rozměr
(50 µm) ukazuje spíše na glaciální transport (fluvioglaciální zrna jich mají
více) (Mahaney, Kalm 2000).
Z chemických mirkotextur charakteristických pro glaciální sedimenty to
jsou tvary vzniklé vysrážením, jako např. vyleptané orientované jamky a teč-
kování.
3 . 3 . F l u v i á l n í s e d i m e n t y
V důsledku vodního transportu se povrch zrn zaobluje a reliéf je relativně
nízký (Helland, Huang, Diffendal 1997; Mahaney, Stewart, Kalm 2001),
přičemž vodní toky s nízkou kinetickou energií znatelně nepřetvářejí povrch
transportovaných zrn. Ta se tak podobají více tillům (Mahaney 2002). Málo
obroušená zrna se také nacházejí v chráněných místech toku (Censier, Tourenq
1986).
Známkami vodního transportu jsou V-jamky. Čím vyšší energie toku, tím
vyšší frekvence výskytu mikrotextur. V systémech horních toků jsou vysoké
rychlosti a V-jamky a různé impakty se stávají výrazně velkými a frekventovanými
(Mahaney 2002). Mezi další impaktní tvary patří např. mísovité jamky
(Clocchiatti, Le Ribault, Rodrigo 1978) a mechanické rýhy (Cater 1984, Lisá
2004). Ve vodním prostředí o vysoké energii je křemičitý povlak na nechráněných
částech zrn slabě až silně obroušen (Cremer, Legigan 1989). Při střední
68
energii toku jsou impaktní tvary zahlazovány (Le Ribault 1975; Censier, Tourenq
1986). V oblasti dolního toku řek se mohou vyskytovat zrna jiných genetických
typů, např. glacigenního apod., která sem byla dopravena z horních
částí povodí. V tomto prostředí o nízké energii se tvoří křemičité sraženiny,
orientované vyleptané jamky, nárůsty křemenných krystalů (Cremer, Legigan
1989) a také drobné impaktní tvary vzniklé třením mezi zrny. Ohlazená, lesklá
zrna mají silně zhlazené hrany, zatímco místa v dutinách jsou silně zkorodovaná
(Censier, Tourenq 1986). Chybí zde brázdy a stupně (Mahaney, Stewart,
Kalm 2001).
3 . 4 . S v a h o v é s e d i m e n t y
Zkoumání mikroreliéfu křemenných zrn svahových sedimentů metodou
exoskopie je nejméně probádanou oblastí. Rychlost pohybů je velmi variabilní
(od milimetrů za rok po několik stovek metrů za sekundu) a podle toho se také
odvíjí výskyt mikrotextur (Mahaney 2002). Z dostupných dat se zdá, že zvětrávání
podloží příliš neovlivňuje povrch zrn (Mahaney 2002).
Na zrnech byly pozorovány mikrotextury, které nebyly v jiných prostředích
zatím zaznamenány. Jedná se o hluboké paralelní brázdy s krátkými rozestupy
a radiální brázdy. Mimo jiné se hojně objevují puklinové plochy a „mikrofraktury“,
které je možné považovat za charakteristické (Mahaney 2002). Důležitým
znakem je také výskyt mechanické abraze hran, kterým se svahové
sedimenty liší od eluvia.
3 . 5 . J e z e r n í s e d i m e n t y
Rybníky a jezera představují prostředí o nízké kinetické energii fluida, které
unáší a zejména ukládá zrna, jež proto nejsou promíchávána a příliš porušována,
ale jsou pokryta jílem (Le Ribault 2003b). Zrna si zanechávají na
svém povrchu tvary, které se utvořily během předešlého transportu k jezeru.
Na povrchu zrn ležících ve vodě se však mohou utvářet křemičité sraženiny
a povlaky (Mathur, Mishra, Singh 2009).
4. Metodika
Kopanými sondami byly získány sedimenty z vybraných geneticky různorodých
skupin tvarů, tj. z glacigenních, fluviálních, svahových a eolických
(tab. 2). Byla snaha provést odběr na relativně malé ploše s obdobnými geologickými
a fyzickogeografickými podmínkami i s podobnou historií vývoje
reliéfu. Výjimku tvoří jen eolické sedimenty, které se v Krkonoších nenacházejí
a pro jejichž odběr byla vybrána poloha eolických sedimentů na pražském
Klárově.
Zrna každého ze studovaných vzorků byla rozdělena plavením na velikostní
frakci 250–500 µm. Jednotlivé vzorky byly dále vyvařeny v koncentrované
HCl, promyty destilovanou vodou a vysušeny. Z takto připraveného vzorku
bylo pod binokulárním mikroskopem vybráno 50 křemenných zrn, která byla
69
následně připevněna na uhlíkovou pásku a pozlacena a vyfotografována pod
elektronovým mikroskopem Cameca SX 100.
Pro zhodnocení výsledků exoskopie jsou používány statistické testy (např.
Mahaney 2002). Jedním ze základních prostředků sumarizování dat o mikrotexturách
je zakreslování histogramů nebo sloupcových grafů, které znázorňují
frekvenci výskytu jednotlivých mikrotextur na každém zrně. Jednou z metod,
jak analyzovat sloupcové grafy součtů (rozdělení frekvencí výskytu) pozorovaných
mikrotextur na sedimentárních zrnech, je kvantifikace podobných a odlišných
znaků mezi porovnávanými vzorky. Pro porovnání podobnosti zrn byl
použit koeficient vzdálenosti d (sensu Mahaney 2002):
�
�
p
k
jkikij xxd
1
2
)( ,
kde dij je koeficient vzdálenosti mezi dvěma prostředími (i, j), měřenými na
dvojicích hodnot frekvence výskytu každého znaku x ze dvou srovnávaných vzorků
(prostředí). Pořadí srovnávaných znaků začíná k = 1 (první dvojice) a končí
k = p (poslední dvojice). Čím je hodnota d menší, tím jsou si zrna podobnější.
Tab. 2 – Charakteristika odebraných vzorků
Genetický typ sedimentu /
Místo odběru
Stručná charakteristika tvaru a odběrového místa
Moréna / Labské údolí,
Krkonoše
Lokalita (50°44'53,6" s. š., 15°37'24,9" v. d.) se nachází
v nadmořské výšce 828 m na pravém okraji údolního dna
Labe. Sedimenty pocházejí z přirozeného odkryvu 8 metrů
vysoké proříznuté čelní würmské morény, kterou popsal již
Vitásek (1923). Na základě studia sedimentů v Labském
dole (Engel a kol. 2005) se podařilo zjistit, že již na konci
MIS 3 nebyl ledovec přítomen v karu Labského dolu (Engel
a kol. 2010).
Mura / Údolí Bílého
Labe, Krkonoše
Odběrová lokalita (50°44'13,7" s. š., 15°39'27,8" v. d., 1110 m
n. m.) se nachází v dolní části k severu orientovaného
levého svahu údolí Bílého Labe. Zde byl materiál odebrán
z bočního valu mury (vzniklé v roce 1994) nad turistickým
chodníkem vedoucím na Bílou louku.
Fluviální sediment /
Údolí Bílého Labe,
Krkonoše
Fluviální sediment byl odebrán (50°44'53,6" s. š.,
15°37'24,9" v. d., 857 m n. m.) z povodňových akumulací
nacházejících se uvnitř koryta a vzniklých v roce 2006.
Deluvium / Údolí
Bílého Labe, Krkonoše
Deluviální sedimenty byly odebrány z jámy po vývratu
v dolní části pravého údolního svahu (sklon 20°) Dolu
Bílého Labe (50°46'8,4" s. š., 15°37'9,1" v. d.). Lokalita se
nachází 5 metrů nad úrovní současného dna.
Eolický sediment /
Praha-Klárov
Eolické sedimenty byly odebrány z východně orientovaného
svahu vltavského údolí na pražském Klárově (50°5'34,0"
s. š., 14°24'33,8" v. d.), kde se dochovaly jejich zbytky
v podobě závějí eolik (Kovanda et al. 2001) na letenském
souvrství (Chlupáč 1999).
70
5. Výsledky
Za referenční vzorky byly vybrány sedimenty pocházející z geomorfologických
tvarů známé geneze (viz tab. 2): moréna v údolí Labe, mura v údolí Bílého
Labe, povodňové sedimenty a deluvium z údolí Bílého Labe a eolický sediment
z pražského Klárova.
Fluviální sedimenty se vyznačovaly nižší četností výskytu mikrotextur ve
srovnání s jinými typy sedimentů, čímž je lze snadno odlišit od ostatních studovaných
vzorků genetických typů sedimentů (obr. 6). Nejcharakterističtějšími
znaky fluviálních zrn se ukázaly křemičité sraženiny a povlaky, které vznikají
ve vlhkém nebo vodním prostředí, a to v závislosti na energii toku. Opracovanost
zrn rostla s délkou transportu. Lasturnatý lom, štěpné plátky a brázdy
se vyskytovaly minimálně.
Pro eolickým způsobem transportovaná zrna se ukázal typický výskyt V-jamek
a mísovitých jamek, nepravidelných prohlubní a dalších impaktních tvarů
(obr. 6). Četnost výskytu V-jamek a mísovitých jamek byla ve studovaných
vzorcích 50 %. Tyto mikrotextury měly ovšem nižší procentuální zastoupení,
než obloukové stupně, brázdy a abraze hran.
Zrna glaciálních sedimentů byla charakteristická vysokou četností lasturnatého
lomu, rovných i zaoblených stupňů a brázd, paralelních rýh a puklinových
ploch (obr. 6). S nižším procentuálním výskytem jsou význačné štěpné
plátky (> 40 %) a přilnavé částice (> 50 %).
Zrna svahových sedimentů včetně mury pokrývají nejvíce stupňovité textury,
lasturnatý lom a brázdy. Ve srovnání s ostatními zrny je výraznější abraze
hran a vyskytují se klikaté hřbítky. Reliéf zrn svahové akumulace je vysoký
a poloostrohranný, občas s tečkováním, u mury je střední a ostrohranný, navíc
obsahuje křemičité sraženiny.
Z hlediska vyhodnocení koeficientů vzdáleností d (sensu Mahaney 2002)
mezi zrny jednotlivých studovaných genetických skupin sedimentů (tab. 3),
Obr. 6 (na str. 71) – Grafy četností mikrotextur jednotlivých genetických typů sedimentů
(Labská moréna, eolické sedimenty, svahové sedimenty – deluvium, murové sedimenty, fluviální
sedimenty). 1 – ostrohranné zrno, 2 – poloostrohranné zrno, 3 – polozaoblené zrno,
4 – zaoblené zrno, 5 – nízký reliéf, 6 – střední reliéf, 7 – vysoký reliéf, 8 – malý lasturnatý
lom, 9 – velký lasturnatý lom, 10 – rovné stupně, 11 – obloukové stupně, 12 – velké puklinové
plochy, 13 – paralelní rýhy, 14 – abraze hran, 15 – V-jamky, 16 – mísovité jamky, 17 – rovné
brázdy, 18 – obloukové brázdy, 19 – klikaté hřbítky, 20 – nepravidelné prohlubně, 21 – štěpné
plátky, 22 – tečkování, 23 – orientované vyleptané jamky, 24 – přilnavé částice, 25 – omezené
křemičité sraženiny, 26 – rozsáhlé křemičité sraženiny, 27 – nárůsty krystalů.
Tab. 3 – Koeficienty vzdálenosti d (Mahaney 2002) mezi studovanými vzorky
Vzorky Fluviální
sediment
Moréna
Labe
Svahový
sediment
Mura Eolický
sediment
Fluviální sediment 0,00
Labská moréna 1,38 0,00
Svahový sediment 1,40 0,80 0,00
Mura 1,24 1,13 1,00 0,00
Eolický sediment 1,31 0,93 0,89 1,05 0,00
71
Eolické sedimenty
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Fluviální sedimenty
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Labská moréna
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
(%)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
(%)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
(%)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
(%)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
(%)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Sedimenty mury
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Svahové sedimenty
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
72
lze konstatovat, že nejvyšší odlišnost od ostatních vykazují zrna fluviálních
sedimentů (průměrná hodnota d je 1,333). Následují zrna mury (průměrná
hodnota d je 1,105), morény (průměrná hodnota d je 1,06), eolických sedimentů
(průměrná hodnota d je 1,045) a svahovin (průměrná hodnota d je
1,023), které mají nejvyšší průměrnou podobnost s ostatními studovanými
zrny. Vůbec nejvyšší vzájemnou odlišnost vykazují zrna fluviálních sedimentů
a svahovin. Naopak nejblíže k sobě mají zrna svahovin a labské morény
(tab. 3).
6. Diskuse
S pomocí exoskopie se ze skenovaných vzorků podařilo nejspolehlivěji odlišit
fluviální sedimenty, které mají na rozdíl od ostatních studovaných vzorků
sedimentů nižší četnosti výskytu všech mikrotextur. Méně zřejmé jsou rozdíly
v morfologii zrn svahových a morénových sedimentů, kde je potřeba věnovat
vyšší pozornost četnostem a kombinacím charakteristických mikrotextur. Některé
genetické typy sedimentů již byly popsány v literatuře (Krinsley, Doornkamp
1973 a Mahaney 2002), dle které se dalo očekávat, že eolická a fluviální
zrna se budou charakterem svého povrchu více odlišovat od glaciálních sedimentů.
Zatím však v literatuře uvedené charakteristiky nejdou do velkých
detailů. Na základě popisů v literatuře tedy nelze interpretovat jemné rozdíly
v charakteru zrn patřícím odlišným geomorfologickým tvarům se stejnou genezí.
Ukázalo se, že sedimenty, které byly přepracovány gravitačními procesy,
nelze snadno odlišit od glaciálních sedimentů, protože mnoho tvarů vyvinutých
na křemenných zrnech obou typů sedimentů jsou stejné.
Fluviální zrna se obecně vyznačují křemičitými povlaky (Le Ribault 1975),
V-jamkami (Mahaney 2002) a mísovitými jamkami (Clocchiatti, Le Ribault,
Rodrigo 1978), popř. nárůsty křemene (Cremer, Legigan 1989). Vzorek fluviálního
sedimentu je svými charakteristikami poměrně vzdálen všem ostatním
studovaným vzorkům. Na základě koeficientu vzdálenosti je nejpodobnější
muře v údolí Bílého Labe, což může mít souvislost s dřívějším vývojem
zrn, než začala být unášena vodou. V případě zkoumaných fluviálních zrn byly
charakteristické křemičité sraženiny (zejména v podobě křemičitých globulí
a skrývek v rozsáhlejší podobě), avšak ve srovnání s ostatními studovanými
vzorky sedimentů byl absolutní výskyt tohoto znaku poměrně malý. To mohlo
být způsobeno vysokou energií toku v jeho horní části, kde dochází k obrušování
křemičitých povlaků, jak popsali Cremer, Legigan (1989). Také četnost
výskytu V-jamek a mísovitých jamek nebyla příliš vysoká, zvláště ve srovnání
s glaciálními a gravitačními sedimenty. Popisovaná nízká frekvence výskytu
V-jamek a mísovitých jamek je v rozporu s tím, co uvádí Le Ribault (1975) pro
systémy horních toků s vysokými rychlostmi. Vzhledem k poloze odebraného
vzorku nelze očekávat ani dlouhý transport, během kterého by byla zrna více
opracována. Stupňovité tvary spíše naznačují, že materiál je ještě poměrně
mladý a mohlo jít o odnesené částice ze svahů, popř. morén.
Podobnost zrn svahových sedimentů a morén vyjádřená koeficientem d
může být způsobena tím, že byl morénový materiál původně (před transportem
ledovcem, který však nebyl velký) deluviem či jiným sedimentem, který
vznikl gravitačními pochody. Pro zrna studovaných svahových sedimentů je
73
charakteristická abraze hran, výskyt brázd a puklinových ploch. U vzorku deluvia
je abraze hran velmi četná (u 80 % zrn), avšak na zrnech není výrazná
kvůli minimálnímu transportu. Výskyt dalších mikrotextur také potvrzuje
charakteristiku tohoto genetického typu sedimentu, který prozatím nebyl v literatuře
příliš zkoumán (zmiňuje se o něm pouze Mahaney 2002), totéž platí
i pro mury. Výrazný je vysoký reliéf povrchu zrn deluvií, nízký reliéf se v tomto
vzorku nenacházel vůbec. Příčinou je minimální transport deluvia od doby,
kdy byl uvolněn od horniny. Tomu nasvědčuje i ostrohrannost zrn ve vzorku.
Zrna morény se obecně vyznačují výskytem štěpných plátků a přilnavých
částic na svém povrchu (Krinsley, Doornkamp 1973; Halley, Krinsley 1974 aj.).
Stejně je tomu i na zkoumaných zrnech morény Labe. Tyto znaky se pro ně stávají
charakteristické zvláště po srovnání s ostatními vzorky z jiných prostředí.
Charakteristické pro zrna labské morény jsou také paralelní rýhy a puklinové
plochy. Další znaky rovněž odpovídají obecným popisům povrchů zrn morén,
tj. výskyt lasturnatých lomů, stupňů a brázd (Whalley, Krinsley 1974 a Mahaney,
Vaikmae, Vares 1991 vykládají genezi těchto mirkotextur odlišným způsobem),
ačkoli frekvence výskytu lasturnatých lomů je v tomto případě vyšší
u deluvia. Důvodem tohoto jevu může být mrazové zvětrávání, které se podílí
na formování zdejších skalních výchozů, což lze dokladovat vznikem četných
nových úlomků, které se pod výchozy nacházejí po jarní a zimní sezóně.
Mura je z pohledu geneze rovněž tvořena svahovými sedimenty, avšak významnou
roli při jejich pohybu hraje voda, která, aby došlo k pohybu, musí
nasytit deluvium. To má za následek, že abraze hran křemenných zrn není tak
výrazná jako u deluvia. Zrna mury jsou nejméně podobná vzorku fluviálních
sedimentů. Ačkoli během vzniku tohoto tvaru působila voda, její vliv byl velmi
krátký na to, aby se vytvořily charakteristické znaky pro vodní prostředí.
O působení vody vypovídá pouze poměrně velký výskyt omezených křemičitých
sraženin na povrchu zrn vzorku, které se pravděpodobně utvářely během
osychání jejich povrchu. V literatuře zmínky o exoskopii zrn mur, jakožto
samostatného genetického typu, nejsou. Charakteristickými mikrotexturami
pro zkoumaný vzorek byly lasturnaté lomy, stupňovité textury, abraze hran,
V-jamky a obloukové brázdy. Zároveň bylo pro tato zrna příznačné malé opracování
zrn.
Eolický sediment je dle výsledků koeficientu d podobný deluviu a moréně
Labe. Eolická zrna jsou charakteristická výskytem štěpných plátků, nepravidelných
prohlubní a impaktních tvarů, jako jsou V-jamky a mísovité jamky
(Lindé, Mycielska-Dowgiałło 1980; Mahaney 2002 aj.). Zrna zkoumaného vzorku
eolických sedimentů vykazují četnější výskyt jiných znaků, např. stupňovité
textury a brázdy, drobné lasturnaté lomy a abraze hran, které jsou charakteristické
spíše pro gravitační pohyby. Po srovnání s ostatními vzorky se však
jeví vysoká frekvence výskytu i u V-jamek a mísovitých jamek (cca 50 %), které
jsou považovány za charakteristické mikrotextury eolických sedimentů. Dle
Mahaneyho (2002) pro eolické sedimenty typické štěpné plátky a nepravidelné
prohlubně se však ve zkoumaném vzorku jako charakteristické neprojevily,
jelikož ve vysokých četnostech se vyskytují také na křemenných zrnech studovaných
glacigenních sedimentů, svahových sedimentů a mur (štěpné plátky)
a fluviálních sedimentů (nepravidelné prohlubně).
74
7. Závěr
Uvedená metoda exoskopie povrchu křemenných zrn umožňuje stanovit
způsob transportu, a tedy i genezi sedimentu, respektive daného tvaru, který
je jím budován. U vzorků pocházejících z velmi podobného prostředí však
nemusejí být výsledky zcela jasné a je zapotřebí použít více vzorků. Také je
nutné znát samotné prostředí, kde byl vzorek odebrán, včetně jeho okolí, aby
byly procesy formující povrch zrn správně přiřazeny jednotlivým genetickým
skupinám.
Pro rozlišení genetických typů sedimentů nelze vždy přesně určit sadu vyskytujících
se mikrotextur, spíše lze hovořit o určitých frekvencích výskytu,
při kterých by se znak stal charakteristickým. Tyto frekvence výskytu by však
nebyly pro všechny znaky stejné. Důležitou roli pro frekvenci výskytu představuje
rychlost transportu v prostředí. Lasturnatý lom vzniká např. většinou
po prudkých nárazech a odlomení částice od částice větší, což může nastat
v kterémkoli prostředí, ale také může vzniknout mrazovým zvětráváním. Tyto
nárazy jsou ale ve fluviálním prostředí tlumeny, charakteristická je tedy spíše
nepřítomnost lasturnatého lomu pro fluviální sedimenty. Tilly jsou charakteristické
naopak velmi vysokou četností lasturnatého lomu, což znamená, že
tento znak se u nich vyskytuje alespoň ze cca 70 %. U jiných znaků však stačí
menší procentuální podíl výskytu k tomu, aby byly označeny za charakteristické.
Zdaleka ne vždy lze ale vysledovat toto přibližné hraniční procento a je potřeba
počítat s polohou, s probíhajícími procesy v prostředí, ze kterého vzorky
pochází, a nalezenými mikrotexturami. Musíme např. uvažovat nad tím, zda
sediment byl donesen z vyšších poloh a jaké procesy probíhaly v těchto vyšších
polohách, protože zrno nese na svém povrchu v různé zachovalosti i ty tvary,
které byly utvořeny v předešlých prostředích. Podobně i Mahaney (2002) a Le
Ribault (1975) upozorňují na to, že zrna si nesou mikrotextury z dřívějších
prostředí. Ze znalosti prostředí (např. sklonitosti terénu) jsme schopni odhadnout,
v jakých rychlostech zdejší procesy probíhají – v exoskopii např. V-jamky,
srpkovité textury a mísovité jamky (Le Ribault 1975) vypovídají o rychlostech
média, kterým je sediment unášen – a tím lépe pochopit výsledky exoskopie
a určit, kde je přibližná hranice vysokého a nízkého výskytu jednotlivých mi-
krotextur.
Křemenná zrna glacigenních sedimentů jsou charakteristická výskytem
lasturnatých lomů (či štěpných plátků, které jsou typicky vyvinuté na menších
zrnech), stupňovitých tvarů, puklinovými plochami a přilnavými částicemi.
Eolické sedimenty jsou charakteristické výskytem V-jamek, mísovitých
jamek a vyšším zaoblením zrn. Pro deluvium jsou typické lasturnaté lomy,
stupňovité tvary, brázdy a zejména abraze hran. Křemenná zrna murových
sedimentů byla charakteristická lasturnatými lomy, stupňovitými tvary, brázdami
a křemičitými sraženinami. Fluviální sedimenty mají oproti ostatním
vzorkům celkově nízkou četnost mikrotextur a typický je pro ně nízký reliéf
s vyšší zaobleností zrn a křemičité sraženiny, zvláště křemičité povlaky.
75
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dynamics inferred from SEM microtextures on quartz particles. Boreas, 24, s. 293–304.
MAHANEY, W. C. (2002): Atlas of sand grain surface textures and application. Oxford University
Press, New York, 237 s.
76
MAHANEY, W. C., ANDRES, W. (1991): Glacially crushed quartz grains in loess as indicators
of long-distance transport from major European ice centers during the Pleistocene.
Boreas, 20, s. 231–239.
MAHANEY, W. C., CLARIDGE, G., CAMPBELL, I. (1996): Microtextures on quartz grains in
tills from Antactica. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 121, s. 89–103.
MAHANEY, W. C., KALM, V. (2000): Comparative scanning electron microscopy study of
oriented till blocks, glacial grains and Devonian sands in Estonia and Latvia. Boreas,
29, s. 35–51.
MAHANEY, W. C., STEWART, A., KALM, V. (2001): Quantification of SEM microtextures
useful in sedimentary environmental discrimination. Boreas, 30, s. 165–171.
MAHANEY, W. C., VAIKMAE, R., VARES, K. (1991): Scanning electron microscopy of quartz
grains in supraglacial debris, Adishy Glacier, Caucasus Mountains, USSR. Boreas. 20,
s. 395–404.
MAHANEY, W. C., VORTISCH, W., JULIG, P. (1988): Relative differences between glacially
crushed quartz transported by mountain and continental ice – some examples from North
America and East Africa. American Journal of Science, 288, s. 810–826.
MARGOLIS, S. V., KRINSLEY, H. (1971): Submicroscopic frosting on aeolian and subaqueour
quartz sand grains. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. B2, s. 3395–3406.
MATHUR, A. K., MISHRA, V. P., SINGH, J. (2009): Study of quartz grain surface texture
by electron microscopy – a tool in evaluating palaeoglacial sediments in Uttarakhand.
Current science, 96, č. 10, s. 1377–1382.
MELLOR, A. (1986): Textural and Scanning Electrone Microscope Observations of Some
Arctic-Alpine Soils Developed in Weichselian and Neoglacial Till Deposits in Southern
Norway. Arctic and Alpine Research, 18, č. 3, s. 327–336.
PETRÁNEK, J. (1963): Usazené horniny: Jejich složení, vznik a ložiska. Nakladatelství
ČSAV, Praha, 720 s.
RŮŽIČKOVÁ, E., RŮŽIČKA, M., ZEMAN, A., KADLEC, J. (2003): Kvartérní klastické sedimenty
České republiky. Česká geologická služba, Praha, 160 s.
STRAND, K., PASSCHIER, S., NÄSI, J. (2003): Implication of quartz grain microtextures
for onset Eocene/Oligocene glaciation in Prydz Bay, ODP Site 1166, Antarctica. Palaeogeography,
Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 198, s. 101–111.
VITÁSEK, F. (1923): O starých ledovcích na Krkonoších. Geografie (Sborník ČSZ), 29, č. 4,
s. 196–199.
WHALLEY, W. B. (1982): A preliminary scanning electron microscope study of quartz
grains from a dirt band in the Tuto ice tunnel, Northwest Greenland. Arctic and Alpine
Research, 14, č. 4, s. 355–360.
WHALLEY, W. B., KRINSLEY, D. H. (1974): A scanning electron microscope study of surface
textures of quartz grains from glacial environments. Sedimentology, 21, s. 87–105.
WILSON, P. (1978): A scanning electron microscope examination of quartz grain surface
textures from the weathered Millstone Grit (carboniferous) of the Southern Pennines,
England: A preliminary report. In: Scanning Electron Microscopy in the Study of Sediments.
Univ. East Anglia, Norwich, s. 307–318.
S u m m a r y
APPLICABILITY OF QUARTZ GRAINS SURFACE ANALYSIS TO THE STUDY OF
THE GENESIS OF UNLITHIFIED SEDIMENTS
Unconsolidated sediments are formed from redeposited and sedimented material, originating
from broken rocks. No cement is involved, in contrast with consolidated sediments
(Kukal 1986). We distinguish certain genetic types of loose sediments, which give evidence
regarding their origin and the conditions of their formation.
There are several basic genetic groups of quaternary sediments that occur in Czechia:
fluvial, glacial, eolian, gravitational and lacustrine. Research of these types of sediments
aids in explaining the evolution and change of physical-geographic conditions over time.
One of the aims of geomorphology is to determine the origin of a relief. In some cases
this can be deduced from relief material knowledge. Exoscopy is a method used to determine
77
sediment origin based on an understanding of microscopic surface textures on quartz sand
grains (Margolis, Krinsley 1971; Fitzpatrick, Summerson 1971; Whalley, Krinsley 1974; Le
Ribault 1975; Cremer, Legigan 1989; Mahaney 2002). We assume that this method will be
used more frequently in Czech and Slovak geomorphological work, in the future. Therefore,
one of the objectives of this article is to introduce this method and its potential and to
establish Czech terminology that either does not exist or is inconsistent. The secondary
objective of the article is to illustrate the extent, to which it is possible to distinguish different
sediment origins using exoscopy.
Reference samples were chosen from geomorphological landforms of known origin (see
Table 2): a moraine in the Labský Důl Valley, a debris flow in the Důl Bílého Labe Valley,
flood accumulation and deluvium from a slope in the Důl Bílého Labe Valley in the Krkonoše
Mountains and eolian sediment from Klárov in Prague.
The exoscopy method determines sediments’ movements and thus their origin as well as
the origin of landforms built by these sediments. However, results of samples originating
from a very similar environment may not be sufficiently clear. Consequently, it is necessary
to use multiple samples of a given landform. To ensure that processes forming the surface
of grains are correctly assigned to genetic groups, it is also important to know the environment,
from which a sample was taken.
Results suggest that it is not always possible to define an appropriate set of occurring
microtextures in order to determine the genetic groups of sediments. Microtextures are
characterized by certain occurrence frequencies. These frequencies are different for each
microtexture and, so far, no frequencies have been set. Velocity of movement in different
environmental conditions plays an important role in the frequencies.
Nonetheless, it is not always possible to observe the approximate characteristic percentages
of occurrence in microtextures and it is important to consider connections between
sediments and their location, ongoing processes in the local environment and the enumeration
of observed microtextures. For example, one must consider the possibility that a sediment
might have been moved from higher positions in the terrain and the processes that
were occurring in those higher positions. Mahaney (2002) and Le Ribault (1975) also point
out that the grains might have microtextures from previous environments.
With a knowledge of slope inclination, we are able to estimate the velocities of local geomorphological
processes; for example V-shaped pits, crescent-shaped features and dish-shaped
breakage concavities provide evidence concerning the velocity of transport medium (Le Ribault
1975). This can lead to a better understanding of exoscopy results and aid in establishing the
approximate boundaries of the high and low occurrence of single microtextures.
Conchoidal fractures (or upturned plates on smaller grains), step forms, fracture faces and
adhering particles are typical microstructures in quartz grains from glacigenous sediments.
The occurrence of V-shaped pits, dish-shaped breakage concavities and a rather subrounded
to rounded grain profile are typical for eolian sediments. Conchoidal fractures, step forms,
grooves and especially edge abrasion are typical for deluvium sediments. The sample of debris
flow sediment was characterized by the occurrence of conchoidal fractures, step forms,
grooves and silica precipitation. Fluvial sediments generally have the lowest occurrence
percentage of all microtextures in comparison with other samples and their characteristic
forms are silica precipitations, especially silica pellicle and low relief with lower outline.
Fig. 1 – Most frequent forms present on surfaces of quartz grains: f – parallel striations,
g – V-shaped pits, i – straight grooves, l – silica capping. A sample of eolian sediment;
Prague-Klárov.
Fig. 2 – Most frequent forms present on surfaces of quartz grains: a – conchoidal fracture,
d – fracture faces, h – crescent-shaped features, i – straight grooves, j – curved
grooves, k – adhering particles. A sample of debris flow sediment; Důl Bílého Labe
Valley, Krkonoše Mountains.
Fig. 3 – Most frequent forms present on surfaces of quartz grains: e – meandring ridges,
l – silica capping, m – silica pellicle. A sample of fluvial sediment; Důl Bílého Labe
Valley, Krkonoše Mountains.
Fig. 4 – Most frequent forms present on surfaces of quartz grains: b – straight steps, c- arcuate
steps, k – adhering particles. A sample of deluvium; Důl Bílého Labe Valley,
Krkonoše Mountains.
78
Fig. 5 – Most frequent forms present on surfaces of quartz grains: a – conchoidal fracture,
c – arc-steps. A sample of glacigenous sediment; Labský Důl Valley, Krkonoše
Mountains.
Fig. 6 – Graphs showing the frequencies of microtextures in the studied genetic types of sediments
(moraine, eolian sediments, colluvium, debris flow, flood /fluvial/ sediments).
1 – angular outline, 2 – subangular outline, 3 – subrounded outline, 4 – rounded
outline, 5 – low relief, 6 – medium relief, 7 – high relief, 8 – small conchoidal fracture,
9 – large conchoidal fracture, 10 – straight steps, 11 – arcuate steps, 12 – large
fracture faces, 13 – parallel striations, 14 – edge abrasion, 15 – V-shaped pits, 16 –
dish shaped concavities, 17 – straight grooves, 18 – curved grooves, 19 – meandring
ridges, 20 – irregular depressions, 21 – upturned plates, 22 – pitting, 23 – oriented
etched pits, 24 – adhering particles, 25 – limited silica precipitation, 26 – extensive
silica precipitation, 27 – quartz crystal overgrowths.
Pracoviště autorů: L. Křížová a M. Křížek: Univerzita Karlova v Praze, Přírodovědecká fakulta,
katedra fyzické geografie a geoekologie, Albertov 6, 128 43 Praha 2; e-mail: krizova@natur.
cuni.cz, krizekma@natur.cuni.cz. L. Lisá: Geologický ústav, AV ČR, v.v.i., Rozvojová 269,
165 00 Praha 6; e-mail: lisa@gli.cas.cz.
Do redakce došlo 3. 2. 2010; do tisku bylo přijato 6. 2. 2011.
Citační vzor:
KŘÍŽOVÁ, L., KŘÍŽEK, M., LISÁ, L. (2011): Význam povrchové analýzy křemenných zrn
pro studium geneze nezpevněných sedimentů. Geografie, 116, č. 1, s. 59–78.
146
147
5.5. Prostředí jezer a bažin
Libor P., Sádlo J., Žáčková P., Lisá L., Novák J., Pokorný P. (2014): Late-Glacial and Holocene
Environmental History of an Oxbow Wetland in the Polabí Lowland (River Elbe,
Czech Republic); a Context-Dependent Interpretation of a Multi-Proxy Analysis.Folia
Geobotanica, 49, 2, 137 – 162.
Cílek, V., Bárta, M., Lisá, L., Pokorná, A., Juříčková, L., Brůna, V., Mahmoud, A.M.A., Bajer,
A., Novák, J. and Beneš, J. (2012): Diachronic development of the Lake of Abusir
during the third millennium BC, Cairo, Egypt. Quaternary International, 266, pp.
14-24
148
Late-Glacial and Holocene Environmental History
of an Oxbow Wetland in the Polabí Lowland
(River Elbe, Czech Republic); a Context-Dependent
Interpretation of a Multi-Proxy Analysis
Libor Petr & Jiří Sádlo & Pavla Žáčková & Lenka Lisá &
Jan Novák & Jan Rohovec & Petr Pokorný
# Institute of Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic 2013
Abstract This study presents a palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of an oxbow
wetland covering the past 11,500 years. The origin of the oxbow lake and development
of the floodplain wetland and changes of the surrounding vegetation are
reconstructed using palaeobotanical analyses, radiocarbon dating, detailed sediment
stratigraphy and micromorphology of samples taken from a former palaeomeander of
Folia Geobot (2014) 49:137–162
DOI 10.1007/s12224-013-9171-3
L. Petr (*) :L. Lisá :J. Rohovec
Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Institute of Geology, Rozvojová 269, CZ-165 00
Prague 6, Czech Republic
e-mail: petr.libor@gmail.com
L. Lisá
e-mail: lisa@gli.cas.cz
J. Rohovec
e-mail: rohovec@gli.cas.cz
P. Žáčková
Department of Botany, Faculty of Sciences, Charles University, Prague, Benátská 2, CZ-128 01
Prague 2, Czech Republic
e-mail: pa.zackova@seznam.cz
J. Sádlo
Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Institute of Botany, CZ-252 43 Průhonice,
Czech Republic
e-mail: jiri.sadlo@ibot.cas.cz
J. Novák
Department of Botany, Faculty of Sciences, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, CZ-370 05
České Budějovice, Czech Republic
e-mail: prourou@gmail.cz
P. Pokorný
Center for Theoretical Study, Charles University in Prague and Academy of Sciences of the Czech
Republic, Jilská 1, CZ-110 00 Prague 1, Czech Republic
e-mail: pokorny@arup.cas.cz
the river Elbe in the Czech Republic. The sedimentary record of the section Chrast
was chosen due to its exceptional position within the area of former oxbow lakes.
Using a multi-proxy approach, we investigated how this environment reflected
climatic changes during the Holocene. Our results show that the Chrast section
covers the Late-Glacial to the Middle Holocene period, which is climatically very
unstable and characterized by extensive vegetation and sedimentological changes.
The macrofossil record provides detailed evidence of Allerød vegetation. The sedimentological
record reflects changes in fluvial activity (meandering-braided transition
in the channel pattern) during Late-Glacial/Holocene and postsedimentological
changes (occurrence of a doplerite layer) in the middle Holocene. We follow three
independent lines of interpretation: (a) a local autogenic environmental-succession
process, (b) a regional process driven by climate change, and (c) the role of stochastic
and indeterministic processes.
Keywords Floodplain deposits . Macrofossils . Micromorphology . Oxbow wetland .
Pollen analysis . Random events . Succession
Introduction
Mire ecosystems can store a wealth of information about past ecological conditions
and offer potential clues for understanding the character, strength and periodicity of
past climate changes (e.g., Frenzel 1983; Engstrom and Wright 1984). This is
because mire vegetation often accumulates organic material year after year. To
properly understand and correctly interpret the palaeobotanical record, three conditions
must be met: (1) production and accumulation of organic matter must be
greater than the rate of its decay; (2) the accumulation of organic matter should
happen without interruption; (3) diagnostically essential features of plants must be
preserved well.
It is well-documented that these requirements are satisfied in the case of peat or lake
sediments, where disintegration or redeposition is minimal, which can lead to the
appearance of regularly laminated sediments in lakes (e.g., Saarnisto 1986; Hajdas
et al. 1993; Tinner and Lotter 2001; Litt et al. 2001). The palaeoecological record in
floodplain fluvial sediments, however, significantly differs from lake or peat sediments
because of many disturbances and the influence of stochastic, allochtonous
processes.
It is generally accepted that rivers represent geomorphic entities that are highly
sensitive to environmental change, but it is ever more recognized that the fluvial
response is extremely complex, with considerable spatiotemporal variability (Knox
1983; Törnqvist 2007). The development of any floodplain is based on a dynamic
interaction between water, land and biota under the pressure of climatic changes (Mol
et al. 2000; Makaske 2001; Vandenberghe 2003; Herget et al. 2007). The floodplain
consists of contrasting types of abiotic habitats and vegetation communities that form
a complicated pattern, changing spatially over time. The impacts of various climatic,
hydrological and biotic conditions, such as dynamics of the water stream, sedimentary
processes, successional vegetation stages, disturbance events, animal and human
activities, alternate on a scale of years to hundreds of years. Unfortunately, little
138 L. Petr et al.
palaeobotanical work has been done on floodplains, because the alluvial environment
is exceptionally heterogeneous, even though they are generally an attractive
source for the preservation of the palaeobotanical and sedimentological records. The
traditional concept of basin filling suggests the following phases that can be found
as layers within the section under study: (a) bedrock material forming the bottom of
a flowing river; (b) the early phase of sedimentation possibly with short-lived water
and waterfront plants after the emergence of an oxbow lake; (c) the middle phase of
sedimentation, which is optimal for littoral species of the lake environment, especially
perennial clonal graminoids; (d) the terminal phase of terrestralization with
land species including evergreen tree species (Ritchie 1995; Břízová 1998).
Törnqvist (2007), for example, reports that climate changes are reflected in rivers
through (1) the discharge regime, (2) changes in the channel pattern (fluvial
activity); and (3) changes in the longitudinal profile through aggradation or degradation
(incision).
In this paper, we focus on interpreting the palaeoenvironmental record of the
Chrast section (the river Elbe floodplain, Czech Republic). This section records
complex sedimentation sequences including abrupt changes in lithology, disturbance
events and post-sedimentation processes. During our research, we decided to apply a
multi-proxy approach that combines several methods to provide complexity and to
compile a detailed reconstruction of the past environment and processes. Our study
includes not only a standard pollen analysis but also a macrofossils analysis (Birks
and Birks 2000), a charcoal analysis, and geomorphological, sedimentological
(Bridge 2003), microstratigraphical (MacCarthy et al. 1998; Stoops 2003; Budek
2010) and geochemical approaches. This enables us to reconstruct an oxbow wetland
with local vegetation, trace long-term succession, consider regional landscape patterns
and describe sedimentological events from the past 11,500 years. We suggest
three independent lines of interpretation, separately focusing on (1) local autogenic
environmental-succession processes, (2) a regional process driven by climate change,
(3) and the role of stochastic and indeterministic processes.
Study Region
The study area lies along the upper section of the river Elbe, a major watercourse in
Central Europe. After the first ten kilometers of its course in the Giant Mountains
piedmont, the river falls into a lowland formed by alkaline Mesozoic marine deposits
(Czech Cretaceous Basin) mostly covered by acidic Tertiary/Quaternary riverine
gravels (Fig. 1). Though the siliceous gravel deposits are nutrient-poor, the floodplain
is richer because of the solution percolating from the bedrock. The stratigraphy of the
surrounding Pleistocene gravel terraces was studied mainly by Balatka and Sládek
(1962) and Žebera (1956). Their interpretation is difficult because of the loess cover
and relatively plain relief. Růžičková and Zeman (1994) and Kalicki (2006) described
the Holocene alluvial deposits in the study area. Břízová (1998), Dreslerová et al.
(2004) and Pokorný (2005) described the Holocene environmental reconstruction
based on pollen data from nearby sites Chrást, Kozly and Tišice.
For now, the studied site near the village of Chrást is the only palaeomeander
found by the Elbe in the Czech Republic. Its sedimentological record covers the end
Late-Glacial and Holocene Environmental History of Labe Floodplain 139
of the Last Glacial period and the Holocene. The locality is 1.5 km north of the
village of Všetaty (50°15′ N; 14°35′ E) in a low river terrace, about 2 km from the
current river course and 5 m above its present-day water level (Fig. 1). Cornfields
prevail in the surrounding landscape, but semi-natural habitats such as dry pine-oak
forest or alluvial wetlands river Elbe are locally present near the present day
floodplain of the river Elbe. A narrow strip of the former Late Glacial oxbow is
covered by ruderal vegetation on drained soil, now under the influence of
fertilization of surrounding intensively exploited arable fields. The present-day
annual average temperature in the region is 8.7°C, and the annual precipitation is
527 mm (Culek 1996).
Methods
Trench Chrast was excavated to expose a stratigraphic section. The location for this
trench was chosen after the completion of a large field survey and detailed screening
of the locality using digital maps. The former oxbow lake was identified based on
vegetation cues visible in aircraft imagery. The profile was sampled from a 2 × 2 m,
2.85 m deep pit. Samples were taken into steel boxes (10 × 10 × 50 cm). Every 3 cm
of the lithological record (or more if sandy layers were present) were sampled for the
pollen and geochemical analyses, and samples for macrofossil and charcoal analyses
were taken every 10 cm of the section. Lithologically different parts of the section
(Fig. 2) were sampled into small Kubiena boxes for micromorphological study. The
profile was divided into zones based on lithology (zones marked CH0–CH6 for the
entire section). In the pollen analysis, alternative zoning (zones marked 1–3) was
Fig. 1 The location of the section Chrast
140 L. Petr et al.
made using a cluster analysis (Conslink) implemented within the program POLPAL
(Nalepka and Walanus 2003).
Radiocarbon dating was performed following the 14
C AMS method in the
radiocarbon laboratory in Poznań. The pine trunk was dated using the conventional
14
C method in the radiocarbon laboratory of the Nuclear Physics Institute of the
Academy of Science of the Czech Republic (hereafter AS CR) in Prague. All of the
five radiocarbon dates acquired were calibrated using the program OxCal 4.1. (Bronk
Ramsey 2009). The chronostratigraphic division of the Late Glacial and Holocene
used in the article follows Walker et al. (1999), and chronological boundaries also
consider Björck et al. (1998). A micromorphological approach was taken to answer
the question of the Last Glacial and Holocene transition. Small 3 × 4 cm blocks were
sampled from the lithological record between 68 and 173 cm below the surface (9
samples). The samples were dried in situ, impregnated with resin and thin sectioned
in the laboratory of the Institute of Geology AS CR in Prague and followed by the
standard description (Bullock et al. 1985; Stoops 2003).
Chemical analyses cover mainly ICP EOS (inductively coupled plasma/emission
optical spectroscopy) analyses of main macroelements. The acid leachable fraction of
macroelements was measured for each of the lithologically distinct horizons. Each
sample (0.5–1 g) was precisely weighed together with 20 ml of a 20 % solution of
Fig. 2 The section Chrast and its geochemical properties and processes. Description of zones: CH1 –
Accumulation of organic matter is reflected in increased amount of Fe, S, LOI, P and Mg, while MS and
carbonates are low; CH2 – Carbonate precipitation is reflected in increased amount of Ca and Mg; CH3 –
FeOH precipitation is reflected mainly by the increased amounts of Fe and slightly increased amounts of
MS; CH4 – Magnetic susceptibility reflects predominantly the supply of exogenic very fine grained
material, it means clay minerals deposited from suspension; CH5 – Increased amounts of LOI, S and Fe
in the facie macroscopically free of FeOH or organic matter reflects the presence of bacterial producing
pyrite nodules; CH6 – Most of the traced geochemical and magnetic elements except S and Fe show
increased values in the depth of 70 and 90 cm below the surface. This reflects the process of slow oxidation
(burning) when P coming from organic matter is fixed into carbonates and CaPO4 originates
Late-Glacial and Holocene Environmental History of Labe Floodplain 141
aqueous hydrochloric acid (ultrapure, Merck) in a beaker covered with watch glass.
After the completion of the reaction, the content was left to stand overnight. The
remaining solid material was filtered through a piece of filter paper (blue strip) and
thoroughly washed with water. Finally, the volume was increased to 100 ml in a
volumetric flask. The chemical analyses were performed using the ICP EOS technique
on an Intrepid DUO spectrometer (ThermoFisher) at the Institute of Geology
AS CR in Prague. The macroelement (Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, P, S) concentrations were
measured under standard experimental conditions recommended by the manufacturer
using dual plasma view and 2.5 ml/min sample intake. For the calibration, mixed
standard solutions were prepared combining commercial 1,000 ppm solutions of single
elements in 2 % nitric acid solution. Calcium concentrations are independent of red-ox
conditions and do not reflect the amount of oxygen/reducing activity in the mother
solution.
Organic matter was measured by a LOI analysis (550°C) according to Heiri et al.
(2001) and Holliday (2004). The temperature used for drying was 105°C, and the
length of combustion was 3 hours.
Magnetic susceptibility was measured using a kappabridge KLY-4 device at the
Laboratory of Paleomagnetism of the Institute of Geology AS CR in Průhonice.
Pollen analyses were performed using the standard acetolysis method using HCl
and HF (Moore et al. 1991). Pollen grains were distinguished using pollen keys
(Reille 1995, 1998; Beug 2004). The pollen sum in each sample was at least 500
grains. The pollen diagram was plotted in the POLPAL program for Windows
(Nalepka and Walanus 2003) including the numerical analyses (Rarefraction,
Conslink, PCA) for the visualization and the interpretation of pollen data. Pollen
grains were divided into a regional group of terrestrial (Fig. 3) and a local group
(Fig. 4) of wetland taxa.
Samples for macrofossil analyses (varying between 350–360 ml) were soaked
in water and, when necessary, boiled with 5 % KOH. The extraction of plant
macrofossils from the sediments followed standard flotation and wet-sieving
procedures (Wasylikowa 1986; Pearshall 1989; Jackomet and Kreuz 1999), using
a 0.25 mm sieve. Botanical macrofossils were picked out from the recovered
fraction and scanned using a stereo-microscope (the magnification 8–56x). Identification
was carried out by consulting seed and fruit atlases (Beijerinck 1947;
Katz et al. 1965; Schermann 1967; Berggren 1969; Cappers et al. 2006;
Velichkevich and Zastawniak 2006) and by comparing samples with recent
reference material stored at the Department of Botany, Charles University in
Prague.
Antracological and xylotomy analyses of charcoal and wood remains were
performed only on fragments from the largest fraction (>2 mm). The identification
of charcoal fragments, carried out using an episcopic microscope, was done with an
interactive identification key (Heiss 2000) in addition to standard references
(Schweingruber 1990). The quantitative and qualitative data obtained from plant
macrofossils and charcoal identification are presented in a macrofossils diagram
(Fig. 5) plotted using the POLPAL program for Windows (Nalepka and Walanus
2003).
Lithological zones CH0 and CH6 were not analyzed due to insufficient preservation
of the palaeobotanical record.
142 L. Petr et al.
Fig.3Thepollendiagramofterrestrialspecies
Late-Glacial and Holocene Environmental History of Labe Floodplain 143
Fig.4Thepollendiagramoflocalspecies
144 L. Petr et al.
Fig.5Themacrofossildiagram.Potamogetonsubmergedleaves–CH1zone:P.pusilus,P.obtusifolius;CH3zone:P.filiformis
Late-Glacial and Holocene Environmental History of Labe Floodplain 145
Results
Radiocarbon Dating
The results of radiocarbon dating are presented in Table 1. Dates (Table 1) from
the base of the section (11,450±60 BP; 11,523±120 BP) correspond with the
Allerød/Bølling interstadial, the date 11,010±60 BP corresponds with the transition
from Allerød to the Younger Dryas, while the date 10,750±60 BP corresponds with
the beginning of the Younger Dryas. A fragment of charcoal of Fraxinus excelsior
recovered from the depth of 105–110 cm was dated to the Middle Holocene (6,510
±40 BP; Middle Atlantic).
Lithology and Micromorphology
Six main lithological zones (CH1–CH6) of the Chrast section (Table 2; Fig. 2)
were described on the basis of sedimentological and microstratigraphical observations.
Micromorphological observations are summarized in Table 3 and
Fig. 2.
Chemical Analyses, Loss on Ignition (LOI) and Magnetic Susceptibility (MS)
Calcium concentrations were remarkably high in zones CH1, CH3, CH5 and CH6
(Table 3). In all sections (Fig. 2), calcium concentrations in leachates were well
correlated with the clay ratio in the sediment (Table 2) and with the occurrence of
mollusc shell fragments (Table 3) and oospores of Characeae algae (Tables 3 and 4;
Fig. 5). Figure 2 shows the relationship between leachable Fe with sulfur/SO4
2–
content at depths of 120–140 cm and 230–250 cm (zone CH2, CH5). Our
micromorphological observation confirmed that the layer between 120 and
140 cm is extremely rich in bacterial spherical products (FeS2 – pyrites).
Increased values of phosphorus in zone CH5 at depths of 70–90 cm and 130–
140 cm, and in zone CH2 at 240–250 cm correlate with increased values of organic
matter measured by LOI and based on the micromorphological observation also
Table 1 Radiocarbon dates (AMS) from the Chrast section
Depth (cm) Lab. nr. Method Material 14
C age (BP) Cal. (BC)
105–110 Poz-21028 AMS Ash charcoal 6,510±40 5,548–5,373
145–150 Poz-20980 AMS Pine wood 10,750±60 10,916–10,738
210–215 Poz-22832 AMS Menyanthes seed 11,010±60 11,120–10,911
230–235 Crl-6199B Con. Pine trunk 11,523±120 11,716–11,226
275–280 Poz-22833 AMS Menyanthes seed 11,450±60 11,440–11,278
BC – before Christ, BP – before present (1950)
146 L. Petr et al.
Table2StratigraphyandlithologicaldescriptionoftheChrastsection
Depth(cm)Color
Depositionalenvironment
Lithology
ZoneCH0
Below285Not
analyzed
Sandygravellayerstronglysaturatedbywater.Fluvial
ZoneCH1
285–26510YR7/1Slightlycalcareousloamysand,lightgraywithaverygradualchangetoward
theoverlayinglayer.Thetransitionbetweenthisandthepreviouslayer
isabrupt.
Fluvial/Aeolian/Limnic
265–25910YR6/1Calcareoussandyclay,gray,withanabruptchangeandincreasingamount
oforganicmattertowardtheoverlayinglayer.
Limnic
ZoneCH2
259–2237.5YR¾Non-calcareousdecomposedandcompactedpeat,darkbrown,withanabrupt
changetowardtheoverlayinglayer.
Terrestrial
ZoneCH3
223–18510YR2/2Stronglycalcareouslaminatedlayerofclayinterruptedby1–4cmthinlayers
ofdecomposedpeat,withanabruptchangetowardtheoverlayinglayers.
Thecolorvariesfromverydarkbrowntoverypalebrownduetothepresence
ofmorecalcareousormorepeatymaterial.Rootbioturbationisslightly
recognizableandthechangetowardtheoverlayinglayerisabrupt.
Limnic-terrestrial(redeposition,bioturbation)
10YR8/2
185–17910YR3/1Calcareous,stronglydegradedclayeypeatimpregnatedwithFeOH-rich
solutionscomingfromdecomposedorganicmatter.Colorvariesfromvery
darkgraytograyishbrownduetothestateofthedecompositionofpeat.
Thechangetowardtheoverlayinglayerisabrupt.
Terrestrial-limnic
10YR5/2
ZoneCH4
179–14210YR6/4Slightlycalcareoussandylayerincludingthinlayers(app.1cm)ofclayand
clayloam,witherodedsurfaceatadepthof159cm,169cm,166cm,175cm.
Thecolorvariesbetweenlightyellowishbrownandlightgrayduetooxidation
Fluvial-limnic(rootbioturbation)
Late-Glacial and Holocene Environmental History of Labe Floodplain 147
Table2(continued)
Depth(cm)Color
Depositionalenvironment
Lithology
andreductionprocessesandduetothegrainsizechanges,withanabrupt
changetowardtheoverlayinglayer.
10YR7/1Obviouspresenceofcoarsegrainsofmica.Voidsarefilledwithdecomposed
organicmaterialofMnoxides,verydarkbrown.10YR2/2
ZoneCH5
142–11810YR6/1Calcareousclay,graywithanabruptchangetowardtheoverlayinglayer.Limnic(bioturbation,ox-reduction)
118–1025YR5/8Calcareoussiltyclay,yellowishred,withaverygradualchangetoward
theoverlayinglayer.
Limnic(rootbioturbation,oxidation)
102–8610YR4/2Calcareousclaylayer,darkgrayishbrown,withanabruptchangetoward
theoverlayinglayer.
Limnic(rootbioturbation,oxidation)
86–8010YR8/3Calcareoussiltyclay,verypalebrown,withagradualchangetowardthe
overlayinglayer.
Limnic(rootbioturbation,oxidation)
80–6710YR2/1Calcareousclayimpregnatedwithorganicmatterrichsolutions,
macroscopicallydescribedasdecomposedblackpeatwithanabrupt
changetowardtheoverlayinglayer.
Terrestrial-limnic(rootbioturbation,oxidation)
ZoneCH6
67–3510YR5/2Degradedcalcareoussiltypeatgrayishbrown,withanabruptchange
towardtheoverlayinglayer.
Terrestrial(rootbioturbation)
37–010YR3/2Verydarkgrayishbrownanthropogenicmaterial.Anthropogenic(degradation)
148 L. Petr et al.
Table 3 Micromorphological description of the Chrast section (Fig. 2)
Depth (cm); zone Subzone Micromorphological characteristic Interpretation
Sample X1
173 A
(bottom)
Single grain microstructure of sandy
material with monic grain distribution
High lithological variability
as a result of differing
provenience and origin.
Phases of unstability and
redeposittion are altering
with phases of stagnant
water with the organic
matter accumulation and
carbonate precipitation.
Postdeposittional presence
of redox FeS bacteria.
Zone CH4 B Intergrain channel microstructure of sandy
loam, grey to orange crystallic matrix,
carbonate void coating, partly
decomposed organic matter.
C Intergrain channel microstructure of sandy
loam, horizontal pores and crystallic
matrix with grey-orange color, void
coating and the presence of partly
decomposed organic matter. FeS
bacteria products.
D (top) Single grain microstructure of sandy
material with monic grain distribution.
Sample X2
150 A
(bottom)
Intergrain channel microstructure of wellsorted
sandy loam. Channels infilled by
decomposed and partly decomposed
organic matter, FeS bacteria products,
crystallic B fabric of light brown
matrix.
Phases of unstability presented
by washouts with continuous
organic matter production.
Postdepositional presence of
redox FeS bacteria.
Zone CH4 B (top) Simple packing to intergrain
microaggregate microstructure of sandy
material, dark brown matrix with
decomposed and partly decomposed
organic matter, locally very poorly sorted
material, lenses of redeposited braunhlem
plasma, carbonate concentrations and
products of FeS bacteria.
Sample X3
135 A
(bottom)
Microaggregate to channel microstructure
of silty loam, FeOH counting,
decomposed and partly decomposed
organic matter, products of FeS bacteria,
depletion pedofeatures.
Phases of stagnant water and
dessication. Postdepositional
impregnation by Fe-rich
solutions, presence of redox
FeS bacteria.
Zone CH5 B Intergrain microaggregate microstructure
of sandy layer, light and dark brown
matrix, partly decomposed organic
matter, products of FeS bacteria, relicts
of horizontal bedding, strong
bioturbation.
C (top) Single grain microstructure of silty loam,
gefuric related distribution, locally
channel microstructure. Crystallic B
fabric, hematite microaggregates, FeS
products of bacteria rare, decomposed
organic matter, bioturbation.
Late-Glacial and Holocene Environmental History of Labe Floodplain 149
correspond with the appearance of layers rich in organic matter, that is, material
precipitated from organic-rich solutions (Table 3). The total magnetic susceptibility
varied between 450 and 1.5 × 10-6
SI. The highest values generally reflected the
presence of the clay fraction, while the lowest ones reflected the presence of the
sandy diamagnetic fraction and organic material (zone CH4).
Table 3 (continued)
Depth (cm); zone Subzone Micromorphological characteristic Interpretation
Sample X4
120 Intergrain microaggregate and channel
microstructure of silty loam, light
brown crystalline matrix, carbonate
precipitation, mollusc shells,
decomposed and partly decomposed
organic matter, FeOH impregnation,
bioturbation.
Stable alkaline, stagnant
environment carbonate
precipitation, continuous
organic matter production
postdepositional
impregnation by Fe-rich
solutions.
Zone CH5
Sample X5
105 Intergrain microaggregate and channel
microstructure of silty loam composed
of quartz grains and carbonate crystals,
channels and chambers, gray brown and
crystallic matrix, mollusc shells and
Chara oogonias very common, FeOH
impregnation presented as a doplerite,
decomposed and partly decomposed
organic matter, bioturbation
Long-term stable alkaline
conditions, with rich
carbonate precipitation,
organic matter production
postdepositional
impregnation by Fe-rich
solutions, origin of doplerite
appearance
Zone CH5
Sample X6+X7
90 + 80 Channel microstructure of silty loam
composed of quartz grains and carbonate
crystals and aggregates, channels and
chambers, grey brown and crystallic
matrix, carbonate and mollusc and
Chara oogonias concentrations
postdepositionally corroded and
impregnated by ferrum hydroxides.
Root bioturbation, presence of
decomposed and partly decomposed
organic matter.
Long-term stable alkaline
conditions, with rich
carbonate precipitation,
organic matter production
postdepositional
impregnation by Fe-rich
solutions, corrosion of
carbonate features, doplerite
appearance
Zone CH5
Sample X8+X9
75 + 68 Subangular blocky microstructure of
organic matter rich matrix, channel
and chamber microstructure of
carbonate rich matrix. Channels and
vughs, cracks, matrix composed mainly
of carbonate crystals (fragments of
shells occur) or organic-rich solutions.
Color of matrix depends on the
lithology and varies from light grey
to reddish brown.
Long-term alkaline conditions
with carbonate precipitation,
high organic production,
postdepositional
impregnation
with Fe-rich solutions,
corrosion of carbonate, origin
of doplerite layers
Zone CH5
150 L. Petr et al.
Analyses of Plant Macrofossils and Pollen
Results of macrofossil analysis (see Fig. 5), show significant changes. Six local
macrofossil assemblage zones (LMAZ) were distinguished using cluster analysis
(Conslink) implemented in POLPAL; moreover, in light of sedimentological results,
it is clear that macrofossil zones correspond with lithological zones. Species diversity
and abundance of plant macrofossils were most marked in zones CH1, CH2 and CH3;
in addition, macrofossils (e.g., surface sculpture) were remarkably well preserved in
these zones. By contrast, the sandy zone CH4 had a low frequency of subfossil seeds
and fruits, but charcoal and wood fragments were common. Zone CH5 contained also
a small amount of vascular plant macrofossils, and the surface sculpture of plant
macrofossils was considerably degraded; only oospores of green algae Characeae in
zone CH5 were frequent, as seen in Fig. 5.
Table 4 Macrofossils assemblages of the Chrast section (Fig. 3)
Depth (cm) Macrofossil assemblage description
Zone context
Zone CH1 285–260 Zone CH1 covers early stage of organic sedimentation. This corresponds with
the beginning of the vegetation succession. High number of recorded species
shows easy way of botanical ecesis and low interspecies competition. High
species richness in this zone is remarkable. Different groups of plant
communities distinguished here cover species with different requirements for
moisture and nutrients; this indicates heterogeneity in habitats
under disturbance pressure during dynamic changes in the river channel.
Samples 1-5 Oospores of algae Chara are encrusted with calcium. This indicates a shallow
carbonate-rich water body with fluctuating water level and clay or loam bottom.
Diaspores of water macrophytes, sedges and reeds indicate an oligo-mesotrophic
lake with littoral vegetation on the shore line.
Zone CH2 260–225 Macrophytes and mire species in zone CH2 indicate the presence of an unstable
shallow lake and transitional mire vegetation. High level of organic production
caused terrestralization of the water body.
Samples 6-12 Spatial heterogeneity of habitats and pressure of disturbances are lower.
Zone CH3 225–175 In zone CH3 has remarkable restoration of a still-water habitat with well-developed
littoral vegetation, similar to zone CH1. It shows retrogression of succession and
a higher level of disturbances.
Samples 13-20
Zone CH4 175–140 Zone CH4 is extremely poor, and mainly charcoal and wood fragments can be
found. Other plant macrofossils are missing. This can be interpreted as a
bottom of the river without vegetation, or floodplain under the influence
of the big flood episodes or postdeposition loss of macroremains due to the
influence of bioturbation and oxidation processes.
Samples 21-29
Zone CH5 140–86 For Zone CH5 the low content of plant macrofossils is significant. Vegetation
cover is poor in species, probably due to the influence of food or bioturbation
and high level of mineralization.
Samples 30-43 Presence of oogonias of Chara and seeds of Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani
indicate a mesotrophic water body rich in carbonates.
Fraxinus charcoal was redeposited. Ruderal species show influence of floods.
Late-Glacial and Holocene Environmental History of Labe Floodplain 151
Pollen analysis results presented in pollen diagrams (Figs. 3 and 4) show indistinct
changes. The observed pollen spectra were rather uniform, therefore only three local
pollen assemblage zones (LPAZ), identified using cluster analysis, were distinguished.
Apart from zone CH5b, it is difficult to determine any development or
changes in the diagram. This was also confirmed in the PCA and Rarefraction
analysis (Fig. 3).
Description of Pollen Assemblages
LPAZ 1: 261–279 cm (Zone CH1)
The AP/NAP ratio is about 80 %. The curve of Pinus increases from 40 % to
90 % while Betula declines from 30 % to 10 %, Salix and Juniperus form closed
curves. Alnus, Picea, Ulmus and Tilia pollen was very rare. NAP is dominated by
grasses and sedges. Helianthemum, Chenopodiaceae and Thalictrum occur occasionally.
Water species were represented, e.g., by Myriophyllum, Batrachium and
algae Pediastrum.
LPAZ 2: 120–260 cm (Zone CH2, CH3, CH4, CH5a)
The AP/NAP ratio varies between 50 % and 85 %. Pinus (50 %–80 %) and Betula
(5 %–20 %) dominate whereas Picea, Juniperus, Alnus and Salix are rare. In NAP,
sedges (30 %) prevail over grasses (5 %). The following pollen taxa had variable
occurrence: Artemisia, Ranunculaceae and Umbeliferae. Occurrence of water taxa
(Myriophyllum, Potamogeton and Pediastrum) was sporadic.
LPAZ 3: 86–120 cm (Zone CH5b)
The AP/NAP ratio is about 70 %. Pinus dominates, but the curve falls from
80 % to 50 %. Only in this zone did broad-leaved woody species of
mesophilous habitats expand (Corylus, Fraxinus, Quercus, Tilia). The curve of
Betula, Picea, Tilia, Quercus, Corylus and Alnus rapidly increases. Ulmus,
Fagus and Abies appear. Grasses and sedges still create an important component
of NAP spectra. Other herb taxa (Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae, Thalictrum,
Ranunculaceae and Umbeliferae) are less common. Cerealia pollen appears.
Wetland taxa are absent, except for Typha latifolia. Microcharcoal (including grass
types) is extremely common, and its concentration increases from the depth of 100 cm.
The quality of preservation in this zone is poor (mechanical and chemical damage of
pollen grains).
Pollen grains from the depth of 0–86 cm are largely degraded and not identifiable.
The pollen record therefore cannot be used for further interpretation.
Discussion
Interpretation Context 1: Local Environmental Processes
The first approach to the interpretation of the section is based on local changes of the
environment and vegetation. Our results document that erosion-accumulation processes
and vegetation succession took place during infilling of the inactive river
channel.
152 L. Petr et al.
Sedimentation processes
Our results provide compelling evidence that the development of the palaeoriver channel
Chrast more or less followed the general scheme described in the Introduction.
Gravels and sands described at the bottom of the section Chrast (CH0) represent
former channel bed-load of an active river. In the following period (CH1–CH3), the
inactive river channel was filled up by overbank deposit (silt and clay), represented
by suspended-load sediments that accumulate on floodplains in an environment of
slowly flowing to stagnant water. Two types of sediments alternated: (a) loamy or
clayey sediments were formed in still water rich in percolated carbonates, whereas (b)
nutrient-poor organic sediments were formed on dry land. These changes are illustrated
in the geochemical record in zones CH1–CH3 (Fig. 2); the increase of Ca and
Mg positively correlates with carbonate precipitation, while their decrease in zone
CH2 (220–260 cm), where S and Fe increase, characterizes the sedimentation phase
of organic material and bacterial activity.
A dramatic change is evident at the depth of 179 cm, at the beginning of zone CH4
due to the occurrence of sandy layers. Sandy layers give evidence of the accumulation
phase during flood events and represent overbank deposits, as reviewed by Aslan
(2007); this is connected with floodplain aggradation, as found by Makaske (2001). A
detailed micromorphological investigation revealed the presence of clay layers in
zone CH4 (Fig. 2). The alternating sand and clays resulted from fluvial activity of a
braided river in a limnic environment. Several studies have documented braided river
system as a typical morphological phenomenon of splitting river channels (e.g.,
Makaske 2001; Vandenberghe 2003; Törnqvist 2007), and our results provide evidence
for such a split channel of the river Elbe.
The record in the CH5 zone is somewhat striking. Despite chemical changes,
several remarkable horizons of different colors were found (Fig. 2). Chemical
sedimentation of calcium-rich material was characteristic for this zone. This material
is interpreted as lake marl that originated in a shallow limnic environment during a
long period of activity of underground water sources rich in carbonates. At the base of
zone CH5 (depth range 120–140 cm), intensive bacterial activity was identified
chemically and even micromorphologically (Table 3). At the bottom of zone CH5,
carbonate accumulation and organic matter increase (LOI curve up to 70 %); Fe and S
values are strikingly high, too. The geochemical structure was largely influenced by
post-depositional changes caused by the activity of root systems and the bacterial
activity linked to it. Higher parts of zone CH5 (67–120 cm) are remarkable for the
significant increase of Ca and Mg and also for the minimal values of MS (probably
due to the reaction to diamagnetic carbonate). Also the values of Fe and S are very
low. This geochemically homogenous part of zone CH5 is macroscopically light
reddish and microscopically black, resembling horizons rich in organics or iron.
These layers were identified as doplerite. This native hydrocarbon material emerged
before total decomposition of topsoil within the largely degraded and anthropogenically
influenced fen. The sapric porous horizon (Dinc et al. 1976; Fox 1985) with
decomposed organic matter (Manoch 1970; Fox 1985) was transported downward in
the section as solutions and, so doplerite emerged (Koopman 1988). We found that
this substance further precipitated and created a solid, opaque crust. The doplerite
layer does not contain many plant macrofossils although it resembles a layer rich in
Late-Glacial and Holocene Environmental History of Labe Floodplain 153
organics and also its values of LOI and P indicated the presence of organic acids. We
suggest that this appears as a consequence of penetration of these acidic solutions, the
subsoil layers rich in carbonates being partially corroded. The sedimentology of this
zone is thus based on the competition of several disparate processes: the sedimentation
of the clay matrix, carbonate precipitation and the accumulation of organic
substance, bioturbation and postsedimentation processes caused the intensification
of bacterial activity followed by decomposition of most organic matter including
macrofossils, corrosion of carbonate layers, establishment of a doplerite solution
(Stoops et al. 2010), and its movement through the site.
The youngest zone, CH6, is characterized by sedimentation within a fen that was
consequently degraded and largely anthropogenically influenced. The record of local
fires can be observed in the form of a black sediment within the studied section and
proven thanks to the presence of micromorphologically visible charcoal. Microscopic
charcoal particles documenting a human influence were also identified in the pollen
slides. The section is covered by an anthropogenic backfill from the second half of the
20th
century.
When looking at vegetation succession – history of local vegetation and changes in
hydroseries, zone CH1 represents the initial phase of vegetation succession and is
characterized by the contemporary occurrence of three groups of species that differ in
their habitat requirements. The first group consists of species that can promptly
colonize habitats with well utilizable nutrients. These competitively weak species
indicate the influence of constant disturbances. This group includes stoneworts
(Chara) and still water macrophyte plants (Nuphar lutea, Potamogeton filiformis,
Batrachium sp.) that occur in shallow water bodies (alluvial pools, oxbows) with
stagnant or slowly moving water with mineral sediment. The second group consists
of littoral species that can colonize sandbanks and withstand changes in water level
(Alisma, Sparganium, Eleocharis, Hippuris, Schoenoplectus). The third group is
represented by nutrient-demanding herbs growing on alluvial sediment accumulations
on the banks (Persicaria lapathifolia, Rorippa palustris, Chenopodium, Ranunculus
repens, Mentha, Urtica). The substrate is usually gravel and sand with a good
nutrition supply, as found by Šumberová and Lososová (2011). This “ruderal” group
of annual nitrophilous wetland herbs has its optimum in zone CH1 and remarkably
recedes due to transitional terrestralization and the competition of perennials and
appears in zone CH3 where carbonate and clay sedimentation is renewed.
The group of perennial clonal species, responsible for the extinction of the oxbow
lake and the origin of the fen in an undisturbed environment has its optimum in zone
CH2 and persists in zone CH3. Clonal perennial plants prevailing here include the
following: (a) graminoids (Carex rostrata/vesicaria, C. sect. Acutae, C. sect.
Paniculatae, C. tomentosa/flacca, C. flava) and (b) dicotyledonous plants (Menyanthes,
Comarum, Cicuta). The vegetation is classified as a calcium-rich fen with typical
calcium-loving species, for example, Carex flacca/tomentosa and Carex flava. The
sediment contains less calcium as a result of higher organic production (Fig. 2). The
presence of woody species in these phases of the succession can be interpreted as an
influence of the heterogeneity of the environment (see below).
The succession series in zone CH3 is largely influenced by the increase of hydrological
activity, which was connected with the precipitation of carbonates. The plant
macrofossils found give evidence of the presence of slow moving or stagnant water with
154 L. Petr et al.
still water macrophytes (Nuphar, Batrachium, Potamogeton) and with macroalgae
(Chara). Fluctuating water at the shoreline is indicated by species adapted to these
conditions (Hippuris, Sparganium, Batrachium, Oenanthe). Littoral sedges occurred as
well (Carex rostrata, C. sect. Paniculatae, C. flava agg.). In zone CH3, the frequent
occurrence of Oenanthe sp. mericarps is remarkable. Oenanthe stands commonly occur
in lowland alluvial floodplains, on sites with exposed pond beds or on sites flooded by
shallow water, but it can also grow at greater depths of up to 1 m.
In zones CH4–CH6, succession can only be estimated with difficulties on the basis of
palaeobotanical data. However, the aforementioned interpretation of the sedimentation
processes indicates vegetation that produces a large amount of fast decomposing and
mineralizing biomass. The oospores of Characeae, with calcium carbonate incrustation,
proven in large amounts, indicate shallow water, periodic floods and light. The wood
fragments and charcoal (Betula, Salix, Pinus, Fraxinus), by contrast, indicate the presence
of shrub and forest vegetation in the vicinity of the site under study. The presented
evidence suggests an occurrence of eutrophic wetland with the prevalence of tall
graminoids (e.g., Phragmites). This hypothesis is supported by finds of several achens
of Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani/lacustris, which indicates reed bed habitats. This
eutrophic wetland was, in some episodes, overgrown by a scarce canopy of woody
plants. Similar vegetation types and signs of changes of the succession stages are frequent
in the area of interest even today. Some human impact to the vegetation is likely, too.
Interpretation Context 2: Large-Scale Environmental Processes
Explaining local patterns of studied deposits using large-scale environmental processes
is a common approach in palaeoecology. This approach shows how meander
infilling reflects global changes on the landscape level. It was observable that the
results from the analyzed section Chrast corresponded with general characteristics of
environmental development in the Late Glacial and Holocene.
Meander infilling as a result of landscape development and climatic changes
In principle, climatic and environmental changes in the Quaternary period influenced the
dynamics of fluvial systems in Central Europe that were not affected directly by the
continental ice cover (Maddy et al. 2001; Tyráček 2001; Vandenberghe 2003; Tyráček
and Havlíček 2009). We detected different mechanisms of fluvial regime response to
environmental-climate factors: (1) changes in hydrological conditions (discharge regime),
(2) changes in the channel pattern (fluvial activity) and (3) changes in the
longitudinal profile through aggradation or degradation (river incision). On shorter time
scales, these changes may result in the formation of river terraces and a river architecture
pattern; on the Holocene scale, these changes lead to the genesis of alluvial soils
(Törnqvist 2007). These global changes were traced in the sedimentary and
palaeoecological record at the Chrast site.
Allerød and Bølling
During the interstadial complex Allerød/Bølling, the water regime of the rivers in
Central Europe was of a meandering character (Andres et al. 2001; Houben 2003;
Late-Glacial and Holocene Environmental History of Labe Floodplain 155
Vandenberghe 2003; Pastre et al. 2003). The water flow within the branch in the first
part of Allerød is visible in sandy sedimentation in zone CH1 and in macrofossils of
short-age plants, which indicate constant disturbances caused by the activity of the
river. The second half of Allerød is characterized by fen development without
sedimentation of sandy material. This indicates a decrease in fluvial activity. The
increased organic production serves as evidence for the improvement of the climate,
which allowed for the succession of vegetation in hydroseries.
Younger dryas
The Allerød/Younger Dryas transition is visible as the lithologic interface of zones
CH2 and CH3. The presence of water macrophytes and Characeae in the macrofossils
diagram reflects the transition in the water regime. During the cold stage, Younger
Dryas, the river water regime changed frequently from meanders to braided at the site
under study, but only indirect evidence is available – the sedimentation of coarse sand
with the presence of charcoal and wood fragments of Pinus and Salix (zone CH4).
Holocene
The beginning of the Holocene is represented by aggradation of fine carbonaceous
clays, so called alm (or lake chalk; CH5) without a coarse sand fraction. Episodes of
sedimentation of alm aggradation during the glacial and at the beginning of the
Holocene can be explained by the influence of several factors that could act apart
or together – the change in hydrological conditions (decrease of flood events), the
change in climate (rapid and short periods of instability in climatic conditions
followed by years of drought) (Bohncke and Hoek 2007) and the change in the
evaporation rate. Ložek and Šibrava (1982) assumed an increased evaporation rate in
the river Elbe area for periods of instability during the Late Glacial period. Moreover,
the Early Holocene deposition is probably connected with increased spring activity
during the Holocene climatic improvement (Ložek 1973; Roberts 1998). The presence
of alm is well known from the same time period also from other localities within
the Elbe lowland (Hrabanovská černava – Petr 2005; Malý Újezd – Ložek 1952).
In zone CH6, sedimentation was influenced by anthropogenic activities in the
surrounding landscape. Pollen analysis shows ruderal species and cereal pollen.
Macrofossils (charcoal), micromorphology and geochemistry indicated traces of local
fires (micro-charcoal of grasses and bent-grass) in the degraded peat.
Development of the vegetation at the regional level
Transported pollen grains and macrofossils from the surrounding landscape can partly
explain the vegetation diversity at the regional level. While the origin of shallow
water bodies, banks and fens with characteristic vegetation can be seen in local
conditions, the presence of other groups of macrofossils can be evaluated as a result
of the influence of other vegetation types in the close surroundings of the site. Pine,
birch and mesophilous herbs and shrubs (Fragaria, Alchemilla, Viola, Potentilla
erecta, Rubus) could grow in older succession stages on alluvium elevations or in
the surroundings of the present alluvium, but also directly on young and frequently
156 L. Petr et al.
disturbed sediment load where long-term plant survival is very difficult whereas the
establishment is easy.
At the bottom of the studied section (zone CH1), the number of species as well as
the differentiation of their requirement on the environment is the largest. This may
suggest a great diversity of plant communities during early development of the
inactive river branch in the glacial. Under changeable conditions, water bodies can
persist longer or are periodically renewed (Bos 2001).
For the Late Glacial period (zones CH1–CH3), pollen analyses detected that in the
surrounding landscape the herbaceous vegetation was species-rich in open habitats
where birch (Betula pendula/pubescens, B. nana), willow (Salix sp.) and pine (Pinus
sylvestris) prevail. The presence of pine wood and needles confirms the local occurrence
of pine. Several spruce charcoal particles were recovered from zone CH3. Similarly,
spruce is represented in the pollen diagram as well. Its occurrence in the Czech
Cretaceous basin on its western boundary is presumed already in the Last Glacial
Maximum (Latalowa and van der Knaap 2006). Contrastingly, the sporadic occurrence
of pollen of mesophilous woody plants is most likely the result of long-distance
transport because there is no macrofossil evidence of their presence at the site. These
woody plants have not been detected for the Last Glacial in this part of Central Europe
yet (Bittmann 2007).
The Western Carpathians in the Late Glacial period were typically covered with
forests (Jankovská 1988; Jankovská and Pokorný 2008). By contrast, open habitats
predominated in the western parts of the Czech Republic (Pokorný 2002). The Late
Glacial pollen record from the Hrabanovská Černava site is the only one studied in the
Central Bohemian lowland (Petr 2005). The former small shallow lake was detected in
an area situated 18 km E of the Chrást site and 4 km N of the river Elbe. The pollen
record from this site is considerably different; open steppe taxa (Helianthemum)
prevailed and trees were represented only marginally. We can therefore conclude that
forest vegetation was restricted to the more favorable habitats along the river. Wet and
nutrient-rich soils under mild microclimate conditions were responsible for the development
of today's riverine gallery forests in tundras and steppes (Tockner et al. 2009).
Similar results are shown in Chytrý et al. (2008) on an example of the recent vegetation
of southern Siberia; the continental climate amplifies the dependence of vegetation on
local geomorphologic conditions.
Interpretation Context 3: Meander Infilling as a Unique Concomitance Resulting
from Random Processes
When interpreting lithological records and researching evidence of local processes,
authors commonly present the objects of their study as results of homogenous, global
processes. We decided to apply another interpretation to demonstrate randomness and
unpredictability in our data by considering coincidences in external influences and
circumstances.
The complexity of the value of information
The section studied is a result of various allogenic and autogenic processes (e.g., climate
change, vegetation succession) that impact the lithological record. The record is only
Late-Glacial and Holocene Environmental History of Labe Floodplain 157
fragmentary, consisting of several episodes of unknown length. Missing sedimentary
records, so-called hiatuses, are a very common phenomenon, caused by erosion –
processes that interrupt continuous sedimentation. Compared to the development of
lakes or peats, there is higher frequency of erosion events in the river systems (e.g.,
floods, bottom currents), which interrupt local development. The studied record of the
Chrast section reflects only a part of the local geodiversity (types of sediments) and
biodiversity (species, types of vegetation) and their representation in time (stratigraphic
sequences, succession lines). The section considered here is therefore unique. There is
no such other record for the river Elbe. There are analogous lithological sections at other
rivers, but not the same species structure. It is also highly probable that our section is not
even representative of all parts of the oxbow lake. The filling of the oxbow lake could be
influenced by different processes on spatiotemporal variability. Palaeoecological records
can result from large diversity in a small area, at least in this case of largely diversified
conditions of a Late Glacial river environment.
Global versus local processes
The palaeorecord of the Chrast section was formed by random events, which are the
result of global processes. In the case of our section, however, they appear as random
events. For example, the reintroduction of a gravel-sandy sedimentation that buried
the fen’s vegetation during the Younger Dryas has been interpreted as a consequence
of a general process operating at least throughout Central Europe. Then the deterioration
and the instability of the climate were expressed in increased tendency to form
a braided pattern of the river instead of genesis of meanders. However, we must admit
that this sedimentation regime most probably did not start its activity at once in the
whole vast Elbe river alluvium but that it occurred significantly sooner or later, or
maybe it did not occur at all under specific conditions. The described change of
sedimentation may not be related to the beginning of the formation of the braided
pattern of the river. Instead, it could be related merely to a change in the course of the
meandering river. Only further excavations and analyses of dated sediments will
allow us to decide between these two possibilities.
Conclusion
The sedimentary section of the river Elbe palaeochannel near Chrast was discovered after
the observation of aerial photographs and maps in the Polabí region, Czech Republic. Our
results show that after the abandonment of the channel, the shallow episodical oxbow
lake appeared. This event dates to the period of the Late Glacial. The sediment, recovered
from the middle part of the palaeochannel, contained the palaeoenvironmental record of
changes within the Elbe river alluvium in the period of the Late Glacial and Holocene.
Palaeobotanical results suggest that the Elbe river alluvium operated as a favorable
micro-climate refuge in the Late Glacial landscape as can be demonstrated by the
presence of macrofossils of conifers including spruce charcoal.
The global changes that occurred at the end of the Pleistocene and the beginning of
the Holocene periods are evidenced in the form of proxy-data that provide information
about changes in the Elbe’s fluvial regime. The sedimentary record of the Holocene
158 L. Petr et al.
period provides evidence for complicated formation of the site, which is the best
described by the micromorphological analysis. The local development during the
Middle and Younger Holocene can only be reconstructed with difficulties on the basis
of macrofossils analysis, and the pollen analysis provides information about the surrounding
landscape.
The multi-proxy approach to the interpretation of the Chrast sedimentary infill
enables us to reconstruct the local development of the abandonment of the river
channel and observe the vegetation succession and the local sedimentation processes
linked on the landscape level in relation to global climate changes. The processes that
do not fit the general interpretational frame of global or local changes are emphasized.
These processes could occur by chance as a result of the heterogeneity of the alluvial
environment.
Acknowledgments This work was supported by grants from the Academy of Sciences of the Czech
Republic Nos. IAAX00050801 and IAAX00020701. Additional support came from the Institutional grant
AV0Z 30130516 of the Institute of Geology AS CR It was also supported as a long-term research development
project No. RVO 67985939. We would like to thank Prof. Kalicki and Prof. Starkel for fruitful discussions. This
manuscript was improved by suggestion and thoughtful critiques of anonymous reviewers.
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162 L. Petr et al.
Diachronic development of the Lake of Abusir during the third millennium BC,
Cairo, Egypt
Václav Cílek a
, Miroslav Bárta b
, Lenka Lisá a,*, Adéla Pokorná a,c
, Lucie Jurícková d
, Vladimír Bruna e
,
Abdel Moneim A. Mahmoud f
, Ales Bajer g
, Jan Novák c
, Jaromír Benes c
a
Institute of Geology AS CR, Rozvojová 269, Praha 6, 165 00, Czech Republic
b
Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology, Celetná 20, 110 00, Praha 1, Czech Republic
c
Laboratory of Archaeobotany and Palaeoecology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Ceské Budejovice, CZ 37005, Czech Republic
d
Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Vinicná 7, Praha 2, CZ 12000, Czech Republic
e
Laboratory of Geoinformatics, Faculty of Environment, J.E Purkyne University in Usti nad Labem, Czech Republic
f
Education of Earth Sciences & Space Unit, Faculty of Education, Ain Shams University, Roxy, Misr el Gadida, Cairo, Egypt
g
Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University, Zemedelská 3, Brno 613 00, Czech Republic
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Available online 31 December 2011
a b s t r a c t
The paper introduces results of the survey of the Lake of Abusir, performed by the Czech Institute of
Egyptology over the last few years. A detailed sedimentological description of four trenches located
within the area of the so-called Lake of Abusir is given, together with the micromorphological results of
selected strata, molluscs and archaeobotanical findings. All the presented results document the paleoenvironmental
and geoarchaeological history of the study area. Five main developmental phases of the
Lake of Abusir are interpreted. The area was used as a principal entryway to the cemeteries of Saqqara
and Abusir during the third millennium BC. These cemeteries were built to serve the capital of ancient
Egypt, the White Walls, which was established around 3000 BC. The old Nile terrace deposits constituted
the background for the tiled pavement built during the Old Kingdom period. Later, this pavement was
partly destroyed by heavy outwash, and the anthropogenic features were overlain by a layer of pure sand.
Subsequent sedimentological development is characterized by increased desiccation interrupted by
several phases of elevated moisture due to the activity of the local hydrological system. Due to the
function of Wadi Fetekti, thick colluvial deposits were preserved.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Fluvial environments can be used as good indicators of paleogeographical
and paleoclimatic changes (Brown, 1997; Vanden
berghe, 2003). The Lake of Abusir, the depression attached to
extensive ancient Egyptian cemeteries of Saqqara and Abusir, Cairo,
Egypt (5000e400 BC), represents a major topographic feature
connected with the organization of the pyramid landscape (Figs.1
and 2) (Jeffreys and Tavares, 1994; Bárta, 2005). The lake was
used as a principal access route to the cemeteries of North and
Central Saqqara and Abusir during most of the Old Kingdom (Bárta,
1999). The water reservoirs often played a significant role in the
design of the Old Kingdom royal mortuary complexes (Verner,
1994; Bárta, 2005). The Lake of Abusir was also associated with
the goddess Heqet, ancient Egyptian goddess of birth and rejuvenation
(Bárta, 1999).
Looking for the evidence and development of the lake during
the Old Kingdom (2592e2218 BC, Hornung et al., 2006, 490e91)
involved examining its sediments to find additional information
about the function of the lake during the Old Kingdom period
and about the possible transitional climate conditions during
the Holocene. Surprisingly, several mastabas and remnants of
different architectonic features dated to the Third and Fourth
Dynasties (2592e2436 BC; Hornung et al., 2006, 490e91) were
discovered approximately 1.5 m below the present floodplain
(Bárta, 2009) at about 18 m a.s.l. This paper presents the
lithology and palaeoecology of the Lake of Abusir deposits and
discusses the origin and the function of this depression in relation
to the background geology, climate and the role of the River
Nile.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: cilek@gli.cas.cz (V. Cílek), miroslav.barta@ff.cuni.cz (M. Bárta),
lisa@gli.cas.cz (L. Lisá), adepo@seznam.cz (A. Pokorná), lucie.jurickova@seznam.cz
(L. Jurícková), bruna@geolab.cz (V. Bruna), bajer@mendelu.cz (A. Bajer), prourou@
gmail.com (J. Novák), benes.jaromir@gmail.com (J. Benes).
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Quaternary International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/quaint
1040-6182/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.12.025
Quaternary International 266 (2012) 14e24
2. History of the study area
The Lake of Abusir appears on the early maps of Karl Richard
Lepsius, Jacques de Morgan, Ludwig Borchardt and other Egyptologists
and cartographers of the 19th and early 20th centuries
(Bárta and Bruna, 2006). It is rendered as a rather prominent and
isolated body of water. The lake was reported to exist occasionally
until the mid-1960s. According to reliable reports from the local
inhabitants, it was a seasonal feature, 1e2 m deep, and fed by
water leaking from the ground. The lake was used for swimming,
fishing and cattle washing. The lake existed only seasonally, during
AugusteOctober/November, and chronologically was connected
with the annual Nile flooding which caused a general rise of the
water table in the whole valley (Butzer, 1976; Schenkel, 1978). It
started to disappear with the completion of the Aswan Dam in the
1960s. Today, the Lake of Abusir is a slightly moist depression
covered with a sparse ruderal vegetation at the transition between
the cultivated area and the desert (Dittmer et al., 2003) and is
dominated by the clonal plant Desmostachya bipinnata (halfa grass).
Other species encountered at the site are those typical of ruderal
stands: Spergularia media, Setaria pumila, Echinochloa crus-galli,
Chenopodium sp., Sonchus oleraceus, Hordeum murinum, Xanthium
spinosum, and Cassia cretica, or those typical of desert margins
(Alhagi graecorum) or bottoms of wadis (Panicum thurgidum) or
those which are connected with oases or more or less humid
environments, such as Phoenix dactylifera, Arundo donax, Tamarix
nilotica, Imperata cylindrical, and Cyperus laevigatus (Pokorný et al.,
2009).
The lake depression is situated on the edge of the present Nile
floodplain (Figs. 1 and 2), with the modern surface at 20 m a.s.l. The
Lake of Abusir is thought to be a remnant of an extensive water
reservoir fed by groundwater and superficial water of the Nile River
(Mahmoud, 1986; Pokorný et al., 2009). According to recent
observations, the exact role of the lake is rather enigmatic because
no typical clayey lacustrine deposits have been found (Reader,
2009). Mathieson (2000) reported concentrations of freshwater
bivalve molluscs that formed a stable shoreline of the lake during
the Old Kingdom. Dittmer et al. (2003) claimed that before
coverage by recent windblown sand deposits, this area was subject
to deposition of fine dark-coloured organic-rich soils. This suggests
that the area probably functioned as an inundation basin, fed
exclusively by seasonal flooding associated with the Nile.
The Lake of Abusir was studied in detail by Mathieson (2000),
mostly by various geophysical methods, and by Jeffreys (2001,
2006a, 2006b) who focused on Holocene stratigraphy and settlement
remains by using coring. Mathieson thoroughly mapped the
area and found a mixture of sand-dominated sediments up to 5 m
thick. Similar results were provided also by Jeffreys, who observed
that the large open areas in front of the valley temples of the Abusir
funerary complexes were filled exclusively with sand deposits. The
area of the lake was later investigated by the Czech Institute of
Egyptology (2002, 2009).
The main geomorphological features in the close vicinity of the
Lake of Abusir are the Fetekti and Abusir wadis (Fig. 2). The Fetekti
wadi is a short dry tributary of eastewest orientation, descending
from the Western Desert plateau towards the lake. Originally, it was
an insignificant shallow valley, but it was later deepened by
torrential rains. The Abusir wadi is a major dry valley of the area
that stretches from South Abusir to the northeast and opens into
the Lake of Abusir.
3. Geological background
The prevailing geological formations of the Abusir area are the
Late Eocene Maadi limestone, clayey limestone and marls (tafla).
The upper member of the Maadi Formation, Giran el Ful, is developed
mostly as porous brown sandy limestone tempestite facies
(Strougo, 1985). The only known outcrops appear more to the west
(Lion Hill) but scattered fragments of these low-quality building
limestone rocks can be found almost everywhere. The studied area
Fig. 1. Map showing the location of the Abusir Lake area within the North Africa and the landscape view of Abusir Lake area. Marked positions Dahshur, Saqqara, Abusit Lake and
Pyramid fields of Abusir: Dahshur e 29.799712 N, 31.213655 E; Saqqara e 29.871053 N, 31.216682 E; Abusir Lake e 29.885166 N, 31.212735 E; Pyramid Fields of Abusir e
29.896171 N, 31.203543.
V. Cílek et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 14e24 15
is completely formed by the Saqqara Member which consists of
alternating strata of structureless, 40e120 cm thick beds of
yellowish limestone and 20e60 cm thick beds of light grey marls
(Said, 1993; Issawi and al-Jiyulujıyah al-Misrıyah, 1999; Reader,
2009).
The Quaternary sediments are developed as slope deposits
derived from older Nile terraces of Pleistocene age (Mahmoud
and Hamdan, 2002) as well as aeolian sands. Other materials
such as remobilized river gravels and sands cemented by calcium
carbonate are rare. The Nile sediments are easily distinguishable by
the presence of concretional and laminar brown cherts (hornstones,
flints) derived from Middle Nile Eocene limestone rocks,
weathered pink granodiorites from the Aswan area, epidotized
green metamorphic rocks from the basement complex of the
Eastern Desert, rare carnelians and other rocks (Mahmoud and
Hamdan, 2002). However, rounded quartz pebbles are the most
common material in all Pleistocene terraces. The reddish Pleistocene
Edfu sands of the upper Nile terrace above Abusir were sieved
and used for making very commonly used pink gypsum mortars
and plasters during the Old Kingdom and much younger (Roman)
periods. Dittmer et al. (2003) reported only sands and no soil layers
from their investigations of the Lake of Abusir. Their stratigraphic
sections consisted of recent windblown sand up to 2 m thick,
overlying soils which were predominantly granular but contained
varying proportions of dark humic material. Within the darkcoloured
soils, mud-brick structures were encountered, together
with fragments of red/black pot and occasional shell fragments.
4. Methodology
During the 2007 field season (April 7e24), four trenches 2e3 m
wide and 1.8e3.2 m deep were excavated. The trenches were
Fig. 2. Contour map showing the location of trenches and basic geomorphology of the Abusir Lake area.
V. Cílek et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 14e2416
located approximately in the northesouth axis of the remnant
lake, as judged by its extent given in historical maps (especially by
K. R. Lepsius and later sources, Bárta and Bruna, 2006) (Fig. 1).
Methods applied to the study of environmental record include
mainly basic facial analyses, microstratigraphy studied by the
method of micromorphology, study of the surface of quartz grains,
macro-remain and anthracological studies and the study of
malacofauna.
The excavated sections were sedimentologically logged. Bulk
samples used for the study of the surface quartz grain micromorphology
were taken according to the lithological change. Three
micromorphological samples were taken into Kubiena boxes, dried,
impregnated by resin, hand thin sectioned and studied under
a polarizing microscope. The quartz grain surface analysis was
performed on the spot together with the determination of ceramic
fragments and pebble provenance analysis. Each 10 cm of material
from sections a and b were wet sieved on the spot for the purpose
of grain-size distribution. All studied sections included in this paper
are dated by the presence of archaeological remains.
Five main lithologically different layers were sampled and flotated
(20 L each) for the purposes of botanical, anthracological, and
mollusc analyses. Extraction of macrofossils, charcoal and molluscs
from the soil material followed the standard flotation and wet
sieving procedure (Jacomet and Kreuz, 1999), using staggered
sieves with a mesh size of 0.25 mm. Molluscan and plant macroremain
analyses were performed from eight lithological intervals
from Section A. The volume of all the processed samples was 20 l
with the exception of the sample from the bottom of the section
(175e185 cm). The volume of this one did not exceed 3 l. All the
samples were treated by water flotation with the sieve size of
0.5 and 0.25 mm immediately after sampling. The dried samples
were then sorted under a light microscope at Âl0 to Â15 magnifications.
Seed atlases by Cappers et al. (2006, 2009) were used for
the plant macro-remain determination. Characteristics of the wild
plants follow the Flora of Egypt by Boulos (1999, 2000, 2002,
2005).
5. Results
5.1. Sedimentology and microstratigraphy
Aquatic sedimentation of the deepest lacustrine facies (Trench A
and B) was expected (Figs. 3 and 4), with lake deposits being
overlain by wadi sedimentation (Trench C and D) (Fig. 5). The facial
analysis of studied sections confirmed those expectations. This is
why Trench C was located at the intersection of the axis of the Lake
of Abusir and the Fetekti wadi (Fig. 2), to reveal the role of flash
floods and torrential rains. Trench A was located approximately in
the centre of the Lake of Abusir depression and close to the fields of
the floodplain, lying some 1.2e1.4 m below the present surface of
the Lake of Abusir. Trench B was located close to the axis of the
depression and near the Abusir wadi (Fig. 2). It was confirmed that
sections in trenches A and B represented the deepest part of the
depression, whereas the section in Trench C is strongly influenced
by the Fetekti wadi, and that in Trench D by the Abusir wadi. Trench
D was located near the southern extension of the lake close to the
wide Abusir wadi. The trench excavation had to be stopped at the
level of groundwater some 1.8e2.0 m below the present flood
Fig. 3. Lithostratigraphy and depositional history of Abusir “Lake” trench A.
V. Cílek et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 14e24 17
plain (ca. 20 m a.s.l.). The detailed description of sedimentary facial
analyses together with the basic interpretations is documented in
Figs. 3e5.
Micromorphological analyses were used to find out the
composition and origin of the sand-dominated material below the
tiled pavement, the properties of the darker loamy intervals within
the sandy loam of Trench A (at a depth of 75 cm) and the thin
cracked clay interval in Trench B (depth of 25 cm). An example of
photodocumentation with the distinctive micromorphological
characteristics and the descriptions and interpretations is presented
in Fig. 5. Each sample presented in this figure reflects
a different environment within the Lake of Abusir depression.
5.2. Palaeobiological analyses
Plant macro-remains and charcoal found in studied strata were
very limited. The plant macro-remains originally present in these
strata may have been present only in very small amounts.
However, some grassland species (Poaceae) Echium sp. and
a clover (Trifolium sp.) were present together with a wetland
species of spike-rush (Eleocharis sp.) and hood canarygrass (Phalaris
paradoxa). One fragment of a charred cereal caryopsis was
also found (Figs. 5 and 6). Samples contained also very small pieces
of fresh and charred wood. Among species prevailed fragments of
acacia (Acacia nilotica) and tamarix (Tamarix sp.), reflecting the
presence of common local trees and shrubs. Fragments of fresh
wood and charcoal were small, not exceeding 2e3 mm. Their
amounts and sizes indicate secondary deposition in the strata.
Among archaeobotanical samples, there are exceptional samples
from mud-brick structures connected with the Old Kingdom
period. Macro-remains from mud-brick structures, namely from
Trench A, were more frequent in amount, but they could be not
directly connected with natural and semi-natural alluvial deposits
and will be evaluated separately.
Mollusca shells or their fragments founded in studied sediments
contain 7 main species. Those species are typical mainly of fresh
water environments, with flowing or slowly flowing water, but
terrestrial snail shells also were identified. The results of the
analyses are summarized in Fig. 6. Ecological interpretations of the
individual taxa are listed in Fig. 8.
6. Discussion
6.1. Water source for feeding the Lake of Abusir depression
The sedimentological record can be considered rather discontinuous
due to the episodic sedimentation, erosional events and
scraping of the upper aeolian sand by farmers protecting their
fields against desertification. Three human-made sand rims can be
observed along the western edge of the lake. They contain aeolian
Fig. 4. Lithostratigraphy and depositional history of Abusir “Lake” trench B.
V. Cílek et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 14e2418
sand constantly blown by desert winds to the Nile floodplain.
There is a visible lack of any fluvial sediments or typical organicrich
material within the sedimentological record of the studied
sections (Figs. 3e5). However, the source of water was not
contaminated by black Nile loam rich in organic matter. The only
possible explanation seems to be that the lake was fed by ground
water collected below Eocene rocks. The elevated activity of
groundwater seepage probably reflects the flooding periods of the
Nile River. It seems this system works on the principle of connected
vessels. The water of Nile flooded not only the surrounding
alluvial plain but also penetrated into geological background
represented by the local Eocene sand basement. This infiltration
initiated the activity of groundwater which is now at the level of
18 m a.s.l., and this water started to discharge on the surface in
the form of springs, i.e., to the lowermost area of the Abusir
depression, the Lake of Abusir. When the flood receded, the
water body in the depression slowly infiltrated or even dried
completely. Some water could be collected from occasional
flash floods and sands of the Abusir wadi catchment as well
(Abusir wadi was a principal discharge valley in the local topography).
The closest existing analogue of the Lake of Abusir
is probably the intermittent Dahshur Lake some 10 km to the
south.
6.2. Landscape of the Lake of Abusir during the Old Kingdom
All the studied sections show a quite similar sedimentological
trend (Figs. 3e5), strongly influenced by the local geomorphology
(Figs. 1 and 2). Surprisingly, the groundwater level was found at
the altitude of 18 m which is approximately 2 m below the present
surface of the flood plain (Jeffreys, 2006a, p.17; Bárta, 2010, p.70).
The bottom of all sections were represented by fluvial sands
and pebbles, overlain by a tiled pavement dated to the interval
between the Third and Fifth Dynasties of the Old Kingdom
according to the ceramic shreds, approximately before 2460 BC.
This date correlates well with the first stage of desiccation in the
Middle East which occurred around 2500 BC, while the main
droughts occurred around 2200 BC (Weiss and Bradley, 2001;
Bárta and Bezdek, 2008). Clearly, fluvial activity with no prevailing
aeolian deposition dominated the landscape during the use of the
pavement. The likely function of the mud-brick pavement which
was about 2 m wide and oriented NEeSW was probably to serve as
one (of many) access routes from the lake to the cemeteries. It can
be supposed that some true or symbolic (see below) landing
facilities may have been located at some distance to the east or
northeast, close to the third millennium main branch of the Nile.
During this period, the Nile branch was most likely situated to the
Fig. 5. Lithostratigraphy and depositional history of Abusir “Lake” trench C and D.
V. Cílek et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 14e24 19
west of ancient Memphis. Based on the latest results, it can
be supposed that the modern Bahr Libeini (now about 2 km
east of the Abusir pyramid field) was the main channel of the
River Nile in antiquity (Giddy, 1994; Lutley and Bunbury, 2008;
Spencer, 2010, 29). Later, during the late Old Kingdom (ca. 2300
BC), the area around the lake became occupied by tombs of
lesser officials of the state starting at the altitude of about 19 m
(Bárta, 2010).
Fig. 6. Micromorphological observations and interpretations of facies.
V. Cílek et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 14e2420
The altitude of 18 m, where the tiled pavement was found, lies
3.5e4.0 m above the reconstructed inundation levels of the Old
Kingdomperiod (14e14.5 m a.s.l.) (Lehner, 2009a, 2009b).Thismeans
that the encountered pavement was built on a dry fluvial terrace
and not flooded at all. This suggests a similar symbolical phenomenon
as in the case of the valley temple of Unas and other Old Kingdom
royal complexes. The base line of the harbour walls in the valley
temple of Unas lies at the altitude of about 18 m. (Jeffreys, 2006a,17).
In his opinion, it was impossible to reach the harbour by water.
The most recent studies that the Old Kingdom floodplain must
have been situated considerably at lower altitudes than the 18 m
a.s.l. structures discovered in the Lake of Abusir. The seminal study
by Jeffreys and Tavares (1994, p.158) made it clear that the majority
of settlement in the area of Old Kingdom Memphis is situated
above the floodplain level which was typically about 13e14 m a.s.l.
Supposing that a standard Nile flood reached a height of 1.5 m
(Willcocks,1889, 44), it is logical to suppose that most settlement of
the period was located at around 15.5 m a.s.l. and higher. This
estimate matches the results of coring materials from Dahshur. The
borings carried out by the German expedition (Alexanian and
Seidlmayer, 2002, p. 23e5) have shown that the Fourth-Sixth
Dynasty settlement level was situated somewhere between 16
and 17.5 m a.s.l. Contrary to this, Casey has concluded during his
survey of Saqqara that the valley floor of the Old Kingdom (based
on the elevation of the harbour in the funerary complex of Pepy II)
was lying around 16e16.5 m a.s.l. In this connection it is interesting
to mention that the floors of the valley temples of Sahure and
Nyuserre in Abusir lie at the altitude of 17.5 and 19.0 m a.s.l.,
respectively (Seidlmayer, 2001, 48).
Possible changes in moisture can be reconstructed from the
micromorphological observations. The bridge grain microstructure
of sandy matrix with gefuric-related distribution (Fig. 4) is usually
interpreted as a friable Bh horizon or A or E horizon of podzols
(Wilson and Righy, 2010). However, podzolization should not
be considered in this type of environment. The presence of this
material suggests organic matter accumulation and decomposition.
The dark brown organic pigment is typical for the surface horizons
according to Gerasimova and Lebedeva-Verba (2010) and Adderley
et al. (2010). It is possible that relicts of surface horizons of desert
soils were preserved below the tiled pavement. These soils are
extremely thin, only a few centimetres in thickness. The moisture
needed for the production of this kind of organic matter accumulation
was probably provided by an already existing hydrological
system, as described above. This means that the area of the Abusir
depression was inundated by pushing groundwater in relation with
the Nile River inundation phases.
Mollusc shells found below the pavement are very rare
and cannot be used as statistical proof. They were interpreted
as xerophilous African land snails which usually occur in northwestern
Africa, or as common freshwater snails inhabiting a wide
range of aquatic environments. These findings correspond with the
conclusion that the lake was in existence only seasonally, during
the flooding period.
On the other hand, the botanical interpretation of this period is
not very clear. In general, the palaeobotanical study of botanical
macro-remains (no pollen could be determined) preserved in mudbricks
of individual archaeological objects shows that there was
a major tendency towards desiccation of the area throughout the
thirdefirst millennia BC (Pokorný et al., 2009). Macrobotanical
remains toward the younger deposits are very rare. Together with
the decreasing amount of macroremains, deposition of windblown
material containing aeolian quartz grains is interrupted by thin clay
layers produced by occasional heavy rains followed by rapid dessication
(Fig. 8).
581-571571-071061-051051-531531-001001-0909-5656-0
Aquatic molluscs
Bithynia tentaculata 2 2 1
Bulinus truncatus 7 8 1
cf. Belamya unicolor 16
cf. Valvata nilotica 1
Gabbiella cf. senaariensis 1
Melanoides tuberculata 1 2
Terrestric molluscs
Trochonanina/Martensia spp. 1 fragm.
Aquatic and wetland plants
Characeae 38 169 3
Damasonium alisma Mill. 78 24 4 10 18
Alisma plantago aquatica L. 30 7 6 9
Heliotropium aegyptiacum
Lehm. 15 2 2 3 5
Scirpoides holoschoenusSojak 2
Ranunculus sceleratusL. 1
Cyperaceae 2
Eleocharis cf. caduca (Delile)
Schult. 1 1
Elatinaceae 1
Weeds of cultivation
Buglossoides/Echium 1 1 1
Fallopia convolvulus(L.) 1
cf. Fumaria spec. 1
Chenopodium murale 1
Grassland plants
Poaceae 3 1 1
cf. Trifolium spec. 1
Fig. 7. The appearance of the taxa of molluscs and plant macro-remains found in the Abusir “Lake” deposits (profile A). The individual samples are identified by their depth (in cm)
under the recent surface.
V. Cílek et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 14e24 21
6.3. Erosion event by the end of Fourth Dynasty
The tiled pavement buried below a surprisingly thin layer of sand
and sandy loam (150e180 cm) has a deeply eroded surface horizon
(Figs. 3 and 4). An approximately 15 cm thick layer of sand overlying
and partly destroying the Old Kingdom pavement was described as
a result of purely sand-sized alluvial (colluvial) sedimentation. The
glossy surfaces of quartz grains derived from this sand-sized material
are rounded, bearing typical fluvial bowl-like features. This
could suggest a possible fluvial origin, but a much higher-energy
depositional environment is suggested by the clearly visible pavement
destruction. The possible explanation is alluvial (colluvial)
redeposition of sand coming from older fluvial terraces above. Such
a high-energy event is compatible with a heavy rain period(-s).
A similar and a more precisely dated erosional event, comparable
with the erosion of tiled pavement of the Lake of Abusir, was found
by Polish expeditions within the area of Necropolis of West Saqqara
(Trzcinski et al., 2006). Based on the geoarchaeological results of the
Polish expedition of 2006, geodynamic processes in this area were
reconstructed. They suggest a natural environment shaped indirectly
by human activity. Archaeological interpretation of the finds
indicates that these processes could have taken place during the first
phase of use of the Lower Necropolis, between 2700 and 2600 BC. At
the beginning of this phase, the relatively dry and warm climate
appears to have changed for a cooler and more humid one. The type
of weathering observed on the surface of the limestone points to
a warm climate characterized by cyclical alternation of humid and
dry periods, with the latter predominating (Trzcinski et al., 2006).
Another remark on heavy rains and the need to build some kind of
protection was made by Welc (2007). He excavated the remains of
a casing wall at the Netjerikhet funerary complex and interpreted
its later use also at the end of the Old Kingdom. Similar evidence,
e.g. heavy muddy downwashes, was observed in several burial
chambers of late Third Dynasty mastabas at Abusir (Bárta, 2010).
Although no mollusc remains were found in the strata representing
humid environments, the plant remains (Damasonium
alisma, Alisma plantago-aquatica, Heliotropium aegyptiacum, Elatinaceae)
(Figs. 7 and 8) indicate humid conditions persisting during
Mollusca Ecology
Aquatic molluscs
Bithynia tentaculata
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Common European species of various aquatic habitats. The occurrence of this species
in Abusir is surprising, because of its recent known range extends to Morocco and
Algeria only.
Bulinus truncatus
(Audoin, 1827)
Common African species of all types of freshwater habitats.
cf. Bellamya unicolor
(Olivier, 1804)
This species occur in lakes and slowly flowing rivers of tropical Africa, common also
in fossil records
cf. Valvata nilotica
(Jickeli, 1874)
The species of slowly flowing waters with dense aquatic vegetation. Occurs in Lower
Egypt and the Ethiopian Highlands.
Gabbiella senaariensis
(Küdter, 1852)
The species of large rivers and lakes, recently known from the Nile and Southern and
Western Africa. Fossil records from Fayum (Egypt), the second Nile Cataract (Sudan)
and also from Chad and Nigeria.
Melanoides tuberculata
(Müller, 1774)
Common freshwater snail of wide range of aquatic environments.
Terrestric molluscs
Trochonanina/Martensia
spp.
Xerophilous African terrestrial snails occurring in North-western Africa.
Plants Ecology
Aquatic and wetland
plants
Characeae Green algae found in shallow fresh water, particularly in limestone areas, sometimes in
in brackish even maritime waters.
Damasonium alisma
Mill.
Inundated land, muddy canal banks. The species was fairly common in the basin lands
which were regularly inundated in summer time for several months by the annual Nile
flood. But after the construction of the Aswan High Dam in 1964, which allowed the
control of the annual flood, the basin lands were subjected to a network of irrigation
canals and the plant became rare. Perennial.
Alisma plantagoaquatica
L.
Nile banks, ditches and marshy ground. Perennial.
Heliotropium
aegyptiacum Lehm.
Nile banks, moist stony ground. Short- lived perennial.
Scirpoides holoschoenus
(L.) Sojak
Moist ground, swamps, canal banks. Annual.
Ranunculus sceleratus
L.
Littoral marshes, Nile and canal banks, wet meadows. Perennial.
Cyperaceae Moist ground or shallow water, canals, ditches.
Eleocharis caduca
(Delile) Schult.
Wet meadows, springs, canal banks and lakes. Perennial.
Elatinaceae Irrigation canals, moist ground. Annual.
Weeds of cultivation
Buglossoides/Echium Cultivated ground, waste land, sandy and stony soils.
Fallopia convolvulus
(L.)
Weed of cultivation. Annual.
cf. Fumaria spec. Weed of cultivation. Annual.
Chenopodium murale L. Weed of cultivation and waste ground. Annual.
Grassland plants
Poaceae Grasses. Broad range of biotopes.
cf.Trifolium spec. Moist to sandy ground, orchards, edges of cultivation.
Fig. 8. Overview of the present taxa and their ecological interpretation. Characteristics of molluscs are according to Van Damme (1984), Kerney et al. (1983) and Boettger (1910).
Characteristics of the wild plants are according to Flora of Egypt by Boulos (1999, 2000, 2002, 2005).
V. Cílek et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 14e2422
sediment deposition between 0 and 150 cm depth. However, no
definite evidence for a persistant aquatic environment was found.
The plant species found here typically grow on moist and marshy
ground, on banks and wet ditches and on temporally inundated
land. Goosefoot (Chenopodium murale) and Echium sp. can be
interpreted as weeds of cultivation or indicators of waste ground.
6.4. Buried takyric horizons as a reflection of the past
The most continuous aeolian sedimentation of the Lake of
Abusir area not destroyed by the Fetekti wadi function is preserved
in trenches A and B (Figs. 3 and 4). Sediments in these two sections
are represented by distinctly different aeolian sands interrupted by
dark sandy intercalations. These loams were formed due to the
inundation of the Lake of Abusir depression as described above.
The only difference is that the period of the accumulation of the
intercalations lasted during and after the maximum desiccation
period around 2200 BC (Weiss and Bradley, 2001). The sanddominated
material may be regarded as “mirrors” (Dokuchaev’s
expression) of the present-day environment (Gerasimova and
Lebedeva-Verba, 2010), whereas “the subsoil, i.e., the darker
humic loam layers, reflects the events that happened under more
humid condition” (Lobova, 1967; see; Souirji, 1991), in this case,
moistening due to regional geomorphic conditions. A similar life
cycle is typical for most of the wadi systems and had a profound
impact on the settlement strategies pursued by the ancient Egyptians
with regard to wadi mouths (Dufton and Branton, 2009).
Micromophological observations confirmed the presence of
the so-called takyric horizon or its very first stages. Repetition
and common appearance of these horizons is due to the repeated
moistening/inundation and desiccation. Microlamination is formed
under such circumstances (Fig. 6). According to Gerasimova
and Lebedeva-Verba (2010), “these horizons are characterized by
a homogeneous, apedal, salt-free clayey groundmass, with few
to abundant vesicles and few planes”. The c/f related distribution
pattern is mostly a fine monic, with few coarse mineral grains.
Micromass is yellowish-brown to light brown with mainly calcitic
crystallitic and locally stipple speckled b-fabric (Fig. 6). According
to Fedoroff and Courty (1987), aeolian transport of fine sand separating
the tacric horizons is very common. Mollusc species found
within the horizons are usually common African species, living
mainly in different substrates in stagnant or slowly flowing waters,
in lakes and gently flowing rivers of tropical Africa or another
freshwater habitats (Kerney et al., 1983; Van Damme, 1984). The
most common taxon, cf. Bellamya unicolor (Olivier, 1804), was found
in damaged fragments and is common also in fossil record, which
indicates that it could have been probably redeposited by wind
erosion together with the aeolian material. The appearance of
Bithynia tentaculata (Linnaeus, 1758), a common European species
of various aquatic habitats, was quite surprising because the present
distribution of this taxon is only limited to Morocco and Algeria
(Van Damme, 1984).
Plant macro-remains found in strata beneath the present
surface (0e90 cm) strongly indicate aquatic environment. A total of
166 specimens of wetland and aquatic plant species were present
in the uppermost interval, representing 7 taxa. The appearance of
Characeae, green algae typical of shallow, clear water, together with
Daphnia magna ephipia (aquatic crustacean) supports the interpretation
of the presence of an aquatic environment. On the other
hand, many wetland species (some identical with those mentioned
in the previous section) indicate humid conditions with no superficial
water over several months in a year. Several remains of weeds
were also found here, indicating the presence of a humid environment
which is usually connected with cultivated land in the
surroundings. Unlike the upper strata, the interval directly below
the organic-rich matter (90e100 cm) was very poor in plant macroremains.
It is unclear whether this is a result of poor taphonomic
conditions or evidence for rapid accumulation. However, wetland
species were present here.
7. Conclusions
1. The background geomorphology of the Lake of Abusir and
other natural depressions under the steep slopes of the Abusir
and Saqqara area were very probably formed by an older, now
abandoned EarlyeMid Holocene river course. Such irregular
linear depressions are a common feature of all riverine systems.
The river erodes or undercuts the slope and then, after a flood
or megaflood, shifts its course closer to the central part of the
wide valley. Aggradations take place there. The former river
course under the slopes remains in spite of some aeolian
sedimentation, and water seeps in, resulting in a formation of
a marsh or even a “lake”.
2. The sections observed in the excavated trenches can be roughly
divided into five parts:
1) the lower part is formed by “pure” sands and gravels of
fluvial origin with probable relicts of humic horizon
2) mud-brick pavement overlain by wash-out sandy alluvial
deposits
3) the upper parts of the sections are dominated by desert
aeolian sedimentation interrupted by stages of elevated
moisture and the origin of takyric horizons
4) aeolian sands are occasionally intercalated by flash-flood
wadi deposition (medium-sized gravels, trenches B and C)
5) desiccation cracks as the result of heavy rains sedimentations
followed by quick desiccation occur in the uppermost
parts of the sections.
3. The lower fluvial sedimentation reflects the changes in
hydrological regimes witnessed by a sand-gravel rhythm.
Wadis must have functioned at least as perennial rivers during
and after the Old Kingdom period.
4. The Abusir wadi seems to be older than the Fetekti wadi
because fragments of the local limestone rocks are abundant in
Trench D but almost lacking in the other trenches. The Fetekti
wadi probably acted as a water piracy agent. Its sediments
probably formed a transversal aggradation rim that cut off the
southern smaller part of the lake from the lake main body.
5. Possibly the main result is that the change of the sedimentation
from fluvial to aeolian occurred some 10 cm above the horizon
dated tothe intervalbetween the Third through the Fifth Dynasty
of the Old Kingdom, approximately after 2460 BC. This date
correlates well with the first stage of the Middle East desiccation
at around 2500 BC, while the main droughts appeared much
later, at around 2200 BC (Weiss and Bradley, 2001).
Acknowledgement
The research was supported by the MSM Research Plan
No. 0021620826 (Czech Institute of Egyptology), Academic International
Project “Environmental historyof Egyptian Western Desert”
No. M100130902, by the Institutional Research Plan of the Institute
of Geology AS CR, v. v. i, No. AV0Z 30130516 and by the MSM Research
Plan No. 6007665801 (University of South Bohemia, Faculty of
Science). This study has been supported by the Grant Agency of the
Czech Republic, Grant nos. P405/11/1873 and P206/09/1564.
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187
5.6. Procesy v jeskyním prostředí
Lisá L., Neruda P., Nerudová Z., Bajer A. (2013): Geoarcheologický záznam středního a
mladého paleolitu v jeskyni Kůlně, Moravský kras.- Acta Musei Moraviae.
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188
ISSN 0323-0570 Acta Mus. Moraviae, Sci. soc.
XCVIII: 2, 197–214, 2013
GEOARCHEOLOGICKÝ ZÁZNAM STŘEDNÍHO A MLADÉHO
PALEOLITU V JESKYNI KŮLNĚ, MORAVSKÝ KRAS
GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD OF MIDDLE AND UPPER PALEOLITHIC
IN KŮLNA CAVE, MORAVIAN KARST
LENKA LISÁ1 – PETR NERUDA2 – ZDEŇKA NERUDOVÁ2 – ALEŠ BAJER3
1 Geologický ústav Akademie věd ČR, v. v. i.,
2 Ústav Anthropos, Moravské zemské muzeum, v. o.,
3 Ústav geologie a pedologie, Mendelova univerzita
ABSTRACT:
The Kůlna Cave provides relatively unique sedimentary record containing not only artefacts of Upper and Middle
Palaeolithic, but also information on changing climatic conditions within isotope stages MIS6 – MIS2. There are
studied two major sections in context of sedimentology, micromorphology and other auxiliary proxy as are
magnetic properties or particle-size distribution. One of the sections is located in the central part of the cave, the
second one in its entrance part. By combining of these two sections a complete record of sedimentary
development of layers 5 to 11 was obtained. Based on the set of geoarchaeological analyses it was possible to make
detailed interpretation of provenance of cave sediments and their formation history which provides new
information on long discussed chronostratigraphic questions of this locality.
KEY WORDS: Middle and Upper Palaeolithic, Kůlna cave, cave deposits, formation processes, micromorphology.
1. ÚVOD
Jeskyně Kůlna (Moravský kras; obr. 1) je jednou z nejdůležitějších středoa
mladopaleolitických lokalit střední Evropy. Nachází se cca 45 km severně od Brna, na
severním okraji Moravského krasu. Je to v podstatě 87 m dlouhý tunel s maximální výškou
25 m a šířkou 8 m (VALOCH et al. 2011, 10). Jeskyně má dva vchody, menší orientovaný
směrem na sever a větší orientovaný směrem na JJZ do Sloupského údolí (obr. 1).
Geomorfologie celé oblasti je zvýrazněna Sloupským údolím, na sever široce rozevřeným,
které směrem k jihu přechází do úzkého Pustého žlebu.
Geologické podloží (obr. 1) je tvořeno devonskými vápenci, na západě částečně překrytými
devonskými arkózami a slepenci. Na východě se devonské vápence stýkají
s drobami kulmu Drahanské vrchoviny. Tyto horniny se nacházejí již cca 400 metrů od
severního vchodu do jeskyně. Dno údolí je vyplněno fluviálními štěrky a písky, z části překrytými
sprašemi a sprašovými hlínami či koluvii odvozenými od okolní geologie.
Komplexní interdisciplinární výzkum probíhal v jeskyni v letech 1961–1976 pod vedením
K. Valocha (1988b), který řídil i předstihový výzkum ve vstupní části jižního vchodu v roce
1995–1997 (VALOCH 2002). V souvislosti se zpracováním nalezených archeologických
památek byla provedena celá řada přírodovědných analýz, z nichž mezi nejdůležitější patří
detailní datovací studie metodami 14C (MOOK 1988), AMS 14C (NERUDA – NERUDOVÁ
v tisku-a), ESR (RINK et al. 1996), OSL (NEJMAN et al. 2011), U/Th (MICHEL et al. 2006,
PATOU-MATHIS et al. 2005) nebo magnetostratigrafické studie (SROUBEK et al. 2001, SROUBEK
et al. 1996). Dodnes však nebyl pro tuto jeskyni proveden detailnější sedimentologický
výzkum, na jehož podkladě by bylo možné popsat formační procesy vzniku sedimentů
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a jejich vztahu k relativnímu či absolutnímu datování, archeologickému kontextu, či
možnému environmentálnímu záznamu. Cílem této studie je základní vyhodnocení
formačních procesů, které hrály roli v utváření jednotlivých vrstev vyčleněných při archeologickém
výzkumu, a zároveň propojení sedimentárního záznamu v oblasti vchodu s centrální
částí jeskyně. Nedílnou součástí práce je i diskuse o měnícím se prostředí, které je
v sedimentech zachyceno, a jeho vztahu k řešení chronostratigrafických otázek této lokality.
198
Obr. 1. Poloha jeskyně Kůlny v Moravském krasu a její vztah ke geologii údolí Sloupského potoka a Pustého
žlebu. Podklad pro geologickou mapu (GEOČR50 2013).
2. ZÁKLADNÍ CHRONOSTRATIGRAFICKÝ KONCEPT
Plochu jeskyně rozčlenil K. Valoch do několika sektorů (obr. 2). Nejúplnější stratigrafii
popsal ve vstupní části jeskyně, kde postupně rozlišil celkem 14 hlavních geologických
vrstev, složených především z klastických sedimentů, které se liší homogenitou a zrnitostí od
prachu po brekcie tvořené devonskými vápenci či písky a štěrky (schematický profil obr. 3).
Sedimentární i archeologický záznam jeskyně rozdělil K. Valoch do několika
chronologicko-kulturních jednotek (VALOCH 1988b). Nejstarší osídlení jeskyně (obr. 3,
199
Obr. 2. Členění jeskyně Kůlny na sektory a poloha analyzovaných profilů 6, 19, 20 a 29.
jednotka 1) je reprezentováno moustérienskými nálezy z vrstvy 13b a 14, ve které se
v nepočetné kolekci podařilo identifikovat i doklady levalloiské metody sbíjení jader
(NERUDA 2011; VALOCH 1970). Na základě interdisciplinárního studia (mikrofauna, MUSIL
1988) je tato vrstva spojována s koncem glaciálu Saale (MIS6).
Druhá kulturní jednotka (vrstvy 13a–10) poskytla artefakty středopaleolitického taubachienu
(VALOCH 1988b; 1988a), který je na podkladě malakologické analýzy (Kovanda in
VALOCH et al. 1969) a vyššího obsahu humusu v sedimentu 11 (Pelíšek in VALOCH et al. 1969)
relativně datován do posledního interglaciálu (VALOCH 1989; 2002; VALOCH et al. 2011).
Pozice třetí vyčleněné chronologicko-kulturní jednotky (vrstvy 9–6a) je poměrně komplikovaná,
přičemž většina vrstev (9b, 8a, 7d, 7c, 7a a 6a) obsahovala nálezy
středopaleolitického micoquienu (VALOCH 1988b). Z hlediska datování se můžeme opřít
o ucelený soubor dat pro vrstvu 9b, která na podkladě metody ESR (RINK et al. 1996)
spadá do období okolo 71 000 let BP (RU AGE), a lze ji považovat za jeden z důležitých
markerů kůlenské stratigrafie. Druhým podobným markerem by mohla být vrstva 7b, která
200
Obr. 3. Chronostratigrafická koncepce sedimentární výplně jeskyně Kůlny. MIS – Marine Isotope Stage, GI –
Greenland Interstadials, LGM – pozdně glaciální maximum, LGT – pozdní glaciál, BAlC – Bølling-Allerød
komplex.
měla reprezentovat chladný stadiál (VALOCH 1989, 2002), nejspíše pak první glaciální
maximum posledního klimatického cyklu Visla (MIS4). ŠROUBEK et al. (2001) ji ale na
základě magnetických studií interpretovali jako soubor krátkodobých teplotních výkyvů, při
kterých se utvářela půda (období se zvýšeným srážkovým úhrnem). Za hlavní stratigrafický
marker třetí chronologicko-kulturní jednotky je považována vrstva 7a, protože v jejím
případě korelují výsledky získané metodou ESR (RINK et al. 1996), 14C (MOOK 1988)
i AMS 14C (NERUDA – NERUDOVÁ 2013, v tisku-a) a kladou její stáří do období cca 50 000
let BP kalibrované chronologie. Můžeme ji tudíž spojovat s interstadiály Moershoofd či
Glinde (BEHRE – PLICHT 1992).
Mladší fáze MIS3 není v jeskyni Kůlně samostatně sedimentárně ani archeologicky
doložena. V jeskyni zcela chybí artefakty starší fáze mladého paleolitu (EUP). Čtvrtou
chronologicko-kulturní jednotku, spadající do období MIS 3/2, tedy tvoří nálezy z mladší
fáze gravettienu, které byly dochovány zejména ve vnitřní části jeskyně. V jižní vstupní části
rozlišeny nebyly, ale nová radiokarbonová data ukazují, že i zde se nacházely zvířecí kosti,
které zřejmě souvisejí s touto fází osídlení (NERUDA – NERUDOVÁ v tisku-b).
Pátá kulturní jednotka je reprezentována artefakty magdalénienu z vrstev 6 a 5, které
jsou v dnešní době zachovány jen v severním profilu v sektoru G1. Nově je vrstva 6
datována do období okolo 14 800 BP kalibrované chronologie (NERUDA – NERUDOVÁ
v tisku-b). Svrchní část stratigrafické sekvence (vrstvy 4–1) již není v jeskyni Kůlně
dochována, a není proto v tomto článku zpracována.
3. METODIKA
Geoarcheologické analýzy popsané v této práci zahrnují základní sedimentární popis
jednotlivých vrstev, jejich mikromorfologickou charakteristiku, charakteristiku magnetických
a zrnitostních proxy.
Celkem 15 mikromorfologických vzorků o rozměrech 6 × 9 cm bylo odebráno ze čtyř
profilů různých částech jeskyně. 11 z nich pochází ze vchodu jeskyně a zahrnují především
vrstvy 9b–6a, další 4 potom pocházejí z vnitřní části jeskyně a pokrývají vrstvy 6a–5 (obr. 4).
Vzhledem k tomu, že sedimenty byly nezpevněné a často obsahovaly větší klasty, bylo
nutné v některých případech použít místo tetrapakových kubiena-boxů i vypěnění přímo ve
stěně, ze které byly vzorky odebírány. Vzorky byly dále zpracovány Julie Boreham (Reach,
UK) do formy výbrusů. Následně byly studovány při různém zvětšení (40–800×) pod
binokulárním či polarizačním mikroskopem s připojenou fluorescencí. Popisy vzorků byly
provedeny dle STOOPSE (2003), BULLOCKA a MURPHYHO (1983) a interpretovány především
na základě GOLDBERGA – MACPHAILA (2006) či Stoopse et al. (STOOPS – MARCELINO
– MEES 2010).
Spolu s mikromorfologickými vzorky byly měřeny magnetické vlastnosti a zrnitostní
charakteristiky sedimentů. Vzorky byly odebírány v intervalu 5 cm, a to v sektoru C z profilu
19 (jižní část – pilíř, čtv. N/5–6) a z profilu 29 uvnitř jeskyně (obr. 2, sektor G1). Po
odebrání byly sedimenty za sucha prosety, aby byla odstraněna frakce větší než 2 mm, která
je ve většině případů tvořena výhradně devonskými vápenci. Magnetická susceptibilita
a frekvenčně závislá magnetická susceptibilita byla měřena na kapamůstku firmy Agico
(MFK1-FA), a to při dvou frekvencích, f1 = 976 Hz a f3 = 15 616 Hz, amplituda AC pole
byla 200 A/m. Vzorky byly změřeny v plastových sáčcích a následně zváženy, aby mohla
být vypočítána hmotnostní susceptibilita [m3/kg]. Frekvenčně závislá magnetická
susceptibilita byla potom přepočítána dle obecně akceptovaného vzorce (DEARING et al.
1996) jako kFD = 100 × (kf1 – kf3) / kf1 [%], kde kf1 a kf3 jsou měření susceptibility při
frekvencích 976 Hz a15 616 Hz.
Zrnitostní analýza byla provedena laserovým granulometrem značky CILAS 1190.
Vzorky byly dispergovány v destilované vodě s přídavkem KOH a následně pipetovány do
přístroje. U každého vzorku byla provedena minimálně dvě měření a výsledek zprůměrován.
201
4. VÝSLEDKY
4.1. SEDIMENTÁRNÍ POPIS A STRATIGRAFIE POPISOVANÝCH VRSTEV
Materiál vrstev 5, 6 a 6a zachovaných uvnitř jeskyně v profilu 29 sektoru G1 (obr. 4)
byl popsán jako žlutohnědá prachovitá hlína s minimálním obsahem vápencových klastů.
Přechod mezi těmito vrstvami je špatně znatelný a rozdíl byl stanoven především na
základě odlišného zabarvení (vrstvy 6 a 6a měly pouze mírně tmavší odstín) a zvýšeného
podílu hrubších klastů ve vrstvě 6a. V těchto vrstvách byly identifikovány 1–2 mm velké
klasty rozvětralých úlomků hornin, mikromorfologicky následně identifikovaných jako
droby. Makroskopicky identifikovatelné texturní znaky zde nebyly rozpoznány. Podobnou
litologii vykazuje i vrstva 6a ve vchodu, zachycená v profilu 19 (jižní část-pilíř) sektoru C.
Ve vchodové části jeskyně byly vrstvy dokumentovány na celkem třech na sebe
navazujících profilech (obr. 2; sektor C, profil 20 kolmý na profil 6, profil 19 střední část
a profil 19 jižní část-pilíř). Z těchto profilů byly odebírány mikromorfologické vzorky (obr.
4). Profil 19 jižní část-pilíř (čtv. N/5–6) byl stratigraficky nejkomplexnější, a proto byl
vybrán i pro odběr sypkých vzorků na další analýzy. Fotodokumentace celého profilu byla
krajně obtížná, proto je v tomto příspěvku představen schematickým nákresem (obr. 6). Ve
vchodové části jeskyně v sektoru C byly zachyceny vrstvy 6a (báze)1, 7a, b, c, d, souvrství
8 (8a + 8b), 9b a 11. Vrstva 6a měla podobné parametry jako vrstva 6a uvnitř jeskyně.
Vrstva 7a, identifikovaná jako prachovitá hlína, měla hnědou barvu a byla typická obsahem
drobnější sutě o velikosti do 1 cm (cca 30 %), ale i hrubších vápencových klastů do velikosti
až desítek cm (5 %). Vrstva 7b tvoří nejmocnější a texturně nejvýraznější část studovaných
profilů. Její mocnost dosahuje cca 1 m a je typická výskytem milimetrových až centimetrových
tenkých lamin složených z písčitoprachovitého materiálu červenohnědé barvy.
Dalším texturním prvkem této vrstvy je horizontální odlučnost prachovitého materiálu.
Vrstvy 7c a 7b jsou si zrnitostně i texturně velmi podobné a jsou tvořeny prachovitojílovitou
hlínou hnědé barvy s obsahem jemnozrnného vápencového detritu. Rozdíl mezi těmito
vrstvami je makroskopicky ve vyšším obsahu větších vápencových klastů v rámci vrstvy 7c.
Souvrství 8, zachycené pouze v profilu 19 (jižní část-pilíř), je tvořené šedě hnědou jílovitoprachovitou
hlínou s občasným výskytem větších vápencových klastů do 5 cm (max. 10 %).
Vrstva 9b byla odkryta taktéž pouze v profilu 19 (jižní část-pilíř); má podobnou charakteristiku
jako nadložní vrstva s tím rozdílem, že podíl vápencových klastů plošně kolísá.
202
Obr. 4. Fotodokumentace stratigrafie a odběru mikromorfologických vzorků z profilu uvnitř jeskyně, sektor G1
profil 29, a ve vchodu jeskyně, profily 19 (střední část) a profil 20 (foto L. Lisá).
profil 29 profil 20 profil 19 (střední část)
Vrstva 11 byla částečně odkryta na bázi téhož profilu a byla tvořena především jemnozrnným
vápencovým detritem a oblázky (VALOCH 2011). Matrix této vrstvy má šedou barvu
a jílovitý charakter.
4.2. MIKROMORFOLOGICKÁ CHARAKTERISTIKA
Obecně lze zkoumané sedimenty popsat jako nevytříděnou prachovou hlínu s C/F
poměrem (poměr hrubé a jemné frakce) s limitem 50 μm okolo 20 : 80, což je typická
hodnota pro spraš. Vrstvy 5 a 6 vykazují lentikulární mikrostrukturu, typickou pro intenzivní
203
Obr. 5. Fotodokumentace hlavních typů mikrostruktur zachycených ve studovaných vzorcích. A – lentikulární
mikrostruktura, vzorek 12, vrstva 5, profil 29; B – kanálkovitá mikrostruktura, vzorek 1, vrstva 7d, profil
20; C – planární mikrostruktura, vzorek 9b, vrstva 6a/7a, profil 19 (střední část); D – planární mikrostruktura
s laminami a rip-up klasty, vzorek 5, vrstva 7b, profil 20; E – subangulárně bloková
mikrostruktura, vzorek 10, vrstva 8(a + b), profil 19 (pilíř); F – subangulárně až suboválně bloková
mikrostruktura, vzorek 11, vrstva 9b, profil 19 (pilíř).
204
íslo
vzorku
akontext
Mikro-
struktura
Orientace
matrix
PóryZrnitostMatrixDvojlomOrganickáhmotaUhlíkyKostiPedogenníznaky
Vzorek1
vrstva7d
profil20
masivníaž
kanálkovitá
bezorientacedutinyakanálky
(5–10%)
C/F(50μm)=20:80;
prachovitáhlína
hndákrystalickýdekomponovaná
tmavá(20%),
hndá(5%);
ástendekompo-
novaná(3%)
3–5%5%,1–2mm,
angulárníaž
subangulární
guano(3%)
obasnépotahování
zrn
Vzorek2,
vrstva7c
sreliktem
vrstvy7d
profil20
subangulární
bloková
bezorientace
eroznípovrch
meziagregátové
póry(20%)
dutiny
(10%)
C/F(200μm)=5:95;
C/F(50μm)=20:80;
prachovitáhlínasmalými
klastyzvtraléhovápence
svlte
hndá
striatický,
granostriatický
dekomponovaná
ernáahndá(10%)
vzácn5%,1–2mm,
angulárníaž
subangulární
vzácnnodule
FeOH,asté
povlékánízrn
Vzorek3,
vrstva7b
profil20
dutinová,
mistyplanární
usmrnní
podúhlemve
smru
redepozice
dutiny(10%)5:95;C/F(50μm)=20:80;
vrstvysrip-upklasty
C/F(200μm)=90:10;
nevytdnáprachovitáhlína
ažpísitáhlína
svlte
hndá,
hndá,
oranžová
krystalický
vzácn
striatický
dekomponovaná
ernáahndá(10%)
5%ve
svrchní
ásti
vzorku
5%,1-2mm,
angulárnía
subangulární
vesvrchní
ástivzorku
vzácnnodule
FeOH,astá
pítomnostpdních
krust
Vzorek4
vrstva7b
profil20
dutinová,
mistyplanární
usmrnní
podúhlemve
smru
redepozice
dutiny(10%)5:95;C/F(50μm)=20:80
vrstvysrip-upklasty
C/F(200μm)=40:60
nevytdnáprachovitáhlína
ažpísitáhlína
svlte
hndá,
hndá,
oranžová
krystalický
vzácn
striatický
dekomponovaná
ernáahndá(10%)
vzácn5%,1–2mm,
angulární
a
subangulární
FeOHnodule
vjemnozrnných
ástechvzorku,
astjšípítomnost
jemnjšíchlamin
Vzorek5
vrstva7b
profil20
dutinová,
mistyplanární
usmrnní
podúhlemve
smru
redepozice
dutiny(10%)5:95;C/F(50μm)=20:80
vrstvysrip-upklasty
C/F(50μm)=40:60
nevytídnáprachovitáaž
písitáhlína
svlte
hndá,
hndá,
oranžová
krystalická,
vzácn
striatická
dekomponovaná
ernáahndá(10%)
vzácn5%,1–2mm,
angulární
a
subangulární
bioturbacekoeny
Vzorek6
pozicemezi
vrstvami7a
a7b
profil20
subangulárn
bloková,misty
plátovitá
misty
horizontální,
zvlnné?
meziagregátové
póry(10%)
dutiny(20%)
C/F(200μm)=10:90;
C/F(50μm)=30:70;
C/F(20μm)=50:50
prachovitáažpísitáhlína,
dlevrstev
svtle
hndá
místystriatická
a
granostriatická
dekomponovaná
ernáahndá(10%)
vzácn5%,1–2mm,
angulární
a
subangulární
FeOHnodule
(5%);
Vzorek7
vrstva7b
profil19
subangulárn
blokovámisty
lentikulární
misty
horizontální
dutiny(10%)
praskliny(10%)
C/F(200μm)=5:95;
C/F(50μm)=20:80;
prachovitáhlína
svtle
hndá
striatická
a
granostriatická
dekomponovaná
ernáahndá(10%)
vzácn5%,1–2mm,
angulární
a
subangulární
akumulace
karbonát(30%),
FeOHnodule
(10%),povlékání
zrn(3%)
Vzorek8
pozicemezi
vrstvami
7a/7b
profil19
subangulárn
blokovámisty
lentikulární
horizontálnímeziagregátové
póry(20%)
dutiny(3%)
C/F(200μm)=5:95;
C/F(50μm)=20:80;
prachovitáhlína
svtle
hndá
striatická
a
granostriatická
dekomponovaná
ernáahndá(10%)
vzácn5%,1–2mm,
angulární
a
subangulární
CaCO3(3%);
FeOHnodule
3%);povlékánízrn
(10%)
Tab.1.Mikromorfologickáchrakteristikajednotlivýchvzorků.
205
Vzorek9
pozicemezi
vrstvami
6a/7a
profil19
planárníaž
lentikulární
horizontálnídutiny(20%)C/F(200μm)=5:95;
C/F(50μm)=50:50;partly
C/F(20μm)=50:50
nevytídnáprachovitáaž
písitáhlína
svtle
hndá
striatická
a
granostriatická
dekomponovaná
ernáahndá(10%)
vzácn3%,0,5mm,
subangulární
azakulacené
CaCO3(3%);
FeOHnodule
(3%);povlékání
zrn(10%);
deformovanépdní
krusty(20%)
Vzorek10
vrstva8v
profil19
pilí
Subangulárn
bloková
Misty
horizontální
pukliny(3%),
dutiny
nepravidelného
tvaru(max.10
%)
C/F(200)=5:95;
C/F(50)=25:75;zrnitost
prachovitáhlína
hndákrystalická,
striatická
tmaváopákní
do10%,
hndádo3%,
vzácndo3%,
velikost1–2
mm,
subangulární
aangulární
vrstevnatéFeOH
nodule
Vzorek11
vrstva9
profil19
pilí
puklinováaž
dutinová,
místynáznaky
subangulárn
blokové
bez,náznaky
bioturbace
dutiny(15%),
pukliny(5%);
tvardutin
nepravidelný
C/F(200)=3:97;
C/F(50)=30:70;zrnitost
prachovitáhlína
svtle
hndá
krystalický,
mistystriatický
tmaváopákní
do10%,
hndádo3%
vzácndo3%,
velikost0,5–2
mm,
subangulární
aangulární
Mnnoduleand
FeOHnodule
Vzorek12
vrstva5,
profil29
planárníaž
lentikulární
horizontálnímeziagregátové
puklinyaž40%;
tvardutin
odpovídá
lentikulární
mikrostruktue
C/F(200)=5:95;
C/F(50)=60:40;zrnitost
prachovitáhlína
svtle
hndáaž
hndošedá
krystalickátmaváopákní
do3%,
hndádo3%
nenepovlékánízrn
Vzorek13
vrstva5
profil29
subangulárn
bloková
apechody
dolentikulární
mrazové
tídní,
usmrnní
díky
geliflukci
meziagregátové
puklinyaž40%;
tvardutin
odpovídá
lentikulární
mikrostruktue
C/F(200)=5:95;
C/F(50)=60:40;zrnitost
prachovitáhlína
svtle
hndáaž
hndošedá
krystalickátmaváopákní
do3%,
hndádo3%
nenepovlékánízrn
Vzorek14
vrstva6
profil29
subangulárn
bloková
apechody
dolentikulární
ažgranulární
mrazové
tídní,
usmrnní
díky
geliflukci,
místy
bioturbace,
meziagregátové
puklinyaž40%;
tvardutin
odpovídá
lentikulární
mikrostruktue
C/F(200)=5:95;
C/F(50)=60:40;zrnitost
prachovitáhlína
svtle
hndáaž
hndošedá
krystalickátmaváopákní
do3%,
hndádo3%
nenepovlékánízrn,
redeponované
adeformované
pdníkrusty
Vzorek15
vrstva6a
profil29
subangulárn
blokováaž
granulární
mrazové
tídní,
usmrnní
díky
geliflukci
meziagregátové
puklinyaž40%;
tvardutin
odpovídá
granulární
mikrostruktue,
tj.nepravidelné
jakdovelikosti,
takdotvaru
C/F(200)=5:95;C/F(50
)=60:40;zrnitost
prachovitáhlína
svtle
hndáaž
hndošedá
krystalickátmaváopákní
do3%,
hndádo3%
nenepovlékánízrn,
redeponované
adeformované
pdníkrusty
Tab.1.Pokračování.
zmrzání a rozmrzání (obr. 5). Zároveň je u nich zřetelné usměrnění matrix, což je
důsledkem geliflukce. Texturně nejzajímavější vrstva 7b obsahovala laminy litologicky
odlišného materiálu. Ten byl popsán jako tzv. rip-up klasty vzniklé intenzivní erozí starších
půdních sedimentů. Výsledky mikromorfologické analýzy jsou shrnuty heslovitě v tab. 1;
hlavní typy mikrostruktur popsaných ve studovaných vzorcích jsou dokumentovány v obr. 5.
4.3. MAGNETICKÉ VLASTNOSTI STUDOVANÝCH SEDIMENTŮ
Magnetická susceptibilita a frekvenčně závislá magnetická susceptibilita měřená na profilu
19 jižní část – pilíř ve vchodové části profilu koreluje s dříve provedenými měřeními
(SROUBEK et al. 2001). Sedimenty uvnitř jeskyně mají magnetickou susceptibilitu o řád
nižší, což je pravděpodobně dáno jejich složením i typem ukládání. Hodnoty frekvenčně
závislé magnetické susceptibility sedimentů uvnitř jeskyně svědčí o absenci pedogenně
ovlivněné matrix. Mírně zvýšené hodnoty kFD se objevují na bázi profilu, ve vrstvě 6a.
V případě sedimentů zachycených v profilu v jižním vchodu jeskyně lze říci, že přinejmenším
ve vrstvách 7a, 7b, 7d, 9b a 11 byly identifikovány sedimenty obsahující pedogenně
ovlivněnou složku (obr. 6).
4.4. ZRNITOSTNÍ CHARAKTERISTIKA STUDOVANÝCH SEDIMENTŮ
Zrnitostní distribuce pro studované profily, ve které nejsou zohledněny případné
rozdíly mezi minerální a organickou složkou, jsou znázorněny na obr. 6. Sedimenty jsou
206
Obr. 6. Hodnoty magnetické susceptibility kf1, frekvenčně závislé magnetické susceptibility kFD, indexu zvětrávání
(podíl jíl/prach) a zrnitostní distribuce analyzovaných profilů jeskyně. Hodnota 12 u kFD je
obecně považována za známky pedogeneze.
vždy bimodální. Obsah jílové frakce se pohybuje okolo 20–30 %, písčitá frakce je
zastoupena minimálně, a to především v profilu pocházejícího ze vchodu jeskyně.
Poměrem jílovité a prachovité složky, který určuje míru zvětrání (SROUBEK et al. 2001)
dobře koreluje s hodnotami frekvenčně závislé magnetické susceptibility (obr. 6).
5. DISKUSE
5.1. PROVENIENCE JESKYNNÍCH SEDIMENTŮ
Karel VALOCH (1988b) a později například P. Šroubek (SROUBEK et al. 2001) považují
za hlavní zdroj sedimentů jeskyně Kůlny spraše. Signál magnetické susceptibility a frekvenčně
závislé magnetické susceptibility tomu odpovídá především v případě vrstev 6a, 6
a 5 uvnitř jeskyně a v rámci některých facií ve vchodu jeskyně (vrstva 6a, světlejší vrstvy
v rámci vrstvy 7b, část vrstvy 7c). Ostatní vrstvy identifikované ve vchodu jeskyně potom
vykazují hodnoty frekvenčně závislé magnetické susceptibility podobné spíše půdám (obr.
6). Zrnitostní analýza identifikovala ve všech sedimentech převládající prachovitou frakci
(obr. 6).
Typická spraš je obyčejně velmi dobře vytříděna s více jak 70 % zrn velikosti mezi 10–50 μm
(KUKAL 1971; PÉCSI 1990). Během pedogeneze však dochází ke zvětrávání alumosilikátů
a následně bimodálnímu složení výsledného sedimentu. Průměrná zrnitost tak klesá spolu
s formováním jílových minerálů (MARTINI – CHESWORTH 1992). Poměr jíl/prach tudíž může
odrážet intenzitu pedogenního procesu (SROUBEK et al. 2001) a v případě studovaných
sedimentů velmi dobře koreluje s magnetickým signálem, tj. stoupá v intervalech, v nichž
zároveň narůstají hodnoty frekvenčně závislé magnetické susceptibility. Sedimenty uvnitř
jeskyně mají magnetickou susceptibilitu o řád nižší, což je pravděpodobně dáno jejich
složením a v návaznosti na to i typem depozice.
Navýšení signálu magnetické susceptibility může mít několik důvodů, například atmosférický
spad (EVANS – HELLER 2003), termální alteraci díky ohni (KLETETSCHKA – BANERJEE,
1995) nebo anorganickou tvorbu ultrajemného magnetitu v důsledku zvětrávání
minerálů s obsahem Fe, a to v prostředí s měnící se půdní vlhkosti (EVANS – HELLER 2003).
Takové podmínky předpokládáme ve vrstvách 6a–5 uvnitř jeskyně (LISÁ et al. 2013), kde
sice magnetický signál žádné výrazné navýšení neukazuje, ale mikromorfologické popisy
podobné podmínky indikují. Podobně je tomu i v případě vrstvy 9b zachycené ve vchodu
do jeskyně, která podobné navýšení magnetického signálu rovněž indikuje.
Sedimenty vchodové části jeskyně jsou mnohem variabilnější jak po stránce formačních
procesů, tak jejich litologie a s tím související provenience. V jejich případě je nutné diskutovat
i možnost navýšení magnetického signálu v důsledku přítomnosti superparamagnetických
minerálů vzniklých bakteriálně během pedogeneze (FASSBINDER 2010). Musí se
však zákonitě jednat o pedogenezi proběhlou mimo jeskyni s následnou redepozicí
pedogenně ovlivněného materiálu do vnitřních částí jeskyně. Takový záznam byl identifikován
především ve vrstvách 9b a 11, dále potom ve vrstvách 7d, svrchní části souvrství 8 a i ve
vrstvě 7a. Palynologická spektra (DOLÁKOVÁ 2002) ukazují na mírně teplejší podmínky ve
vrstvách 8a (svrchní část vrstvy 8) a 7c. V rámci vrstvy 7b byly potom identifikovány
červenohnědé sedimenty v rámci jemných lamin. Na základě mikromorfologie byla matrix
těchto klastů popsána jako výrazně jílovitá s velkým obsahem FeOH. Může se jednat
napříkad o relikt starší půdy typu rothlem či terrae calcis.
5.2. FORMAČNÍ PROCESY V JESKYNI
Na podkladě zrnitostní analýzy a měření magnetických vlastností byla provenience
studovaných vrstev přisouzena původně eolickým sedimentům (např. SROUBEK et al. 2001).
To však není důvod k závěrům, že tyto sedimenty byly do jeskyně deponovány výhradně
větrnou energií. Podle dosavadních studií týkajících se jeskynních sedimentů a jejich
klasifikace (souhrnně KARKANAS – GOLDBERG 2013) je nečastějším depozičním faktorem
207
gravitační proud či splachy. Prostřednictvím tohoto procesu dochází k přínosu sedimentů
jak z osypového kužele vchodové facie, tak z výplní komínů. Z hlediska morfologie jeskyně,
nepřítomnosti typických komínů s kontaktem na povrch a umístění v terénu je však jeskyně
Kůlna poměrně atypická. Relativně široký, k jihu otevřený portál je mírně vytočený na
západ, a proto zde evidentně nevznikal typický jeskynní kužel. Pokud se přece jen, alespoň
v omezené míře, v některých epochách vytvářel, pak musel být erodován tokem, který vstup
do jeskyně porušoval (souvrství 12, VALOCH 2011, 55, 57–58). Zdroj materiálu byl tak
pravděpodobně suplován především osypovým kuželem při východním okraji jižního
portálu (NERUDA 2013, obr. 1). Původní morfologie vchodu je značně poškozena masivním
zásahem za druhé světové války (k problému NERUDA 2013). Není vyloučené, že část prachovitého
materiálu byla do otevřeného jižního vchodu deponována eolickými procesy
(SROUBEK et al. 2001). Texturní prvky, které by tuto doměnku dokládaly, však nebyly nikde
uspokojivě doloženy. P. Šroubek a kol. (SROUBEK et al. 2001) dokládají prostřednictvím
mikromorfologie povrchu křemenných zrn velmi dobré opracování související
s intenzivním eolickým transportem; toto jsou však textury související s transportační
historií samotných křemenných zrn a nutně nemusí dokládat primární formační procesy,
kterými byl sediment uložen.
Zajímavým fenoménem jsou červenohnědé vrstvičky v rámci vrstvy 7b, interpretované
P. Šroubkem a kol. (SROUBEK et al. 2001) jako odrazy krátkodobých oteplení. J. KadleC
(2012) vysvětluje textury vrstvy 7b jako důsledek splachových událostí a předpokládá na bázi
vrstvy 7b malé jezírko, v němž by docházelo k usazování ze suspenze. Tomu však jen stěží
odpovídá sklon těchto sedimentů, dodnes viditelný např. na profilu 20. N. DOLÁKOVÁ (2002)
identifikovala v rámci této vrstvy 7b přítomnost spor vodních řas; tyto se však vyskytují v podložních
i nadložních vrstvách a indikují spíše přítomnost vodní plochy v blízkosti jeskyně. Ta
by mohla souviset s činností Sloupského potoka. Pomocí mikromorfologické analýzy se
podařilo odhalit, že v případě červenohnědých vrstviček jde o tzv. „rip-up“ klasty (KARKANAS
– GOLDBERG 2013). Podle současných přestav jsou facie s těmito klasty, střídajícími se
např. s jemně laminovanými vrstvami jílu, důsledkem epizodických vysokoenergetických
událostí. Například bouřkové eventy, během nichž jsou deponovány větší klasty (v tomto
případě jílem stmelené části půdy), jsou většinou následovány pomalejší sedimentací, při
které ze suspenze pomaleji vypadává jemnozrnný materiál (KNAPP et al. 2004).
P. Šroubek a kol. (SROUBEK et al. 2001) předpokládá, že prachový materiál, více či méně
ovlivněný pegodenezí v závislosti na klimatických podmínkách, byl transportován do
jeskyně ze směru jižního vchodu. J. KadleC (2012) později upřesňuje, že sedimenty byly do
jeskyně pravděpodobně přemísťovány srážkovými vodami, a to ze severního vchodu
směrem do jeskyně díky přítomnosti závrtovité deprese, jejíž relikty jsou v terénu údajně
dodnes patrné. Je tedy zřejmé, že na vzniku sedimentů uvnitř a ve vchodu jeskyně se podílí
různé faktory. Jeskyně samotná je tvořena dvěma vchody, přičemž severně orientovaný
vchod, jehož rozsah lze dnes odhadovat jen na podkladě dobových zpráv, je dle písemných
záznamů dostatečně velký pro redepozici velkého množství sedimentů (KADLEC 2012; souhrnně
NERUDA 2013). Zároveň má velký geomorfologický potenciál pro to, aby z tohoto
směru byly přinášeny sedimenty. Svahy v okolí severního vchodu jsou vhodným zdrojem
materiálu, a to ať již sprašového sedimentu, tak písčité složky tvořené rozvětralým eluviem
spodnokarbonských drob Drahanské vysočiny (cf. obr. 1). Droby, které zde mimochodem
zmiňuje již Martin KŘÍž (1889), byly identifikovány makroskopicky i mikromorfologicky.
V neposlední řadě jsou v sedimentech zastoupeny i vápencové klasty. Vnitřní mikrostruktura
sedimentů studovaných na profilu uvnitř jeskyně ukazuje, že při depozici a těsně
po ní docházelo k výraznému mrazovému ovlivnění (VLIET-LANOË 2010). Mrazové
struktury zde dokládají jak fáze zmrzání a rozmrzání, tak i geliflukci. Sediment byl do své
současné pozice tedy s největší pravděpodobností deponován pomalým creepem, a to
v důsledku gravitace a mrazových procesů, což podporuje i imbrikace vápencových klastů
naznačující směr transportu odseveru k jihu, kterou zmiňuje J. KADLEC (2012).
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Poměrně odlišná situace však panuje v prostoru jižního vchodu do jeskyně, kde je
sedimentární situace mnohem variabilnější. Objevují se zde sedimenty usazené gravitačně
či eolicky. Zdroj gravitačních sedimentů můžeme hledat ve svrchní hraně portálu jeskyně
nebo v prostoru osypového kužele umístěného při východní hraně jižního vchodu.
J. KADLEC (2012) pro tuto část jeskyně předpokládá jak splachy ve srážkově bohatších
obdobích, tak nevylučuje ani transport v důsledku svahových geliflukčních procesů ani
eolické procesy. Zároveň však přítomnost velkých vápencových klastů interpretuje jako
opad ze stropu jeskyně při ústupu čela jižního portálu.
5.3. CHRONOSTRATIGRAFICKÁ PROBLEMATIKA SEDIMENTÁRNÍHO ZÁZNAMU
Současná chronostratigrafická interpretace sedimentárního a archeologického
záznamu jeskyně Kůlny (NERUDA – NERUDOVÁ v tisku-a; v tisku-b; VALOCH 1988b; 1989;
2002) evokuje několik zásadních otázek. Jedním z nich je identifikace rozdílů mezi
vrstvami 5 a 6 uvnitř jeskyně. Na jediném, v současné době dostupném profilu, kde jsou
příslušné sedimenty dochovány, tyto vrstvy K. Valoch nerozlišil (cf. VALOCH 1974, Beilage
I). Obě vrstvy nebylo možné rozlišit ani na základě mikromorfologie složení identifikované
z výbrusu, tj. mineralogická a organická složka jsou víceméně stejné. Odlišnosti jsou však
identifikovatelné v zrnitostním rozložení, resp. v poměru jíl/prach, jinak charakterizovaném
jako míra zvětrávání (SROUBEK et al. 2001). Rozdíly těchto proxy jsou viditelné
i v případě hodnot frekvenčně závislé magnetické susceptibility, nicméně zvýšené hodnoty
v rozmezí 8–9 odpovídají pouze vrstvě 6a. Tyto hodnoty jsou srovnatelné s výsledky měření
frekvenčně závislé magnetické susceptibility pro intestadiální půdu PK I v Dolních Věstonicích
(LISÁ et al. v tisku).
Další pro archeologii důležitou otázkou je, zda lze na základě provedených analýz vydělit
sedimentaci, která probíhala v období 30–40 tisíc let BP nekalibrované chronologie. V archeologickém
inventáři (EUP komplex) toto období zachyceno není. Jeho existenci dokládá pouze
jedno radiokarbonové datum v nové sérii dat pro nejmladší středopaleolitickou vrstvu 6a,
ovšem vzorek kosti nenesl na svém povrchu stopy po manipulaci člověkem a vzhledem
k absenci nálezů, které by mohly odpovídat kulturám EUP komplexu, se zdá pravděpodobnější,
že se jedná o doklad činnosti šelem (NERUDA – NERUDOVÁ v tisku-a). Chronostratigraficky by
se měl příslušný sediment nacházet mezi vrstvou 6a a 6. V jižní vstupní části jeskyně není ale
tato úroveň dochována, a nelze ji proto analyzovat, ve vnitřní části ji nelze vyčlenit. Vysvětlení
lze hledat v hiátu, způsobeném kryogenními pochody, které odstranily část původních
sedimentů, na jejichž místo byly deponovány sedimenty vrstev 6 a 5.
Jednou z dlouhodobě diskutovaných otázek je stratigrafické zařazení sterilní vrsvy 7b
jako případného markeru MIS4. Tuto interpretaci předpokládal K. Valoch, který tuto
vrstvu spojoval se stadiálem (1989) nebo chladným stadiálem (2002). Později však
P. Šroubek a kol. (SROUBEK et al. 2001) interpretovali tutéž vrstvu jako sled krátkodobých
oteplení v rámci MIS3. V současné chronostratigrafické koncepci spadá MIS4 do období
mezi 74–60 tisíc let BP kalibrované chronologie a představuje první výrazné ochlazení
posledního klimatického cyklu. Toto období má dvě fáze, přechodnou v počáteční fázi
s velkými teplotními výkyvy a chladnou v terminální fázi (VAN ANDEL – DAVIES 2003).
Během chladné fáze se boreální les a tajga postupně mění v rozlehlou a otevřenou tundru
(VAN ANDEL – TZEDAKIS 1996). Obecně lze tedy říci, že během tohoto období muselo dojít
k výrazné změně vegetace, a s tím pak souvela i zvýšená eroze. A vrstva 7b je právě
důsledkem opakujících se erozních událostí, což dokládají jak sedimentologické, tak
mikromorfologické analýzy. Magnetická proxy ukazují střídání extrémně zvýšených
a snížených hodnot, které byly interpretovány jako důsledek krátkodobých oteplení během
MIS3 (SROUBEK et al. 2001). Na základě mikromorfologických pozorování a zrnitostní
analýzy je však zřejmé, že tyto rozdíly jsou ovlivněny jak typem redeponovaného materiálu,
tak i jeho zrnitostním složením. Například písčitější složka, kterou již na bázi popsal
J. KUKLA (1975) jako „pellet sands“ a která se objevuje opakovaně v rámci celé vrstvy 7b, je
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tvořena křemenem, jež je výrazně diamagnetický (EVANS – HELLER 2003). Naopak jílem
bohaté polohy, které odpovídají tzv. rip-up klastům (KARKANAS – GOLDBERG 2013),
obsahují magnetickou složku vzniklou v důsledku chemického zvětrávání a pravděpodobně
i pedogenního procesu (EVANS – HELLER 2003; FASSBINDER – STANJEKT – VALI 1990).
Otázkou však zůstává, jak vysvětlit zvýšenou erozi v podobě splachů v tak aridním prostředí,
jaké panovalo v terminální fázi MIS4. Teplou oscilaci v rámci počáteční fáze MIS4,
která je teplotně i srážkově poněkud příznivější, dokládá zřejmě vrstva 9b (71 tisíc let BP
RU AGE), která je od nadložní vrstvy 7b navíc oddělena ještě dalšími horizonty
8(a+b)–7c. Pokud by zvýšená eroze v jejímž důsledku vznikla vrstva 7b měla být odrazem
zvýšených srážkových úhrnů, potom je nutné počítat spíše s vlivem výrazně humidnějšího
období, které se objevilo na počátku MIS3 (GUIOT et al. 1989).
Dalším důležitým problémem je chronologická pozice druhé kulturní skupiny nálezů
a příslušných archeologických vrstev (vrstvy 13a–10). Na podkladě vrstevního sledu,
malakofauny a obsahu humusu předpokládáme, že by sedimentace těchto vrstev měla
souviset s posledním interglaciálem (obr. 3). V námi zkoumaných profilech byla zachycena
pouze vrstva 11 (profil 19, jižní část-pilíř), přičemž ale nebyla analyzována metodou
mikromorfologie, protože vzorek nebylo možné z technických důvodů odebrat. Na základě
měření frekvenčně závislé magnetické susceptibility a zrnitostního složení lze důvodně
předpokládat, že vrstva 11 obsahuje pedogenně ovlivněný materiál. Hodnoty frekvenčně
závislé magnetické susceptibility jsou v rozmezí 12–16, což zřetelně indikuje pedogenezi.
Podobné i když mírně nižší hodnoty byly indikovány pouze na přechodu vrstev 8, 7d a 7a
a dále v kontextu výše diskutovaných červenohnědých vrstviček v rámci vrstvy 7b. Poměry
zvětrávání (jíl/prach) velmi dobře korelují s hodnotami frekvenčně závislé magnetické
susceptibility. Tyto hodnoty indikují pedogenezi, nicméně neurčují stáří sedimentu.
Korelace by byla možná s podobnými paleopůdami. Pro srovnání lze uvést např. hodnoty
kFD pro interstadiální půdu PKI v Dolních Věstonicích, kde měření kolísají kolem
hodnoty 9 (LISÁ et al. v tisku), což je na hraně indentifikace sedimentu jako pedogenně
ovlivněného. V tomto porovnání však není zohledněn půdní typ, i když zdrojový materiál
(spraš) byl pravděpodobně totožný.
Pro správnou interpretaci formování archeologických struktur v jeskyni je důležitá
identifikace vrstev, které jsou ovlivněny kryogenními pochody. Pozitivně se podařilo tyto
postdepoziční procesy rozpoznat v několika horizontech. Ve vrstvách 5, 6, 6a, povrch 7a
byla identifikována typická lentikulární mikrostruktura, která vzniká v důsledku
kryogenních pochodů ovlivňujících především povrchové části sedimentu (VLIET-LANOË
2010). Méně vyvinutá je tzv. planární mikrostruktura, která byla zachycena ve vrstvách
6a/7a, 7a/7b, 7a a 7c ve vchodu jeskyně. Některé z těchto vrstev vykazovaly přechody do
třetího mrazově ovlivněného typu mikrostruktury, a tou je mikrostruktura subangulárně
bloková. Ta může vznikat i v hlubších částech sedimentárního tělesa v důsledku procesů
probíhajících na povrchu. VAN VLIET-LANOË (2010) uvádí doklady působení až 80 cm pod
povrchem. Směrem do hloubky je pak tato mikrostruktura hůře vyvinuta. Je tedy zřejmé,
že přítomnost podobné mikrostruktury nemusí výslovně odrážet enviromentální podmínky
panující při primární tvorbě vrstvy. Takto je například ovlivněno souvrství 8, zatímco ve
vrstvě 9b je vliv již méně zřetelný. Naopak vrstva 7d známky subangulárně blokové mikrostruktury
nevykazuje. Z hlediska mikromorfologie lze tedy říci, že souvrství 8 bylo
ovlivněno chladným klimatem, výsledky ostatních analýz však ukazují, že geneze této
vrstvy je mnohem složitější. Subangulárně bloková mikrostruktura byla zachycena také ve
vrstvě 7c a částečně i ve vrstvě 7a. Protože jde o strukturu sekundárně vzniklou v důsledku
procesů v nadloží, lze předpokládat, že u vrstvy 7a je výsledkem působení klimatu v době
vrcholu posledního zalednění (LGM), zatímco v souvrství 8 v důsledku jiných chladnějších
fází spojených pravděpodobně s MIS4.
Důležitým zjištěním mikromorfologické analýzy je doložení výrazného postdepozičního
ovlivnění vrstvy 7a kryogenními pochody, především pak zmrzáním a rozmrzáním,
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v důsledku kterých vznikají různé mikrostruktury, v tomto případě subangulárně bloková
mikrostruktura (VLIET-LANOË 2010). Sekundárním jevem těchto procesů je postdepoziční
vertikální posun artefaktů v sedimentu, což je jev, který lze doložit i v současných klimatických
podmínkách (MIHEVC 2009). Tímto způsobem lze vysvětlit rozpor mezi výsledky
prostorové distribuce nálezů ve vrstvě 7a, které naznačují, že ukládání artefaktů nemohlo
probíhat po dlouhou dobu (spíše opakované návštěvy stejné skupiny lidí), a velkým vertikálním
rozptylem artefaktů, který by naznačoval dlouhodobé opakované využívání jeskyně
(NERUDA – LÁZNIČKOVÁ-GALETOVÁ – DRESLEROVÁ 2011).
6. ZÁVĚRY
Geoarcheologické studium sedimentů jeskyně Kůlny v Moravském krasu přineslo
následující poznatky:
1. Mikromorfologickou analýzou byly vyčleněny jednotlivé fáze odpovídající různým
formačním procesům. Nejvýraznějšími strukturami, identifikovanými především ve
vrstvách 5–7a byly tzv. „freezing structures“, tj. mikrostruktury související s intenzivním
promrzáním. Archeologicky sterilní vrstva 7b obsahuje tzv. rip-up klasty reliktní jílovité
půdy a na podkladě mikromorfologické analýzy kombinované se zrnitostním či
magnetickým studiem byla popsána jako výsledek rychlých erozních událostí,
souvisejících s vyššími srážkami. Mikrostruktury jednotlivých vzorků v kombinaci
s dalšími proxy-daty zároveň ukazují, že výrazně chladnější období panovalo během
ukládání vrstev 5–6a, 7c a 8. Naopak vrstvy 11 a 9b vykazují známky relativně
teplejšího a humidnějšího klimatu, což rámcově koresponduje s dosud uznávanou
stratigrafickou koncepcí (cf. obr. 3). Podobné podmínky, i když pouze mírně teplejšího
charakteru, pravděpodobně převládaly i v době ukládání vrstvy 7a. Následně však tato
vrstva byla postdepozičně mrazově postižena, což zřejmě způsobilo vertikální
redepozici archeologických nálezů.
2. Magnetická susceptibilita a frekvenčně závislá magnetická susceptibilita měřená na profilu
19 (jižní část-pilíř) ve vchodové části jeskyně koreluje s měřeními P. Šroubka a kol.
et al. (SROUBEK et al. 2001). Sedimenty uvnitř jeskyně mají magnetickou susceptibilitu
o řád nižší, což je pravděpodobně dáno jejich složením a i typem depozice. Hodnoty
frekvenčně závislé magnetické susceptibility sedimentů uvnitř jeskyně svědčí o jejich
nulové pedogenní příměsi (až na bazální části vrstvy 6a), zatímco v případě sedimentů
z profilu ve vchodu jeskyně lze říci, že tyto obsahují minimálně ve vrstvách 7a, 7b, 7d,
9b a 11 pedogenně ovlivněnou složku.
3. Studované sedimenty jsou vždy bimodální a jejich zrnitostní složení odpovídá spraším,
tj. jílová složka je obsažena cca 20 %, jinak převládá prach. Poměr jíl/prach posloužil
jako vhodná proxy pro určení míry zvětrávání a dobře koreluje s hodnotami frekvenčně
závislé magnetické susceptibility.
4. Na základě provedených analýz bylo možné definovat možné odpovědi související
s dlouho diskutovanou chronostratigrafickou situací jeskyně Kůlny. Rozdíl mezi
vrstvami 5 a 6 lze identifikovat na základě zrnitostního složení, resp. míry zvětrávání;
na základě měření hodnot frekvenčně závislé magnetické susceptibility lze odlišit vrstvu
6a od vrstev 6 a 5. Sedimentace, která probíhala v rámci starší fáze mladého paleolitu
(EUP) byla buď značně omezená, nebo byla poškozena pravděpodobně v důsledku
kryogenních pochodů. V každém případě se v sedimentární výplni objevuje nejméně
jeden hiát, který by se měl nacházet mezi mezi vrstvami 6a a 6. Vrstva 7b mohla vznikat
během chladnější fáze MIS4, kdy docházelo k výrazné změně vegetace a s tím související
možné erozi. Pokud byl však důvodem eroze humidnější event, lze tuto vrstvu
interpretovat spíše jako důsledek zvýšeného srážkového úhrnu na počátku MIS3. MIS4
by potom mohlo být na základě mikromorfologických pozorování kladeno spíše do vrstvy
8. Teplejší a humidnější klima, které je dle chronostratrigrafického kontextu předpo-
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kládáno pro vrstvu 11–13, lze doložit pouze na základě výrazně zvýšených hodnot frekvenčně
závislé magnetické susceptibility a indexu zvětrávání charakterizovaného
poměrem jíl/prach. Velký vertikální rozptyl artefaktů ve vrstvě 7a lze interpretovat jako
výsledek promrzání sedimentu, při kterém dochází k vertikálnímu pohybu.
PODĚKOVÁNÍ
Práce vznikla za podpory Grantové agentury České republiky (projekt P405/11/0406,
Chronostratigrafická revize unikátní paleolitické lokality jeskyně Kůlny).
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BULLOCK, P. – MURPHY, C. P. (eds.), 1983: Soil micromorphology. A. B. Academic Publishers, Berkhamsted.
DEARING, J. A. – HAY, K. L. – BABAN, S. M. J. – HUDDLESTON, A. S. – WELLINGTON, E. M. H. – LOVELAND, P. J.,
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POZNÁMKA
1 Dochována pouze v tomto místě v podobě mírně narušeného fragmentu mezi stěnami starších sond.
V původním kresleném profilu 19 nebyla dokumentována.
SUMMARY
The main aim of the study is a geoarchaeological evaluation of sediments of the Kůlna cave in Moravian
Karst. During the rescue excavation in 2011, a section at the cave entrance (profile 19 southern part-pillar) have
been uncovered again. This was the basis for geochemical sampling of layes 11–6a that according to
chronostratigraphic classification document the period Eemian – Weichselian. Stratigraphically related sediments
(layers 6a–5) were then sampled in section 29 in sector G1 in the middle of the cave. Besides samples for
magnetic parameters and particle-size measurements, micromorphological samples documenting particular
chronostratigraphically determined layers were taken from three related sections at the entrance and from section
29 inside the cave.
By micromorphological analysis particular structural elements corresponding to different formation
processes were defined. The most significant structures identified mostly in 5–7a layers were so called “freezing
structures”, i.e. microstructures corresponding to very intensive freezing. Archaeologically sterile layer 7b
contains so called rip-up clasters of relict clayey soil, and due to micromorphological analysis combined with
particle-size and magnetic study this layer was described as a set of fast erosion events caused by increased
precipitation. Due to microstructure of particular samples in combination with other proxies it is possible to say
that significantly colder period prevailed during deposition of layer 5–6a, 7c, and 8. On the contrary layers 11 and
9b show signs of warmer and more humid climate. This kind of climate possible prevailed also during deposition
of layer 7a (also layers 7b and 7d). However, this layer was then secondarily affected by frost, which also caused
discrepancies in classification of archaeological findings.
The analyses provided possible answers related to long-discussed chronostratigraphic situation in the Kůlna cave.
The difference between layers 5 and 6, that were not distinguished inside the cave in G1 sector by K. Valoch, can be
identified based on particle-size distribution or weathering index. Distinguishing of layer 6a from layers 6 and 5 is
possible on the basis of measurement of values of frequency dependent magnetic susceptibility. Sedimentation
occuring within EUP complex was damaged presumably due to cryogenic processes, and can be relic preserved within
transition betwen layers 6a and 6. Layer 7b could be formed during colder phase MIS4 when there was significant
change of vegetation and related eventual erosion. However, if erosion was caused by increased precipitation (more
humid event), then this layer could be rather associated with the beginning of MIS3. A warmer and more humid
climate that is, in context of chronostratigraphy, assumed for layers 11–13, can be demonstrated only on the basis of
extremely increased values of frequency dependent magnetic susceptibility and weathering index characterized by
clay/dust ratio. The large vertical dispersion of artefacts in layer 7a can be interpreted as a result of sediment freezing
where there is vertical movement, which corresponds to the results of spatial distribution of findings.
214
CLASTIC CAVE DEPOSITS IN BOTOVSKAYA CAVE
(EASTERN SIBERIA, RUSSIAN FEDERATION)
JAROSLAV KADLEC1
, MARTIN CHADIMA1
, LENKA LISA´ 1
, HELENA HERCMAN2
, ALEXANDR OSINTSEV3
, AND
HEDI OBERHA¨ NSLI4
Abstract: Botovskaya Cave is a typical example of a two-dimensional maze with a total
length of explored passages exceeding 60 km, which represents the longest limestone cave
system in the Russian Federation. The clastic cave sediments filling the cave passages
differ in both mineral and mineral magnetic properties and were deposited under
different hydrological conditions. The older portion of the clastic cave fills was derived
from overlying sandstones, whereas the properties of younger cave sediments show closer
affinity to the soils and weathering products originating on the plateau above the cave.
The cave sediments underwent repeated periods of deposition and erosion during the
Tertiary (?) and Pleistocene. The last catastrophic erosion event occurred in the cave
more than 350 ka based on flowstone dating. Water seeping through the overlying
sandstone body causes collapses of sandstone slabs from the cave passage ceilings,
forming the youngest portion of the clastic cave fills.
INTRODUCTION
It has been demonstrated that the study of the clastic
cave deposits can contribute to better understanding of the
cave system development as well as to the local hydrological
processes. Sedimentological and mineralogical studies
together with radiometric or paleomagnetic datings of both
clastic and chemogenic deposits have commonly been
applied in cave sediment research (e.g., Ha¨uselmann et al.,
2007; Kadlec et al., 2001). The mineral magnetic approach
has been used only occasionally to understand climatic,
hydrological and anthropogenic processes controlling
sediment deposition in caves (Ellwood et al., 1996, 2004;
Sroubek et al., 2001, 2007). The assemblage of magnetic
minerals found in sediments is controlled by the character
of the source rocks, weathering, mode and energy of
transporting medium, and by depositional as well as postdepositional
processes.
The aim of this paper is an examination of Botovskaya
Cave deposits using methods operating with magnetic and
heavy minerals and with quartz grain exoscopy. Obtained
mineral characteristics were used for correlations from the
point of view of sediment source and mode of transportation
into the cave passages. Radiometric and paleomagnetic
datings of the cave carbonate bed allowed us to
estimate the age of both depositional and post-depositional
processes.
GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SETTINGS
Botovskaya Cave (55u 189 N, 105u 209 E) is located on
the Angarsko-Lensky Plateau of the southern Siberian
Craton about 500 km north of Irkutsk City (Fig. 1). The
area reaches altitudes of 1100 m a.s.l., and belongs to the
Zhigalovo District of the Irkutsk Area. The plateau is
dissected by river valleys up to 400 m deep. Cave entrances
lie at a relative elevation of 310 m above the Lena River
level, in a valley of the Garevogo Creek, the left tributary
of the Boty River, which joins the Lena River. The cave
system, dipping gently to the north, has developed in an
Early Ordovician limestone formation with a thickness of 6
to 12 m. The limestone bed is underlain by Middle and
Late Cambrian sandstone, siltstone, marl and gypsum and
overlain by Middle Ordovician sandstone, limestone and
argillite (Filippov, 2000).
The cave system developed under confined (artesian
karst) settings (Klimchouk, 2000, 2003; Filippov, 2000).
The speleogenesis of the Botovskaya Cave system was
interpreted by Filippov (2000) and is due to two different
processes, (i) corrosion involving meteoric artesian water
and (ii) ascending deep circulating artesian water spanning
the time period between Late Mesozoic and Early
Neogene. The clastic cave deposits fill the bottom portion
of the cave passages and are not usually exposed
sufficiently for study. The deposits from the cave were
preliminarily described by Filippov (2000). Breitenbach
(2004) described in detail a recently excavated section of
cave sediments (the same section is labeled Section 1 in this
paper).
The cave is divided into two parts: the Old World and
the New World. All studied sections of cave sediments are
situated in the Old World, 200–400 m east of the Central
and Medeo entrances (Fig. 2). The key Section 1 and
Section 2 are exposed in two test-pits excavated in the
sedimentary fill close to survey stations PK0122 and
PK042. The smaller Section 3 and Section 4 are located
1
Institute of Geology AS CR, v.v.i., Rozvojova 269, CZ-165 00 Praha 6, Czech
Republic, kadlec@gli.cas.cz
2
Institute of Geological Sciences, PAN, Warszawa, Poland
3
Speleoclub Arabica, Irkutsk, Russia
4
GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam, Germany
J. Kadlec, M. Chadima, L. Lisa´, H. Hercman, A. Osintsev, and H. Oberha¨nsli – Clastic cave deposits in Botovskaya Cave (Eastern
Siberia, Russian Federation). Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, v. 70, no. 3, p. 142–155.
142 N Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, December 2008
close to survey stations PK0186 and PK0342, respectively.
A small relic of flowstone bed used for Th/U dating is
preserved on the limestone wall W of Section 1 ca 1.7 m
above the present passage floor.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The studied sections of the cave deposits were
documented with special reference to lithology, sedimentary
structures and aggradation and erosion event records.
Mineral magnetic characteristics such as low field bulk
magnetic susceptibility (MS) and anhysteretic remanent
magnetization (ARM) together with anisotropy of magnetic
susceptibility (AMS) help to find the source of the
cave fills and estimate a mode of sediment transport to the
cave passages. While MS values are influenced by the
concentration of magnetic particles, mineralogy and grain
size of the minerals (ferro-, para-, and diamagnetic) in the
sediments, ARM is sensitive only to the concentration,
mineralogy and grain size of ferromagnetic minerals
present in sediments. AMS reflects the preferred orientation
of magnetic minerals and can be used for texture
interpretation in sedimentary rocks. Magnetic anisotropy
can be visualized by an ellipsoid with three perpendicular
principal axes k1§k2§k3ð Þ. The maximum axis (k1) is
denoted as magnetic lineation and the plane perpendicular
to minimum axis (k3) defines a magnetic foliation. The
AMS ellipsoid magnitude can be presented as a ratio k1=k3,
known as the degree of anisotropy, P (Nagata, 1961). The
AMS ellipsoid shape can be described by the shape
parameter, T (Jelı´nek, 1981); oblate shapes correspond to
0 , T # 1, prolate shapes correspond to 21 # T , 0. The
degree and shape of the AMS depend on the lithology and
compaction imposed on the deposit.
Oriented samples of clastic cave sediments were
collected in plastic boxes (volume 6.7 cm3
). For each
sample MS and AMS were measured using Agico KLY-4
Kappagridge (alternating field amplitude of 425 A/m and
operating frequency of 875 Hz) in the Paleomagnetic
Laboratory of the Institute of Geology AS CR, v.v.i. in
Figure 1. Location of Botovskaya Cave in Eastern Siberia.
J. KADLEC, M. CHADIMA, L. LISA´ , H. HERCMAN, A. OSINTSEV, AND H. OBERHA¨ NSLI
Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, December 2008 N 143
Prague. The ARM was imparted on demagnetized samples
(using an Agico AF demagnetizer/magnetizer LDA-3/
AMU-1A and measured on an Agico JR-6A spinner
magnetometer). Frequency dependent magnetic susceptibility
as a proof for the presence of superparamagnetic
particles was tested in low- and high-frequency measurements
conducted on a Bartington MS2 magnetic susceptibility
meter. For the purpose of paleomagnetic polarity
measurements three 8 cm3
samples were cut from the
flowstone bed. Samples were thermally demagnetized and
measured using a 2G Enterprises superconducting rock
magnetometer in the Laboratory for Natural Magnetism
ETH Zurich.
The character of quartz grain surfaces indicates
transportation and post-depositional history of clastic
sediments. Exoscopic observations were performed on
quartz grains larger than 0.25 mm separated from either
clastic cave deposits or from the Ordovician sandstone
bedrock after wet sieving and boiling in HCl. The cleaned
grains were stuck on a carbon tape and observed using the
BS 340 electron microscope. Heavy minerals were separated
after wet sieving from the grain-size fraction of 0.25–
0.063 mm using tetrabromethane (density 2.964 g cm23
)
and observed in Canadian balsam. At least 300 grains of
transparent heavy minerals were determined in each
sample.
The flowstone bed used for the paleomagnetic polarity
measurements was also dated by the 230
Th/234
U radiometric
method. Uranium and thorium were separated from
three samples using a standard chemical procedure
(Ivanovich and Harmon, 1992). The samples were dissolved
in 6 M nitric acid, and uranium and thorium were
separated by a chromatographic method using the
DOWEX 1 3 8 ion exchanger. The efficacy of chemical
separation was controlled by addition of a 228
Th/232
U
spike. Activity measurements (alpha spectrometry) were
taken with the OCTETE PC device of the EG&G ORTEC
company. Spectral analysis and age calculation were
performed using URANOTHOR 2.5. software (Gorka
and Hercman, 2002).
DESCRIPTION OF THE CAVE DEPOSITS
SECTION 1
The section is exposed in the excavated test-pit 2.8 m
deep (Breitenbach, 2004). A SW face of the test-pit shows
dark gray to black, medium-grained sand deposited on the
bedrock bottom of the passage (Bed 15 in Fig. 3). The sand
layer contains rare laminae of light medium-grained brown
sand and sporadic aggregates of SiO2-cemented sand up to
1 cm large. The overlying gray to yellow brown sand bed
contains frequent, up to 2 cm large aggregates of sand
cemented with SiO2 (Bed 14). Deposition continued with
brown clayey medium-grained sand with laminae and
lenses of light brown sand (Bed 13), light brown, mediumgrained
sand (Bed 12) and with overlying dark gray clayey
medium-grained sand with small lenses to laminae of light
fine-grained sand (Bed 11). This bed was partly eroded
before the deposition of brown laminated clayey mediumgrained
sand (Bed 10) with fragments of brown clay on the
Figure 2. Botovskaya Cave (The Old World) map (adopted from Go¨bel and Breitenbach, 2003) with indication of studied
sections and dated flowstone.
CLASTIC CAVE DEPOSITS IN BOTOVSKAYA CAVE (EASTERN SIBERIA, RUSSIAN FEDERATION)
144 N Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, December 2008
erosional top of the bed. The above lying loaf-like bed (Bed
9) is formed by light and dark brown laminae of finegrained
sand 1–15 mm thick with brown clay fragments of
up to 2 cm in size at the erosional surfaces and relics of
cemented laminae (up to 7 mm thick) in the upper portion
of the bed. Beds 9 to 13 were disturbed by fissures filled
with carbonate-cemented fine sand. Bed 8 is formed by
light brown fine-grained sand with chaotic small lenses or
laminae of darker medium-grained sand and rare fragments
of light gray fine-grained sand. This is followed by
light brown, slightly sandy clay with black smudges at the
base (Bed 7) and red sandy clay preserved only in relics
(Bed 6). The above lying brown to brown-red clay (Bed 5),
massive in the lower portion and containing 1–3 mm thick
laminae in the upper portion, is overlain by gray to
yellowish sandy clay to clayey medium-grained sand (Bed
4) and brown clay (Bed 3) containing lenses of light brown,
medium-grained sand (Bed 2). The section is covered with
brown-red clay with sporadic angular clasts of sandstone
up to 7 cm in size filling the space formed by water running
along the limestone walls.
The NE face of the test-pit shows a similar succession as
the opposite SW face of the section (Fig. 4). Minor
unconformities and clay fragments are noticeable in the
laminated fine-grained sands forming Bed 9 (Fig. 3).
Laminated sediments in the left part of the bed were
disturbed by a fissure. Small fragments (, 1 mm) of
disintegrated darker laminae concentrate along this fissure.
Figure 3. Section 1 — SW face
1 – clay, sporadic angular clasts of sandstone; 2 – sand; 3 – clay; 4 – sandy clay to clayey sand; 5 – clay; 6 – sandy clay; 7 –
slightly sandy clay; 8 – sand; 9 – sand, fine-grained; 10 – clayey sand, laminated; 11 – clayey sand; 12 – sand; 13 – clayey sand;
14 – sand with sandy aggregates; 15 – sand; 16 – carbonate cementation along fissures; 17 – bedrock wall; black squares with
numbers – collected samples. For more detailed description see text.
J. KADLEC, M. CHADIMA, L. LISA´ , H. HERCMAN, A. OSINTSEV, AND H. OBERHA¨ NSLI
Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, December 2008 N 145
SECTION 2
The section is exposed in an older excavated test-pit.
Dark brown to gray, medium-grained sand with sporadic
clasts of SiO2-cemented sand up to 1.5 cm in size and rare
fragments of brown clay up to 4 cm in size were deposited
at the bedrock bottom (Bed 7 in Fig. 5). The above lying
gray to yellow brown medium sand with sandy aggregates
(Bed 6) contains aggregates of SiO2-cemented sand up to
1.5 cm in size. Dark gray medium-grained clayey sand
layers with lighter stains containing irregular lenses of
yellow-brown sand and fragments of brown massive clay
up to 1.5 cm in size deposited on the surface of the bed
designated as Bed 5. The younger Bed 4 is formed by dark
gray, fine-grained silty sand, partly laminated with 1 mm
thick laminae of yellow-brown fine sand in the lower
portion and lenticular fragments of brown clay indicating
erosional surfaces of laminae. The above lying light brown,
slightly clayey, medium-grained sand contains relics of
cemented sand on its surface (Bed 3). Brown to slightly red
laminated clay colored by Mn-oxides in the upper portion
represents Bed 2. The top of the succession is formed by
light brown to yellow-brown, medium-grained clayey sand
containing angular sandstone clasts 5–15 cm in size and
fragments of brown and black clay coloured by Mn-oxides
(Bed 1). A limestone block up to 0.5 m large is present in
the youngest bed.
SECTION 2A
This sedimentary section is exposed in a phreatic
conduit about 0.5 m above the top of Section 2. It consists
of brown-red, medium-grained sand (Bed 2) and is overlain
by light brown clay (Bed 1 in Fig. 5).
SECTION 3
The lowermost Bed 3 of the section is formed by dark
gray medium-grained sand beds (1–1.5 cm thick) with
brown clayey medium-grained sand and brown clay (0.5–
2 cm thick) (Fig. 6). The above lying Bed 2 comprises
Figure 4. Section 1 — NE face
1 – clay, sporadic angular clasts of sandstone up to 7 cm large; 2 – sand; 3 – clay; 4 – clay; 5 – clay; 6 – sand; 7 – slightly
sandy clay; 8 – sand; 9 – sand, fine-grained; 10 – clayey sand, laminated; 11 – clayey sand; 12 – clayey sand; 13 – sand with
sandy aggregates; 14 – sand; 15 – bedrock wall; black squares with numbers – collected samples. For more detailed description
see text.
CLASTIC CAVE DEPOSITS IN BOTOVSKAYA CAVE (EASTERN SIBERIA, RUSSIAN FEDERATION)
146 N Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, December 2008
alternating dark gray laminae of medium-grained clayey
sand. The deposition was terminated by a gray to grayblack,
medium-grained sand bed with irregular lenses of
light brown sand (Bed 1).
SECTION 4
Yellow-gray, medium-grained sand is exposed in the
lowermost Bed 4 (Fig. 7). Light brown, medium-grained
sand with gray-brown lenticular stains was deposited in the
above lying Bed 3. Bed 2 is formed by dark gray, fine- to
medium-grained sand laminae alternating with light brown
sand laminae. The section is topped by brown clay
alternating with irregular beds of gray, medium-grained
clayey sand (Bed 1). A black lamina coloured by Mnoxides
occurs at the base of this bed.
Figure 5. Section 2
1 – clayey sand, rare angular sandstone clasts 5–15 cm
large and fragments of clay; 2 – clay, laminated in the upper
portion; 3 – slightly clayey sand; 4 – silty sand; 5 – clayey
sand; 6 – sand with sandy aggregates; 7 – sand, sporadic
sandy concretions up to 1.5 cm large and rare fragments of
brown clay up to 4 cm large; 8 – bedrock wall; 9 – block of
bedrock; black squares with numbers – collected samples.
For more detailed description see text.
Section 2A (top right)
1 – clay; 2 – sand; 3 – bedrock wall.
Figure 6. Section 3
1 – sand; 2 – clayey sand; 3 – alternating of layers of sand
with clayey sand and clay; 4 – bedrock bottom; black squares
with numbers – collected samples.
Figure 7. Section 4
1 – clay; 2 – sand; 3 – sand; 4 – sand; 5 – bedrock bottom;
black squares with numbers – collected samples.
J. KADLEC, M. CHADIMA, L. LISA´ , H. HERCMAN, A. OSINTSEV, AND H. OBERHA¨ NSLI
Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, December 2008 N 147
RESULTS
MINERAL MAGNETIC CHARACTERISTICS AND
MAGNETIC FABRIC
The MS values slightly increase from sandy bottom
sediment beds to the above lying clay dominating sediments
(Fig. 8). In Section 1, the values range from 23–63 3 1026
SI
(Bed 14) to 30–119 3 1026
SI (Bed 9) and 90–149 3 1026
SI
(Beds 3 and 5). Similar variations were measured in Section
2 with 37–73 3 1026
SI (Beds 4 and 5), 67–127 3 1026
SI
(Bed 2) and 56–90 3 1026
SI (Bed 1). Basal sands in Section
2A yielded MS values of 22–55 3 1026
SI (Bed 2), whereas
the above lying clay bed has MS values of 121–123 3 1026
SI
(Bed 1). MS values of sediments exposed in Section 3 range
between 76 and 124 3 1026
SI, whereas the values in Section
4 slightly increase from 10–35 3 1026
SI (in beds 3 and 4) to
26–94 3 1026
SI (Bed 2). The highest MS values (up to 410 3
1026
SI) were measured in the modern topsoil collected
above the Medeo Entrance, whereas the bedrock sandstone
showed MS values between 7 and 25 3 1026
SI and MS
values of limestone are about 10 3 1026
SI. The ARM
values ranging between 1 and 22 3 1023
A/m plot versus the
MS show steep increase in the top beds (Fig. 8). The AMS
degree also increases in these beds (Fig. 9). The magnetic
fabric of the sediments is mostly oblate. Basal sands in
sections 1, 2 and 4 show more prolate fabric as expressed by
negative T values (Fig. 9).
The magnetic lineation directions in the top sedimentary
beds show concentration in NW to SW directions
(Fig. 10, top left) with the mean direction tending to the
WSW. The poles to magnetic foliation are usually
concentrated around the center of the projection. N-S
elongation of the pole directions was found in sediments
from Section 3 (Fig. 10, top right). The magnetic lineation
directions measured in the bottom sedimentary beds show
almost random distribution accompanied by large dispersion
of poles to magnetic foliation (Fig. 10, bottom).
EXOSCOPY OF QUARTZ GRAINS
Three types of microstructures were observed on quartz
grain surfaces: (i) precipitation of SiO2 on the surface of
grains in lace-like patterns, (ii) corrosive etched microstructures,
and (iii) overgrowth with quartz crystals. The
bedrock Ordovician sandstone forming the ceiling of the
cave passage above Section 2 contains rounded quartz
grains about 1 mm in diameter (Fig. 11, top left). The grain
surfaces show weak dissolution and precipitation of SiO2
(Fig. 12, bottom left). The cross-bedded sandstone forming
intercalations in the limestone contains smaller quartz
grains cemented with SiO2 into aggregates with an average
length of 1 mm (Fig. 11, top right). The basal sand in
Section 1 consists of separate rounded grains with average
size of about 0.5 mm (Fig. 11, bottom left). Surfaces of
many grains are modified by conchoidal fractures and
corrosion features. Grain aggregates with weakly corroded
Figure 8. Correlation between magnetic susceptibility (MS) and degree of magnetic anisotropy (P) – left; correlation between
magnetic susceptibility (MS) and anhysteretic remanent magnetization (ARM) – right. Black squares – bottom sedimentary
beds (samples 16–41, 50–60, 63–72, 79–88); empty squares — top sedimentary beds (samples 01–15, 42–49, 61–62, 73–78).
Figure 9. Correlation between degree of anisotropy (P) and
shape of anisotropy ellipsoids (T). Sample symbols are the
same as in Fig. 8.
CLASTIC CAVE DEPOSITS IN BOTOVSKAYA CAVE (EASTERN SIBERIA, RUSSIAN FEDERATION)
148 N Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, December 2008
surfaces dominate in the above lying Bed 9 (Fig. 11,
bottom right). Angular flat mineral particles (micas?)
dominate in Bed 3, separate quartz grains and aggregates
are present in smaller amounts (Fig. 12, top left). Quartz
grains in sand deposited in the bottom beds in Section 2
(Beds 6 and 7 in Fig. 5) form cemented aggregates up to
1 mm large as in the bottom beds of Section 1. Grain
surfaces often bear lace-like silica coatings. The above
lying Bed 4 in Section 2 is composed of a mixture of free
grains (30 %) and cemented aggregates (70 %) with lacelike
silica coatings. Angular mineral particles are rarely
present in the bed. Sub-angular to rounded grains up to
1 mm in size prevail in Bed 1 against cemented grain
aggregates showing weak roundness. Sand from Bed 2 in
Section 2A shows predominantly free rounded quartz
grains coated with lace-like silica (Fig. 12, bottom right).
Exoscopic analyses were completed with images from
modern soil collected at the Medeo Cave entrance. Free
rounded quartz grains up to 1.5 mm in size dominate in
the soil (Fig. 12, top right).
Figure 10. Principal directions of magnetic fabric of sediments indicated by anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility; equal-area
projection on the lower hemishere. Top left – magnetic lineation in bottom sedimentary beds; top right – pole to magnetic
foliation in bottom sedimentary beds; bottom left – magnetic lineation in top sedimentary beds; bottom right – poles to
magnetic foliation in bottom sedimentary beds; larger gray squares and circles represents mean directions.
J. KADLEC, M. CHADIMA, L. LISA´ , H. HERCMAN, A. OSINTSEV, AND H. OBERHA¨ NSLI
Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, December 2008 N 149
The quartz grain aggregates isolated from Bed 14 in
Section 1 were put through an experiment using a kitchen
blender simulating transport of sediments in a turbulent
flow. The aggregates were almost completely disintegrated
after 5 minutes of mixing. The silica coatings on grain
surfaces were destroyed after 15 and 30 minutes of
mixing.
HEAVY MINERAL CONTENT
The studied samples of the bedrock and cave deposits
show monotonous association of stable heavy minerals.
Grains of transparent heavy minerals are rounded, while
the opaque mineral grains are mostly angular. Beds in the
upper portions of Sections 1 and 2 contain greater
amounts of garnet, similar to modern soil (Table 1).
Figure 11. Surface of quartz grains. Top left – quartz from bedrock sandstone; top right – quartz aggregates from crossbedded
sandstone intercalated within the limestone; bottom left – quartz from Bed 15 in Section 1; bottom right – quartz
aggregates from Bed 9 in Section 1.
CLASTIC CAVE DEPOSITS IN BOTOVSKAYA CAVE (EASTERN SIBERIA, RUSSIAN FEDERATION)
150 N Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, December 2008
These deposits reveal an opaque/non-opaque mineral
ratio 1:3 while other sediments studied contain a higher
proportion of opaque minerals. Higher concentrations of
garnet were also determined in the basal sand from Bed 14
in Section 1. Staurolite dominates in sediments with lower
garnet content, including the bedrock sandstone (Table
1).
FLOWSTONE DATING
Radiometric dating of the flowstone bed by 230
Th/234
U
method reveals that the age of three dated samples exceeds
350 ka (limit of the dating method). However, the
flowstone age higher than 1.2 Ma cannot be eliminated
based on 234
U/238
U ratio (Table 2). During thermal
demagnetization experiments magnetic moment decreased
Figure 12. Surface of quartz grains. Top left – mixture of quartz and angular grains from Bed 3 in Section 1; top right –
quartz from modern soil; bottom left – a detail of quartz corrosion from Bed 15 in Section 1; bottom right – a detail of newlyformed
quartz precipitates from Bed 2 in Section 2A.
J. KADLEC, M. CHADIMA, L. LISA´ , H. HERCMAN, A. OSINTSEV, AND H. OBERHA¨ NSLI
Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, December 2008 N 151
with increasing temperatures (Fig. 13, bottom). Directional
variations of magnetic vector during the demagnetization
process are expressed in the Zijderveld diagram and in the
stereographic plot (Fig. 13, top). The mean paleomagnetic
direction is: Declination 5 18u, Inclination 5 61u. Based on
these paleomagnetic data, it is evident that the flowstone
records normal polarity of the Earth magnetic field from
the time of the carbonate deposition.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Based on obtained results the sedimentary beds exposed
in the studied sections were subdivided in two parts with
the bottom (older) beds (beds 9–14 in Section 1, beds 4–7 in
Section 2, Bed 2 in Section 2A and beds 2–4 in Section 4)
and top (younger) beds (beds 1–8 in Section 1, Bed 1–3 in
Section 2, Bed 1 in Section 2A, beds 1–3 in Section 3 and
Bed 1 in Section 4).
The bottom beds reveal similar lithological, magnetic
and heavy metal properties (except of sand in Bed 14).
Basal sand deposited on the bedrock bottom shows a lower
MS, similar to the bedrock sandstone. The exoscopic
quartz grain characteristics are similar, too. It can
therefore be proposed that the deposits filling the bottom
part of cave corridors were derived from the local bedrock
formed by Early Ordovician sandstones. The good
roundness of quartz grains is a result of grain reworking
in a high-energy Ordovician marine environment. Later,
long distance redeposition of these quartz grains by
Cenozoic streams can be excluded by the results of
liquidizer experiment testing of the resistance of quartz
grain aggregates during turbulent fluvial transport. No
source of larger SiO2-cemented aggregates (max. 2 cm
long) common in beds 13 and 14 in Section 1 was found.
These aggregates were cemented in situ during different
climatic conditions allowing SiO2 dissolution and precipitation.
Sands in beds 11–13 in Section 1 and in Beds 6 and
7 in Section 2 lack prominent lamination or cross bedding
(unlike the overlying sediments). It can be therefore
assumed that these beds also belong to the bottom fill of
cave passages.
The younger cross-bedded and laminated, mostly clayey
sands in beds 8–10 (Section 1) and beds 3 and 4 (Section 2)
were deposited after partial erosion of the basal deposits.
The deposits reveal slightly higher MS values. The
exoscopic observation shows cemented quartz grain
aggregates indicating the source in the local cross-bedded
sandstone (comp. Fig. 11, top right and Fig. 11, bottom
right). The inner structures of these laminated sediments
(small unconformities, redeposited fragments of clay,
laminae partly cemented by carbonate and erosional
surface of Bed 10) show a frequent alternation between
local aggradation and erosion events. The sediments were
deposited during heavy precipitation events, when water
penetrated into the cave corridors from the surface through
the swallow holes and along open cracks. The water escape
structures (e.g., the fissure in beds 9–11, Section 1) were
formed during the compaction of sediments. Sand grains
accumulating along the fissures were later partly cemented
by carbonate. Pore fluids moved during repeated liquefaction
of the sediments and disturbed the primary magnetic
fabric of these deposits, resulting in the tilting of the
magnetic foliation to the NW (Fig. 10, bottom right).
However, it is not possible to determine the flow direction
Table 1. Heavy mineral content in modern soil, cave deposits and bedrock (values are in percent).
Cave Deposit Garnet Staurolite Zircon Rutile
Opaque/Non-Opaque
Mineral Ratio
Modern Soil 72 24 2 3 1:3
Section 1 – Bed 3 80 5 15 1 1:3
Section 1 – Bed 9 4 89 5 2 1:1
Section 1 – Bed 14 3 85 7 5 1:1
Section 1 – Bed 15 45 49 3 3 8:1
Section 2 – Bed 1 35 56 2 8 1:1
Section 2 – Bed 4 7 82 9 2 1:1
Section 2 – Bed 6 9 80 7 4 1:1
Section 2A – Bed 2 50 36 10 4 1:3
Ordovician Sandstone 4 86 5 5 1:1
Table 2. Th/U age of the flowstone relic.
Sample Name Sample Lab. No. U (ppm) 234
U/238
U 230
Th/234
U 230
Th/232
Th Age (ka)
BT 2 W 1302 28.2 6 0.7 1.005 6 0.005 1.064 6 0.005 . 1000 . 350
BT 3 W 1301 19.8 6 0.7 1.002 6 0.007 1.002 6 0.007 450 6 40 . 350
BT 6 W 1303 11.9 6 0.4 1.009 6 0.008 1.083 6 0.008 520 6 60 . 350
CLASTIC CAVE DEPOSITS IN BOTOVSKAYA CAVE (EASTERN SIBERIA, RUSSIAN FEDERATION)
152 N Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, December 2008
due to random dispersion of magnetic lineation directions
measured in the bottom bed sediments.
Clayey sands forming the top portions of Section 1
(Beds 2–7) and Section 2 (Bed 2) reveal still higher MS
values and higher garnet content, similar to the modern soil
from the surface above the cave. The magnetic lineation
and foliation indicate a calmer sedimentary environment
with slow sediment transport directions from NW, W and
SW (Fig. 10, top). Elongation of k3 orientations in N-S
direction measured in Section 3 could be a result of postdepositional
deformation of the cave sediments caused by
frost when the sedimentary layers filling narrow cave
passage could be deflected due to volume changes. In the
cave sediments with higher clay content, the MS increases
together with the degree of anisotropy (Fig. 8, left).
Different heavy mineral content of the sediments, compared
to the bottom portions of the sections, indicates a
different source of these deposits. The sediments could
have been originally transported by wind to the area of
Botovskaya Cave, from where they were vertically transported
by precipitation waters through swallow holes and
along open cracks to the cave. This assumption could be
supported indirectly because angular flat mineral particles
are missing in bottom cave sediments. Higher MS values of
Figure 13. Thermal demagnetization of the flowstone sample BP02F. Top left – directions of magnetization vector during
demagnetization process, black circles – projection of vector directions to the lower hemisphere, gray point in the circle –
interpreted direction of the primary component of the magnetization vector; top right – Zijderveld diagram, black circles –
projection of vector directions into horizontal plane, white circles – projection of vector directions into vertical plane; bottom
left – normalized magnetization intensity values during the thermal demagnetization.
J. KADLEC, M. CHADIMA, L. LISA´ , H. HERCMAN, A. OSINTSEV, AND H. OBERHA¨ NSLI
Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, December 2008 N 153
the clayey sediments correspond with the high MS of the
topsoil at the cave surface. Most part of the iron present in
the modern soil is the paramagnetic Fe3+
form (almost 80
%, identified by Mo¨ssbauer spectroscopy), which may be
the result of weathering of paramagnetic minerals during
pedogenic processes (e.g., Evans and Heller, 2004). The
presence of superparamagnetic (SP) minerals originating
during pedogenesis or taiga forest fires cannot be excluded
(Thompson and Oldfield, 1986). However, results of
frequency dependent magnetic susceptibility measurements,
usually supporting SP mineral presence (e.g.,
Dearing, 1999), are not very reliable due to low MS values
of the cave sediments.
MS of sand filling the karst conduit with Section 2A
(Bed 2) is similarly low as in the basal sands in Section 2.
Nevertheless, it differs from the latter in the high
proportion of garnet (much like in Bed 14 in Section 1).
The overlying clay in this section has similar properties to
the youngest deposits in Sections 1 and 2 and the modern
soil. However, precipitation waters flowing vertically from
the surface through open fissures also transported the clay.
Heavy precipitation events resulted in the erosion of the
top part of the sediment in both Sections 1 and 2 and
resulted in the deposition of clay-dominated sediments with
chaotically arranged angular clasts of sandstones and with
limestone blocks (Bed 1 in both sections).
Taiga forest fires could control the mechanism of
sediment transportation from the surface above the cave to
the underground passages. The topsoil retention ability is
usually dramatically decreased after forest fires due to
damaged vegetation. Precipitation would then percolate
very fast into the cave. Evidence of a past catastrophic
erosion event is preserved about 50 m west of Section 1
(Fig 2). A relic of flowstone bed is preserved on the
limestone wall 1.7 m above present passage floor. The
flowstone bed was originally deposited on the top of the
clastic deposits, which filled the passage. The radiometric
and paleomagnetic polarity dating suggests a likely age for
the carbonate bed between 350 and 780 ka (i.e., older than
230
Th/234
U method age limit and but still within the present
normal-polarity Brunhes Chron). However, we cannot
entirely exclude the flowstone deposition during any older
normal-polarity periods. In such case the flowstone should
be older than 2.58 Ma (i.e., Matuyama-Gauss paleomagnetic
boundary). We do not suppose a speleothem
deposition during relatively short normal-polarity Jaramillo
or Olduvai subchrons. Anyway, in the time of the
flowstone deposition the artesian aquifer regime was
already disrupted due to surrounding valley incision and
vadose conditions dominated in the cave system. The later
intensive erosion removed clastic sediments from under the
flowstone bed and destroyed the entire flowstone. This
erosional event had to be triggered by unusually heavy
precipitation, which entered the bedrock through vertical
ruptures opened both in sandstone and limestone due to
differential subsidence of the massif (see below). The
surrounding valleys supporting this vertical movement
should be developed. Therefore, we suppose that the
erosion occurred most probably during the Middle or Late
Pleistocene. At that time the local surface streams were
incised at a much lower position than the Botovskaya
Cave. Results of this catastrophic cave flood could be the
chaotic sediments deposited in Bed 1 in the Sections 1
and 2.
The morphology of the cave passages documents
transverse flow under confined hydrological conditions in
the artesian aquifer connected with upward solution of
limestone (Klimchouk, 2000, 2003; Filippov, 2000). In the
subsequent period lower parts of the passages were
widened to the shape of a relatively broad channel with a
flat ceiling. It should indicate a long-term dissolution, when
the passages were permanently flooded with stagnant
water. It is not easy to reconstruct this period in the cave
system development, because this channel is completely
filled with clastic cave deposits and is noticeable only in the
excavated test-pits. We assume a period of relative stability
and propose that the cave system was lying near the level of
the ground-water table prior to the incision of the present
deep valleys (Lena River) in the vicinity of the cave system.
This stage should be dated to the Miocene, because the
cave is located above the Pliocene river terrace level
(Filippov, 2000).
Structures preserved in the clastic sediments filling the
cave passages indicate deposition mostly in vadose
conditions with frequent alternations of deposition and
erosion. The water escape structures detected in sediments
similar to silty laminae cemented by carbonate (Bed 9 in
Fig. 3) support our assumption that the clastic deposition
occurred in cave passages, which were not completely filled
with water.
The following incision of surrounding valleys was
probably triggered by a substantial Late Pliocene uplift
recorded in the Lake Baikal Cenozoic sediments (Mats et
al., 2000). Stability of the sedimentary massif comprising
the Botovskaya Cave deteriorated as a result of this
Pliocene-Pleistocene incision.
This was accompanied by gravity-induced opening of
N–S joints parallel to the slope of the Garevogo Creek,
where cave entrances are located, and by NE–SW opened
joints parallel to the Lake Baikal rift structure indicating
ongoing uplift connected with extension of the area (cf.,
Zorin et al., 2003). These ruptures detected at many places
in the Old World of the Botovskaya Cave are now used by
water seeping from the surface above the cave. These
vertical pathways are also used for the underground
transport of clastic sand- and clay-dominated sediments
from the surface above the cave. Such a place is located
east of Section 1. Sandstone blocks fallen from the ceiling
are covered by light brown sands and clays (much like in
Section 2A). Relicts of clayey sand are also preserved in
hanging positions on rock ledges above the test-pit with
Section 1. These clastic sediments do not, however, cover
CLASTIC CAVE DEPOSITS IN BOTOVSKAYA CAVE (EASTERN SIBERIA, RUSSIAN FEDERATION)
154 N Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, December 2008
blocks pertaining to a younger phase of ceiling destruction.
It is probable that the last falling of ceiling slabs also took
place recently. Erosion caused by flowing water results, in
turn, in further stability deterioration of the sandstones
under- and overlying the limestone bed. Such weak points
in the cave system then experience large collapse of the
sandstone slabs from the ceiling and formation of chokes.
Intensive water flow is also responsible for the growth of
flowstone decorations at such places.
CONCLUSIONS
Three specific conclusions can be drawn from this
study. First, the sections in detrital cave sediments in
Botovskaya Cave (in The Old World part) evidence
periodical sediment deposition. It cannot be excluded that
the individual beds are separated by long hiatuses.
Sediments of the cave fill are of two different types: the
older, bottom sands are derived from weathered bedrock
sandstones and were probably horizontally transported
over a short distance. The overlying sediments dominated
by clay and clay/sand were transported vertically with
precipitation waters from the surface above the cave. The
contrasting mineralogical and magnetic parameters of
these top sediments indicate a different (more distant?)
source.
Second, if the bottom sand was transported horizontally
through the cave by flowing water, it must have taken
place before the incision of the present deep valleys,
probably in the Late Tertiary. Finer sediments should be
transported by wind and deposited on the surface above
the cave. From there, they were removed by precipitation
waters together with weathered surface products and
deposited in cave passages. These processes, most probably
of Quaternary age, were lacking any direct link to the local
hydrologic network.
Third, morphologies of passages in Botovskaya Cave
document two stages of the cave system development: the
older, characterized by confined hydrological conditions in
the artesian aquifer. Passages formed during this older
stage were later partly remodeled by stagnating water
corrosion. This younger stage affected the cave system
probably in the Tertiary, before the deep river valleys were
formed.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The project was supported by the INTAS Program No. 03-
51-4152: Speleothems and other cave sediments from Siberia:
an archive from the boreal climate zone with the potential for
climate reconstruction on an annual to decadal basis
(SPELEOARCH) and it is a part the research project of the
Institute of Geology AS CR, v.v.i. No. AV0Z30130516.
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Dejmal, M., Lisá, L., Nývltová Fišáková M., Bajer A., Petr, L., Kočár, P., Kočárová R., Nejman
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224
Medieval Horse Stable; The Results of Multi Proxy
Interdisciplinary Research
Miroslav Dejmal1
, Lenka Lisa´2
*, Miriam Fisˇa´kova´ Ny´vltova´3
, Alesˇ Bajer4
, Libor Petr2,5
, Petr Kocˇa´r5
,
Romana Kocˇa´rova´5
, Ladislav Nejman6
, Michal Rybnı´cˇek4
, Zdenka Su˚vova´5
, Randy Culp7
, Hanusˇ Vavrcˇı´k4
1 Archaia Brno, o. p. s., Brno, Czech Republic, 2 Institute of Geology AS CR, v. v. i., Prague, Czech Republic, 3 Institute of Archaeology of AS CR in Brno, v. v. i., Brno, Czech
Republic, 4 Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Brno, Czech Republic, 5 Department of Archaeology, University of Western Bohemia,
Pilsen, Czech Republic, 6 Centre for Applied Isotope Studies, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America, 7 School of Social Science, University of
Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
Abstract
A multi proxy approach was applied in the reconstruction of the architecture of Medieval horse stable architecture, the
maintenance practices associated with that structure as well as horse alimentation at the beginning of 13th
century in
Central Europe. Finally, an interpretation of the local vegetation structure along Morava River, Czech Republic is presented.
The investigated stable experienced two construction phases. The infill was well preserved and its composition reflects
maintenance practices. The uppermost part of the infill was composed of fresh stabling, which accumulated within a few
months at the end of summer. Horses from different backgrounds were kept in the stable and this is reflected in the results
of isotope analyses. Horses were fed meadow grasses as well as woody vegetation, millet, oat, and less commonly hemp,
wheat and rye. Three possible explanations of stable usage are suggested. The stable was probably used on a temporary
basis for horses of workers employed at the castle, courier horses and horses used in battle.
Citation: Dejmal M, Lisa´ L, Fisˇa´kova´ Ny´vltova´ M, Bajer A, Petr L, et al. (2014) Medieval Horse Stable; The Results of Multi Proxy Interdisciplinary Research. PLoS
ONE 9(3): e89273. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089273
Editor: Terry Brown, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, United Kingdom
Received June 26, 2013; Accepted January 17, 2014; Published March 26, 2014
Copyright: ß 2014 Dejmal et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: The research was supported by the Czech Grant Agency project no. P405/11/1729 (Veselı´ nad Moravou – Medieval Castle in alluvial plain). The grant
agency of CR supported financially the analyses, manuscript preparation and publication.
Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
* E-mail: lisa@gli.cas.cz
Introduction
Despite the fact that horses were a common part of the
Medieval culture, there is a dearth of information about horse
husbandry in the Central European Middle Ages. Occasional
references can be found in written documents [1–3] as well as in
archaeological research [4–5], but the identification of architectonical
structures is usually very difficult and stabling deposits are not
commonly preserved.
Important information about stable deposits can be inferred
from microstratigraphic studies [6–9] Floor deposits in particular
can be a source of high-value information. Variations in floor
residues are being profitably examined in order to understand uses
of space and the nature of activities in a settlement [7] [10–17],
but archaeological stratigraphies that may contain floors are
usually difficult to identify when not composed of lithologically
varied materials. One of the well recognizable types of floor
deposits are those composed of stabling deposits. Micromorphological
research of stable floor deposits has been reported from
different environments but such studies are rare. An experimental
stable was studied in Butser ancient farm [18].
A unique opportunity to perform interdisciplinary research
including a classic archaeological approach, combined with
geology and micromorphology, bioarchaeology and isotope studies
of a well preserved Medieval stable presented itself in 2009, when
during rescue excavations in Veselı´ nad Moravou, occupation
deposits were found within a bailey dated to an early phase of
castle construction. This paper discusses what Medieval stable
architecture looked like and how the stable was maintained. Both,
the specific diet of horses which occupied the stable during the last
phase of its use, and the vegetation growing in the castle
surroundings are discussed in this paper.
The study site: Medieval bailey in Veselı´ nad
Moravou, Czech Republic
Veselı´ nad Moravou is situated in the southeastern part of the
Czech Republic in South Moravia. The study site is located on the
right bank of the Morava River (Fig. 1). The archaeological rescue
research was performed during renovation of the castle in 2008–
2010 [19]. Within the castle grounds, located features include a
nobleman residence and a wooden bailey which was separated
from the castle itself by a moat. Also, well preserved occupational
deposits covering an area of 500 m2
were identified. These
deposits were 1.6 meters thick and consisted mainly of wooden
chips and organo-mineral material. Only the uppermost part of
the occupational deposit was destroyed by decomposition typical
for dry open air environments. In total, 16 wooden objects were
detected, but the function of these structures was proposed in only
three cases. One of them was interpreted as a bakery, the second
one as a hayloft and the third one, discussed in this paper, as a
horse stable (Fig. 2) [19]. The reason why the structure was
interpreted as a horse stable is mainly due to the presence of well
preserved stabling material containing horse hairs as well as
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artefacts which are typically used in the context of horse
husbandry.
Research methods
1. Ethics statement
We declare that no living animals were used in this research.
The samples used for zooarchaeological research and isotope
studies were collected from an archaeological context dated to the
13th
century. The archaeological company conducted the excavations
under a government permit and following the heritage law
of Czech Republic (No. 20/1987), all excavated material including
the osteological material is interpreted as archaeological
material so no further permits are required for the presented study.
2. Archaeology
The excavation area was divided into 565 squares. Those
squares were then excavated in 262 subsquares and a control
section 0.5 m wide was left unexcavated along each square. In
some cases, sectors were selected irregularly, based on specific
contexts. This method of excavation was selected for better
orientation in a stratigraphically difficult situation. The excavation
was systematically documented with drawings and photographs.
Coordinates of archeological features and artefacts were recorded.
The Harris matrix showing the connections between different
contexts was applied. Dominant structures were differentiated
from other contexts (layers, constructions and ditches). Finally,
recovered artefacts and their spatial connections were analysed.
3. Sedimentological description, micromorphology
The stratigraphic section which included the stable infill and
underlying sediment (Fig. 3) was approximately 80 cm thick. It
was sedimentologically logged and lithological changes were
described. Seven micromorphological samples were then collected
from the studied section based on visible lithological changes,
placed into plastic Kubiena boxes (569 cm) and prepared
according to standard procedure by Julie Boreham in Reach
(www.earthslides.com). Thin sections were studied under a
binocular and polarising microscope at different magnifications
and described according to Bullock et al. [20] [21] and Stoops [22]
[23].
4. Pollen and phytolith analysis
Four samples for pollen and phytolith analyses were collected
from the top 20 cm of the stable infill, i.e. from the horse stabling
material. Preparation followed the standard acetolysis method
[24]. For phytolith samples, the wet oxidation method was used
[25]. Pollen grains and phytoliths were distinguished using
published guides [26–30]. Each sample contained a minimum of
500 grains or fragments. The pollen diagram includes phytoliths
and was plotted in POLPAL program for Windows [31] including
numerical analyses (Rarefraction, Conslink, PCA) for the visualization
and the interpretation of pollen data.
5. Macroremains and anthracology
Macroremains and anthracological analyses were performed on
samples from different parts of the stable infill. In total, 7 samples
were processed, three from the horse stabling and four from the
waste material underlying the horse stabling. Extraction of
macrofossils from the soil material followed the standard flotation
and wet sieving procedure [32], using staggered sieves with
0.25 mm mesh. The dried samples were then sorted under light
microscope at 6l0 to 615 magnifications. Seed atlases by Cappers
et al. [33] [34] were used for plant macro-remains determination.
Figure 1. The location of Veselı´ nad Moravou within the
context of Central Europe and within the local geomorpholo-
gy.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089273.g001
Figure 2. Archaeological evidence of horse stable.
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Fresh refractive surfaces of wooden fragments and charcoal were
analysed under a light microscope at 506, 1006 and 2006
magnifications. The number of fragments was counted. Identification
followed mainly Schweingruber [35] and a web key [36].
6. Isotopes
Six samples of horsehair were divided into three centimeter (cm)
sections (Tab. 3), and analyzed for their respective d13C and d15N
values. The analyses were performed at the University of Georgia’s
Center for Applied Isotope Studies, Athens, Georgia, USA, using
standard procedure. Approximately 200–600 micrograms of
horsehair from each sample was analysed. Two interpretation
diagrams based on [37–40] were constructed (Fig. 8 and 9) and
used in the general interpretations.
7. Dendrochronology and dendrology
Samples for dendrochronological analysis from separate structures
identified within the bailey were collected using a drill. The
analysis was performed in correspondence with standard dendrochronological
methodology [41]. The average age was counted
from 6 samples taken within bailey structures. Samples labelled as
110 and 111 come from the stable material. Dendrological
analyses of the stable structure were performed using standard
identification keys.
8. Zooarchaeology
Bone fragments were collected and bagged during the
archaeological excavation. The identification was performed using
standard zooarchaeological keys. The osteological material is
stored in the depository of Archaia o.p.s. company, Bezrucˇova 15,
602 00, Brno.
Results
1. Archaeological evidence of horse stable
The horse stable was 1462.5 meters in size, but may have
originally been larger (its original size has not been determined). It
was excavated in the southeastern part of what is currently the
castle courtyard. Parts of the building were obliterated by later
Medieval activities and construction works in the 1990s. Two
construction phases designated as A and B were identified on the
basis of different construction features such as walls, pillars and
floors (Fig. 2).
Rough-hewn girders 0.0660.04 m in size were used during
construction phase A. The space between these girders was filled
with a hurdle fence and covered by a thick layer of daub from both
sides. The roof of the building was supported by 0.16 m thick
pillars located regularly every two meters along the walls. The
1.6 m wide relict of an entrance was located in the northern part
of the building. The entrance structure consisted of a pair of
vertical window frames with an added doorstep. Divisions inside
the stable were not identified for this construction phase.
During construction phase B the building was completely
rebuilt. The former building was destroyed and only the
foundations, which were re-used, remained in their original
position. The construction technique was very similar to the
previous one. New walls mirrored the shape of the former walls
and the entrance located in the northwestern part of the building
was replaced by a new entrance located in the same position and
within the same construction proportions. In contrast to the
original building, the interior of the new building was divided by
two partition walls. The first wall divided the eastern room
(approx. 6 m2
in size). The partition wall was constructed in the
same way as the outside wall and a hurdle fence was also present.
The eastern room had a wooden floor consisting of rough-hewn,
criss-crossing planks up to 0.4 meters wide. The 1 meter wide
entrance was located in the northern section and consisted of
double window frames and a doorstep. The second partition wall,
3.5 metres long, divided the central room. The partition wall was
constructed as a hurdle fence and was not joined to the outside
wall. It appears that a 1 meter wide entrance facing west was also
added. All the doorsteps were raised 0.25 m above the floor. The
organic layers deposited on the floor of the stable originating in the
second construction phase of contain evidence of horse presence
with horseman equipment such as horse shoes, bridle-bits,
currycomb, buckles and spurs. Two complete sickles were also
recovered.
Figure 3. Micromorphological sampling position with the sedimentary facies interpretation.
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2. Sedimentology and micromorphology of the deposits
2.1. Fluvial deposits and trampling periods. The underlying
material of the horse stable consists of 10 cm thick, partly
decomposed organic material (wood) followed by a 30 cm thick
fluvial deposit of grey colour consisting of sands and silts (Tab. 1).
The fluvial deposition of sands ends with a layer of organic
material, macroscopically identified as part of a collapsed hurdle
fence followed by a thin layer of fluvial sands. The organic matter
of this structure is not decomposed as seen in Fig. 4B. The sandy
material above the fence differs somewhat from the sandy material
below. Repeatedly appearing thin, dark brown layers composed of
decomposed organic material were identified (Fig. 4A). Those
organic intercalations document the phases when the area was not
inundated by water and was probably being trampled by humans.
The thick fluvial section ends with a partly decomposed organic
material macroscopically identified as a relict of a hurdle fence,
followed by yellowish sandy material 5 cm thick (Fig. 3).
2.2. Infill of the horse stabling structure composed of
domestic waste. The basal layer consists of 15 cm thick
occupation deposits composed of construction material, charcoal,
decomposed organic matter and ashy material (Tab. 1, Fig. 4C).
Layering is macroscopically visible within this layer (Fig. 2). The
material in each layer differs somewhat in grain size, the amount
of daub and ceramic sherds. Within this stratum, visible minute
layering corresponds to phases of accumulation. These individual
sublayers are composed of different types of material and the grain
size varies considerably, but differences in lithological composition
are small.
2.3. Horse stabling. The section and the infilling of the
horse stable is capped by well preserved horse stabling, i.e. organic
material deposited during the last usage of this structure (Tab. 1,
Fig. 4D). Horsehair is common in this layer but it is difficult to
identify and is observed mainly as round-shaped cross sections
(Fig. 10).
3. Pollen and phytolith analyses
Pollen spectra found in the 20 cm thick layer of horse stabling
include mainly herbs. Tree palynomorphs are very rare. Most of
the herb palynomorphs are wild grasses. Intestinal parasites were
not recorded, except for an Ascaris spore in a sample located 10–
15 cm below the surface (Fig. 5).
Phytolith spectra are relatively uniform with low type diversity.
Dendritic-type phytoliths occur most frequently and elongate-type
phytoliths have the second highest frequency. Based on the
abundance of Dendritic-type and Polylobate-type types, most of
the phytoliths come from wild grasses of subfamilie Poideae.
Panicoideae grasses (Bilobate-type) are rare; this type is likewise
rare in present day vegetation of Southern Moravia. Phytoliths
from trees and cereals were not recorded. The phytolith spectra
reflect meadow vegetation where wild grasses and sedges
dominate.
4. Macroremains and anthracological analyses
Macroremains and anthracological spectra identified within the
Medieval stable infill in Veselı´ nad Moravou are quite heterogeneous
(Fig. 6 and Fig. 7, tab. 2). Samples from the stable have the
highest concentration of macroremains (compared to other units)
and lower concentrations of wood fragments and charcoal (Fig. 6).
The proportion of individual ecological groups which could be
significant for stabling (the concentration of wetland species) or
feeding (the concentration of crop plants) varies greatly (Tab. 2).
Also, the proportion of macroscopically identifiable components
(hay, straw, wood annual shoots) varies significantly in the samples
(Fig. 6). After examining 2150 pieces of plant macroremains
(mainly seeds and fruits), 104 taxons of higher plants were
identified and divided into 5 ecological groups according to their
ecological requirements known from recent times (Tab. 2). Those
groups are: 1) meadows, pasture, wetland; 2) cereal weeds; 3)
economic crops; 4) ruderal plants; 5) wood, glade.
The remediation layers in the stable commonly contained
charcoal fragments providing clues to wood vegetation in the
surrounding area. The most common taxa are typical for oak
forests and oak-hornbeam forests including hardwood forests of
lowland rivers (Quercus robur, Fraxinus angustifolia subsp. danubialis,
Fraxinus excelsior, Acer campestre, Ulmus laevis). The species typical for
willow-poplar forests (Populus nigra, Populus alba, Salix alba, Salix
fragilis) and alder forests (Alnus glutinosa) were present in lower
quantities. Charcoal fragments of beech were very rare.
5. Isotope analysis of horse hair
Three centimeter long sections of horse hair were analyzed.
Since one millimeter of horse hair grows each day, this section
represents one month of hair growth [42]. Surprisingly, the results
of isotope analyses differ for each sample (Tab. 3), corresponding
to different water stress and feeding provenance through time and
for each individual. In the case of sample K228, a significant shift
into negative values (2%) for the d13C measurement implies that
the horse spent the first three months mainly in parks and
meadows while the next three months correspond to wood
vegetation (tree leaves, shrubs) (Fig. 8 and Fig. 9). Six centimeters
of horse hair in sample 1268 were divided into 4 parts and they do
not show any significant changes in feeding or environment. This
individual lived or was fed (at least for the four month period
tested) on meadow grass and/or in a sparsely wooded environment.
Nine centimeter sections of horse hair in sample 3318,
representing 3 months, changed significantly in the second and the
third months. This change was tracked to a change in
environment as well as in the type of feeding. The first change
shows movement from meadow grasses to a wooded environment
Figure 4. Characteristic micromorphological features in studied
section. A - Fluvial deposits with trampling periods and thin layers
of decomposed organic matter; B - Fence relict composed of
undecomposed organic matter followed by the last phase of
inundation; C - Infilling of the stable composed of domestic waste; D
- Horse stabling composed of partly decomposed organic matter and
mineral components.
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and then a significant movement back to the cultural landscape
and meadows (Fig. 8 and Fig. 9). The horse hair of another
individual (sample 3318B) measured 21 cm and was divided into 7
parts. Interestingly, no change in d13C was detected between
these seven sections. This individual was fed in a wooded
environment. The last part of the sample shows significant
improvement of environment and food and movement into a
more humid environment (Fig. 8 and Fig. 9). Another individual
(sample K1268B) provided a 9 cm long hair which was divided
into three sections. The first two sections have isotopic values
corresponding to a dry environment (Fig. 8 and Fig. 9). This
individual was probably fed on hay. The third section of this
sample shows a change to a woody, humid environment (Fig. 8
and Fig. 9). Sample K228B recorded two months of the
individual’s life and suggested that the environment and food
did not change during this period. This individual lived in a humid
environment and was fed on grass and tree leaves (Fig. 8 and
Fig. 9).
6. Dendrochronology and dendrology
The average tree-ring series was dated using the Czech oak treering
chronology CZGES 2010 [43] to the year 1228. The period
of tree felling could be established for sample no. 111 dated to
1230–1248 because it contained sapwood tree rings (ks); within the
territory of the Czech Republic oak sapwood usually contains 5–
25 tree rings depending on the age of the tree and location [44].
Sample No. 110 dated to the year 1202 did not contain sapwood
tree rings (oak); therefore, we could only ascertain the year after
which the tree was felled (Tab. 4).
The individual construction components differ in the type of
wood used. Poles supporting the roof and frames of the single
entrances were made of oak. Doorstep from the wide northerly
Table 1. Micromorhological description of different lithological contexts.
Context Description
4.2.1. Fluvial deposits with trampling
periods
Moderately sorted subangular to subrounded clasts mainly composed of quartz between 0.2 to 1 mm in size. The prevailing
types of pores are simple packing voids and the microstructure of these deposits is porphyric with monic related distribution.
Chitonic distribution is associated with decomposed organic matter (Fig. 4 A). Bioturbation was not observed. Charcoal or
partly decomposed organic matter occasionally occurs. The main postdepositional process is leaching.
4.2.2. Infill of the horse stabling
structure composed of domestic
waste
Poorly sorted material composed of charcoal, quartz grains, burned bones, ceramic fragments, partly decomposed organic
matter and matrix rich in micritic calcium phosphate compose the infilling of horse stable structure and was interpreted as
domestic waste coming mainly from ovens (Fig. 4 C). Its microstructure is porphyric, with porphyric related distribution of
angular to subrounded clasts of varied origin and with rare occurrence of compound packing voids. Leaching and
accumulations of phosphate rich solutions are visible within the matrix. No bioturbation was observed.
4.2.3. Horse stabling The horse stabling is composed mainly of partly decomposed organic material, and a large number of horse hairs. The organic
material is visibly degraded in the uppermost part of the section. Stable crust is microscopically composed of laminated plant
fragments embedded in a calcium phosphate-rich, autofluorescent (blue light) cement of hydroxyapatite (Fig. 4D).
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089273.t001
Figure 5. Pollen and phytolith diagram from Veselı´ nad Moravou Medieval stabling.
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oriented entrance was made of oak and alder. The walls of the
building were made from entwined sticks of unidentifiable broadleaved
wood, but the presence of a hazelnut suggests that this tree
was used. Twenty vertical joists were also analysed. Nineteen were
identified as oak wood and one as elm wood. Elm was also used for
floor boards found in the eastern room. Wood found under the
wooden floor was identified as elm and oak.
7. Zooarchaeology
Six species of animals were identified from 207 fragments
(weighing a total of 2844.7 grams) recovered from the remediation
(waste) layer and organic layers in the stable. The average weight
of one fragment was 13.7 grams. Unburned fragments of mammal
and bird bones were identified within remediation layers as well as
within the organic part of the stabling. The following taxa were
identified: Aves, Anser domesticus, Galliformes, Gallus domesticus,
Mammalia, Sus scrofa, Sus domesticus, Ovis/Capra, Bos Taurus. Also
taphonomic changes induced by humans and animals were
identified. Butchering was evident on 29% of the fragments and
tooth prints on 5% of the fragments. Weathering of bone surfaces
was not significant.
Discussion
1. Medieval horse stabling structures
Medieval stables are quite rare in the Central European
archaeological record [45], probably because horses were often left
outside on the pastures during summer and stables were usually
used as a winter refuge only. The discovery of a Medieval stable in
Veselı´ nad Moravou presents a unique opportunity to study not
only architecture, but also stable maintenance and the type of
horse alimentation.
The stable investigated in this project has two identified
construction phases (Fig. 2). During the first phase (A) the stable
served as a simple room with an entrance oriented to the NE. The
structure was made from intertwined sticks, which was commonly
Figure 6. The proportion of macroscopically identifiable components (hay, straw, wood annual shoots). Samples of archaeological
contexts 2147, 2129 and 2128 are from the waste aggradation while the samples of the contexts 2157, 2203, 2125 and 1268 are from the stabling.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089273.g006
Figure 7. Ecological groups identified within the studied samples (samples of archaeological contexts 2147, 2129 and 2128 are
from waste aggradation while samples 2157, 2203, 2125 and 1268 are from stabling.
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used in Medieval times. Unlike the common types known from
iconography [46], the stable from Veselı´ nad Moravou has
plastered walls and the structure was quite robust. Such structures
are also known from iconography, but rarely [47]. The structure
itself was supported by posts and according to their positions, the
building appears to have been 4–5 meters wide. Such joists can be
easily made from common trees [48] [49]. If the spatial
arrangement was equivalent to known data from 19th century, i.
e. 1.363.5 m [50], the stable excavated in Veselı´ nad Moravou
could have accommodated 7 horses.
The roof of the stable was not found. Stable roofs are not known
from iconography, but ethnographic sources confirm their
existence [51]. The 1.6 meter wide entrance was quite robust.
In ethnography there are known doorways built from sticks, sealed
up in winter by straw [51] [52]. The second phase of stable
construction follows more or less the first phase. The differences
are in the internal division of space where the second phase
structure changes from one to three separate rooms. Also, two of
the new rooms have a wooden floor. One of those rooms probably
served for superior horses or pregnant mares, the second one
probably as a preparation room. Preparation rooms are known
from iconography [47]. The walls contained hazelnuts, which
mean that this structure was built sometime in the late summer
[53].
Other interpretations were also considered. For example, the
structure may have been used as a storage room for feed, or for
stabling of animals other than horses. Unfortunately there is not
enough information about the differences between stabling
structures used for different types of animals so we have only
been able to compare our data with iconographic and etnographic
works [46] [47] [51]. In interpreting the stabling deposits, the key
features were the presence of organic matter and the internal
Table 2. The types and numbers of macroremains of different contexts (samples of archaeological contexts 2147, 2129 and 2128
come from the remediation layer while samples 2157, 2203, 2125 and 1268 come from stabling).
context waste aggradation horse stabling
context number 2147 2129 2128 2203 2157 1268 2125 total
Type of plants meadows, pasture,
wetland
6 4 80 125 274 65 554
wood, glade 158 25 35 8 4 13 243
weeds of cereals 19 10 107 41 116 56 349
collected crops 2 77 18 44 39 51 358 589
rubble site 33 13 73 27 31 176 353
total amount 2 293 70 339 240 476 668 2088
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089273.t002
Figure 8. d13
C values obtained from horse hair excavated at the Medieval site Veselı´ na Moraveˇ. The obtained values show that the
individuals lived and moved in different types of environments. Environmental data was taken from Bocherens (2003), Nelson et al. (1986), Bocherens
et al. (1994, 1996, 2000), Rodie`re et al. (1996).
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089273.g008
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structure of this part of the infill (compare with chapter 4.2.3)
which is composed of organic matter as well as a mineralogical
fraction interbedded within the organic matter. Such structure
cannot form just from the deposition of organic matter; trampling
during the deposition of organic matter must also have taken place
[6]. The presence of horse hairs and artefacts typically used in
horse husbandry contexts have also contributed to the final
interpretation. If the structure was used as a storeroom, trampled
horizons within the floor layers would be expected, instead of the
organic matter that was actually found [54].
2. Maintenance practices in a Medieval stable
Maintenance practices of horse stables are not known from
historical or archaeological sources. In the case of Veselı´ nad
Moravou, we have opted to apply a sedimentological and
micromorphological approach to determine the sediment composition
and to track possible maintenance practices that were used.
Analogous micromorphological studies concerning stabling or
floor deposits from sites such as Veselı´ nad Moravou are difficcult
to find because a micromorphological approach is still not widely
used for such contexts. However, stabling has been identified and
micromorphogically studied in tell sites by Matthews et al. [12].
These authors report stables, but in contrast to Veselı´ nad
Moravou, usually without prepared surfaces. This could be due to
different geological and geomorphological backgrounds. As in
Veselı´ nad Moravou, the background is composed of easily
erodible sediments with potential for a high water level.
Accumulated deposits of tell stables are interbedded lenses of
Figure 9. d15
N values obtained from horse hair excavated at the Medieval site Veselı´ na Moraveˇ. The obtained values show that the
individuals moved during the year in different environments. The environmental data was taken from the Bocherens (2003), Nelson et al. (1986),
Bocherens et al. (1994, 1996, 2000), Rodie`re et al. (1996).
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089273.g009
Table 3. d13
C and d15
N values obtained from horse hair
samples.
Sample Lot d13
C ±1 s d15
N SD
Horse hair K228/1 221.79 0.21 6.46 0.20
Horse hair K228/2 223.57 - 4.48 Horse
hair 1268/1 223.40 0.35 7.84 1.21
Horse hair 1268/2 222.39 0.18 7.25 0.34
Horse hair 1268/3 222.54 0.20 6.62 0.16
Horse hair 1268/4 222.97 0.16 7.30 0.30
Horse hair 3318/1 223.18 0.21 6.05 0.74
Horse hair 3318/2 224.09 0.17 5.07 0.29
Horse hair 3318/3 223.23 0.78 5.15 0.64
Horse hair 3318/1B 223.66 0.48 6.71 0.46
Horse hair 3318/2B 222.69 0.11 6.67 0.17
Horse hair 3318/3B 222.60 0.04 6.95 0.11
Horse hair 3318/4B 222.38 0.08 6.90 0.01
Horse hair 3318/5B 222.42 0.09 6.88 0.11
Horse hair 3318/6B 222.32 0.03 6.39 0.36
Horse hair 3318/7B 222.37 0.19 4.16 0.43
Horse hair K1268/1B 222.51 0.44 5.94 0.21
Horse hair K1268/2B 222.77 0.06 5.66 0.01
Horse hair K1268/3B 223.60 0.17 9.17 0.79
Horse hair K228/1B 222.93 0.90 5.54 1.27
Horse hair K228/2B 222.48 0.14 4.37 0.10
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089273.t003
Table 4. Dating of wood samples excavated within a
Medieval bailey in Veselı´ nad Moravou.
Number of sample Species Length End Dating
110 elm 51+6ak 1191 after 1202
111 oak 107+2ks 1228 1230–1248
150 oak 46+19ak 1193 after 1217
159 oak 61+31ks 1196 1227–1241
162 oak 62+1ks 1222 1224–1244
205 oak 189+20ak 1188 after 1213
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089273.t004
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fragmented dung pellets with postdepositional changes typical
mainly for organic staining, salts and bioturbation. In Veselı´ nad
Moravou, the organic staining in calcium carbonate rich lenses of
organic waste were preserved below the horse stabling, which is
again also probably connected with the permeable geological units
and the position within the alluvial zone of the Morava River.
Most of references concerning the study of object infillings are
concerned with whether the infill originated naturally or
anthropogenically [55] [56]. In the case of the Veselı´ nad
Moravou stable, from the sedimentological and micromorphological
view it is evident that the infilling originated antropogenically
during remediation. Such examples are known for example from
Hallstatt sunken houses [57] and from Viking houses [58].
Maintenance of Viking sunken houses in Iceland can be used as
a comparison. The remediation layers have a sanitation effect and
they increase the amount of easily erodible material on the surface.
Floor surface erosion in Iceland is due to the volcanic background
[58] [59]. In Veselı´ nad Moravou it is due to the sandy erodible
background and the fact that during the removal of stabling the
background is repeatedly removed as it adheres to the stabling.
Due to such maintenance practices, at least 10 aggradation layers
were preserved composed of waste from ovens and also common
domestic waste as visible from the appearance of animal bones
which were not burnt. On the other hand, such waste has a
sanitation effect and and protects against hoof inflamation.
Preserved stabling was quite fresh due to the lack of ruderal
species, i.e. waiting to be removed. Its pollen composition shows
that the organic part of the stabling itself comes from the end of
summer. But from an etnographic source [45] it is known that
horses were stabled after the 16th of October (Feast Day of St.
Havel). Until that time horses were pastured and lived outside
24 hours a day.
3. Horse alimentation in Medieval times and the origin of
Veselı´ nad Moravou horses
Surprisingly, information about horse alimentation in Medieval
Europe is limited [45] [60] [61]. It is a fact that during feudalism
there was a shortage of adequate alimentation for animals,
especially during the winter period [2] [3]. On the other hand the
recent research in Siberia show, that livestok is able to fed outside
the farm independently also during the winter periods, becuase the
nutrition value of trees and shrubs is suficcient [62], but there must
be evidently also limited number of animals per adequate area. We
know from writen sources, that during summer, horses were kept
in pasture or in the woods where they required minimal attention
[63]. It is known that in the Late Middle Ages, it was common
practice to collect branches with leaves suitable for feeding in the
woods [2] [45]. Free pasture was possible during the 13th century
and was enshrined in law - the so-called ‘‘the right of mare field’’,
which means that mares were allowed to move freely in the
landscape during the time period before harvest [2] [45].
The oldest known record of purposeful horse feeding is from
Ibrahı´m Ibn Jaku´b from the mid-10th century. More information
is available from Medieval England [64], mainly from accounting
records [65]. In spite of the fact that 14th
century England differs
culturally to Central Europe, the differences in alimentation
appear to be small. Horses in Medieval England were fed on oats
in winter and were pastured during summer. Also, hay and straw
was commonly used as feed, with chaff, bran, horse bread,
legumes (peas, beans, vetches) a minor component [65]. Horses in
Bohemian countries were fed mainly on barley and later on oats
[45]. Graus [2] claims that in the pre-Hussite period horses in
Bohemian countries were fed oats, vetches and me´lange. Draff was
also used. Ethnographic sources reveal that draught horses in
Southern Moravia were fed vetches and hay during summer
because pasture was not sufficient [66]. During winter, horses were
fed straw from vetches, lentils, peas or millet and hay. Also, rye
and wheat straw as well as other fodder was used as feed [66].
The most frequently found types of macroremains in the stable
sediments in Veselı´ nad Moravou are plants that typically grew in
meadows, pastures, and harvested fields. Less frequently occurring
macroremains belonged to rubble sites, weed of cereals and wood
glade. It is difficult to differentiate between feeding and stabling
material. Sources suggest wood glade was also used as feed [2]
[45]. Veselı´ nad Moravou is situated on an alluvial plain, so the
element rich alluvial grass was also probably used as stabling
material and as a substitute for straw. On the other hand, we know
from ethnographic sources that at the beginning of the 20th
centrury, stabling with straw was less common than today. As
fodder was in short supply, other materials may have been used
[66]. Animal bone fragments were also detected; it appears likely
that any material at hand was used as stabling material, but the
overall amount of stabling material was small and most of the
material described from Veselı´ nad Moravou probably comes from
feed left by horses on the floor.
We do know for a fact that pasture was an important
component of horse feed. The examined samples indicate
Cynosurus pasture species (for example Prunella vulgaris). The
presence of willow sprouts (Salix sp.), small blackberries (Rubus sp.),
hornbeam nuts (Carpinus betulus) and fragments of acorns constitute
evidence of horses being fed in wooded pastures. Cereals such as
millet, oat and hemp seeds were also detected. Straw is commonly
used as stabling material today. We know from ethnographic
sources that it was often used as horse feed in Southern Moravia
[66]. Such a spectrum of horse fodder is much greater than what
we know from references for Central Europe or for England.
It is also possible to obtain valuable information about horse
feeding from analyses of C and N isotopes. The changes in these
isotopes show environmental or seasonal changes [42] [67] [68].
Data about horse alimentation as interpreted from isotopic
analyses of horse hairs (confirmed macroscopically and microscopically
(Fig. 10) in large numbers), does not significantly differ
from the horse alimentation generally presumed for Medieval
horses in Central Europe [69]. Horse hair from Veselı´ nad
Moravou shows significant changes in alimentation, or alternatively
changes in the environment (Fig. 8 and Fig. 9) i.e. the
transition between meadows to more humid woods and humid
meadows (see Fig. 8 and 9). This transition can be interpreted as a
seasonal change in alimentation (i.e. pasture during the vegetation
season and feeding on hay during winter), or as structural
differences in horse alimentation. For example, one of the horses
often moved in the landscape where enough feed and water were
available and moved between ecosystems. Another horse was kept
in close surroundings of the castle and its opportunities for a varied
diet were restricted.
The results published in this paper show that the fresh stable in
Veselı´ nad Moravou was deposited in late summer. The horse
population stabled in Veselı´ nad Moravou was quite varied. This
inference can be explained in different ways. For example, the
stable may have been used as temporary shelter for horses of
peasants who came to work for the owner of the castle.
Alternatively, the observed variability can correspond to different
functions of the stable. If the stable was also servicing an inn, a
number of courier houses could have been stabled there [70]. The
third possible explanation for the presence of a large number of
horses with different backgrounds in the one place is the possible
presence of horses used in battle. In Medieval times, battle horses
were commonly sourced from local inhabitants. One of the last
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references to Veselı´ nad Moravou dates to the year 1315 when Jan
Lucembursky´ battled Matu´sˇ Cˇ a´k Trencˇiansky´ and conquered the
castle in Veselı´ nad Moravou during the late summer [71]. The
excavated stabling could represent the last usage of this stable up
to this event, but unfortunately it is difficult to confirm this
hypothesis.
4. Medieval vegetation along the Morava River
The archaeobotanical record from stable deposits in Veselı´ nad
Moravou also reflects the composition of surrounding vegetation,
to varying degrees. As we are dealing with anthropogenic deposits,
in interpreting them it is neccessary to take into account the fact
that the species present in the stable were selectively introduced by
humans (so they are not an accurate reflection of the actual
vegetation structure) [72]. The deposits include two separate
sources (airborne and humans & animals), so the information
obtained from pollen, phytolith, macroremains and anthracological
analyses must be interpreted separately.
The remediation layers contain burnt firewood which offers
probably the best evidence of the structure of the surrounding
vegetation [56]. Charcoal of oak forest and oak-hornbeam forest
species, including hardwood forests of lowland rivers (Quercus robur,
Fraxinus angustifolia subsp. danubialis, Fraxinus excelsior, Acer campestre,
Ulmus laevis) dominate. Due to the presence of species such as Rubus
ssp. or Clinopodium vulgare, i.e. indicators of woodland which can be
interpreted as a form of forest management. Such type of forest
produces firewood at the expense of structural wood that was
probably imported from more distant and less populated areas.
Beech charcoal was identified in the samples, but beech does not
grow in a riverine environment. Species of willow-poplar forest
(Populus nigra, Populus alba, Salix alba, Salix fragilis) and alder forest
(Alnus glutinosa), i.e. wood coming from near the Morava River
floodplain were also reported. This picture of riverine vegetation is
quite different from an Early Medieval site in Roztoky near the
Vltava River. This site is typical for fir, Scots pine, and beech,
along with coppiced and light-demanding species [56].
The second type of deposit being interpreted in the stable
infilling is the horse stabling which contains plant macroremains
and wood fragments. These remains indicate the presence of
alluvial forests, alluvial meadows and tilled fields. It seems to
represent horse feed and stabling material rather than the
surrounding vegetation which can be seen in natural organogenic
deposits, such as oxbow or peat [24].
Within the Medieval surroundings of Veselı´ nad Moravou we
can postulate the existence of wet meadow/pasture communities
(Morava River floodplain), in particular mesic meadows and to a
smaller extent, dry and very dry grasslands. Meadow vegetation of
the region (Lesser Carpathians) is already documented at least
2 500 years ago and is mainly the result of human activities [73].
The fields where the horse feed was harvested were fertile and rich
in carbonates (for example the weed Bupleurum rotundifolium). The
substrate of such fields is often loess as well as colluvial and alluvial
deposits, so the horse feed was probably sourced locally. Even pest
species are typical for warmer parts of Moravia (Glaucium
corniculatum, Chenopodium murale) and correspond with the modernday
local situation [74].
Conclusions
The following conclusions can be made:
1. Average age of the wood found in Veselı´ nad Moravou
Medieval bailey was determined to date to the year 1228. The
investigated stable had two construction phases. Whilst the older
phase involved a simpler structure, in the subsequent phase, part
of the structure had a wooden floor.
Figure 10. Micromorphology and the internal structure of horse hair.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089273.g010
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2. The infilling of the stable reflects maintenance practices. Ashy
material was deposited to provide remediation effects and its
aggradation also served to reduce difference between the interior
and the exterior of the stables.
3. Well preserved horse stabling in the uppermost part of the
horse stable structure infilling accumulated within a few months at
the end of summer. The stabling material was composed mainly of
wetland grasses and wooden annual shoots. Differences in horse
alimentation identified within stabling were probably due to
differences between individuals. Horses were fed on meadow
grasses as well as woody vegetation, millet, oat and less often on
hemp, wheat and rye.
accommodated in the stable came from varied backgrounds.
Three possible explanations of stable usage can be inferred. It may
have been used as a temporary stable for horses of peasants from
outside the castle, courier horses or battle horses.
´ nad Moravou we
can postulate the existence of communities of wet meadow/
pastures (floodplain of the Morava River), common types of mesic
meadows but also (to a smaller extent) dry and very dry grasslands.
Woody vegetation includes oak and oak-hornbeam forests
including hardwood forests of lowland rivers (Quercus robur, Fraxinus
angustifolia subsp. danubialis, Fraxinus excelsior, Acer campestre, Ulmus
laevis). Low forests (Quercus robur, Carpinus betulus) were probably
cultivated.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Daniel Ny´vlt for helpful comments on this paper.
Author Contributions
Analyzed the data: MD LL RC LP PK RK HV MFN ZS AB. Contributed
reagents/materials/analysis tools: MD AB. Wrote the paper: LL MD PK
MR MFN ZS AB LN.
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Environmental Research of Medieval Horse Stable
PLOS ONE | www.plosone.org 12 March 2014 | Volume 9 | Issue 3 | e89273
Charcoal analyses as an environmental tool for the study of Early Medieval sunken
houses infills in Roztoky near Prague, Czech Republic
Jan Novák a
, Lenka Lisá b,*, Petr Pokorný c,d
, Martin Kuna c
a
Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branisovská 31, 370 05 Ceské Budejovice, Czech Republic
b
Institute of Geology of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v.v.i., Rozvojova 269, 165 00 Praha 6, Czech Republic
c
Institute of Archaeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v.v.i., Letenská 4, 118 01 Praha 1, Czech Republic
d
Center for Theoretical Studies, Charles University in Prague and the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Jilská 1, 110 00 Praha 1, Czech Republic
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 13 January 2011
Received in revised form
16 June 2011
Accepted 21 June 2011
Keywords:
Anthracology
Geoarchaeology
Pollen analysis
Early Medieval
Sunken houses
Vegetation
Firewood
Post-depositional processes
a b s t r a c t
The research was focused on the testing of possible information value of charcoal analysis from infills of
archaeological objects, when methodologically different approaches are used in the combination with
the micromorphological and pollen-analytical approach. The case study site chosen for this type of study
is the unique Early Medieval settlement at Roztoky, Czech Republic. The comparative study includes the
infills of 20 pithouses from the extensive settlement comprising about 750 (323 excavated) such
archaeological structures situated along the left bank of Vltava River close to what today is the city of
Prague. A combination of three anthracological outcomes (the number of charcoal fragments, the
anthracomass, and the qualitative frequency of charcoal species) proves to be a powerful tool in determining
the vegetation pattern in the surrounding landscape. The study revealed a major effect of postdepositional
processes and quantification methods on the final anthracological interpretation. A modification
of the anthracological record in different layers was traced in order to assess the applicability of
sedimentology and micromorphology in the interpreting of the primary use and ending of the objects
found. The reliability of anthracological interpretations are then compared with the results of micromorphological
analyses and with regional vegetation patterns interpreted from pollen analyses of an offsite
pollen profile.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
One of the key questions, often discussed in final archaeological
interpretations, is the information value of the infills of archaeological
features. The composition of these infills has been long
discussed in studies focused on the construction technology and
the purpose of archaeological features, their usage, and the reasons
of their abandonment (Dolukhanov, 1996, Simpson et al., 1999;
Einarsson, 2008). Usually, the subdivision into horizons within
the studied features was based on a combination of visual attributes,
archaeological or archaeobotanical remains.
Organic matter has a high information value in archaeological
record. One of the usually best preserved organic remains, connected
with humans since the Palaeolithic, is charcoal. Wood
charcoal analysis provides site-related information on the species
occurrence and the woodland composition and, as such, becomes
an integral part of archaeological research, especially when
a combination with pollen analysis is possible (Asouti and Austin,
2005; Nelle et al., 2010). Charcoal fragments found in archaeological
deposits usually represent either firewood remains or burned
vestiges of structural timber resulting from catastrophic conflagrations
(Chabal, 1992; Dufraisse, 2008). Firewood collection
provenance is generally interpreted to be completed in the area
close to the settlement with all species gathered proportionally
according to their occurrence in the surroundings (Asouti and
Austin, 2005). In addition to societal factors and combustion
processes, post-depositional agents are very important filters
between the vegetation and the charcoal assemblage (ThéryParisot
et al., 2010).
Another important methodological tool used in the study of
composition of archaeological features is micromorphology in
archaeological context (Courty et al., 1989; Goldberg et al., 2001;
Goldberg and Macphail, 2006). Micromorphological investigation
is primarily based on the coarse fraction, matrix, voids, organic
material and features typical of sedimentary and post-sedimentary
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ420 607706585; fax: þ420 220922670.
E-mail addresses: prourou@gmail.com (J. Novák), lisa@gli.cas.cz (L. Lisá),
pokorny@arup.cas.cz (P. Pokorný), kuna@arup.cas.cz (M. Kuna).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Archaeological Science
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas
0305-4403/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.06.026
Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 808e817
processes (Courty et al., 1989) and, in combination with charcoal
analysis and other geochemical data, provides a complex information
about the studied layers (Goldberg et al., 2001; Goldberg
and Macphail, 2006).
The subject of our research is the Early Medieval settlement
agglomeration dated to the 6th and 7th century AD, discovered at
Roztoky near Prague. The unusually high number of the Early
Medieval sunken houses, the estimated time span of the settlement
existence of 150 years, and its location on the floor of a deep,
canyon-like valley is unique in the whole area of the Prague-Korcak
(also the Prague-type) culture (Sedov, 1982; Gojda, 1991;
Dolukhanov, 1996, Kuna and Profantová, 2005). This settlement
represents a puzzle considering the enormous number of house
remains and its specific interpretation. A combination of three
complementary methods e charcoal analysis in context of micromorphology
and pollen analysis, which are not a standard approach
in archaeo-environmental research yet, may contribute to a better
understanding of the character of the surrounding landscape. We
attempt to answer the following questions: How is the anthracological
record modified by post-depositional processes in different
layers? What does the anthracological record in context of sedimentology
or micromorphology say about the use, abandonment
and decay of the studied objects? We will also discuss the reliability
of the combined methods used.
2. Study area
2.1. Early Medieval settlement at Roztoky near Prague
The Early Medieval settlement discovered during the last
twenty years in the close vicinity of Roztoky near Prague (settlement
with the estimated number of more than 750 sunken houses
accumulated over the period of 120e150 years) (Fig. 1) is unique to
the whole area of the Slavic spread (Kuna and Profantová, 2005).
The site is located on the floor of the deep Vltava River canyon,
where sunken features interpreted as sunken houses were
discovered. These findings belong to the so-called Prague-type
culture which is usually believed to represent the earliest Slavic
populations that moved into the Central Europe from the East.
Although some relatively large sites have been reported from the
surrounding countries e for instance, Germany (Krüger, 1967),
Poland (Parczewski, 1989), Ukraine (Baran,1988), Moldova (Zeman,
1976; Teodor, 1994) and Romania (Dolinescu-Ferche, 1992) e the
Roztoky settlement site is larger than any other site of this culture
known so far. However, it is characterized by a very short period of
use (120e150 years; Curta, 2008), which complicates a comparison
with similar localities, but provides excellent conditions for
studying this unique site.
2.2. The geographical and archaeological context
The studied settlement is situated in the Vltava River canyon on
a fluvial terrace separating rocky slopes of the valley from the
stream (Fig. 1). The terrace is only 120 m wide and the level of the
Early Medieval settlement is at present situated 5 m above mean
water level. Local Quaternary deposits are characterized by sandy
loams and morphologically comprise an older river terrace level
gently sloped toward the river channel. It is obvious from the study
of sunken house infills that the location was situated well above the
water level, being therefore rarely flooded during periodical flood
events. The stratigraphy of sunken house infills shows no evidence
of catastrophic events assignable to a repeated cycle of the
destruction and building of the houses. The number of artefacts left
on the floors of the sunken houses is not very high, suggesting that
the houses were abandoned slowly and peacefully. Both the
movable finds and architecture are basically similar to what we
know from other sites of this period, the main explanation problem
being the extremely high number of houses discovered (Kuna and
Profantová, 2005).
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Charcoal analysis
In total, 101 anthracological samples from 20 sunken houses
were analyzed and nearly 11,000 charcoal fragments were included
into the final interpretations. Soil samples of 20e35 kg, rarely 50 kg
were collected. The extractions of charcoal from the samples were
subjected to the standard flotation procedure using staggered
sieves with a mesh size of 0.25 mm. The charcoal analysis was
performed only on fragments from the largest fraction (>2 mm).
The charcoals were identified using an episcopic interference
microscope (Nikon Eclipse 80i) with 200e500Â magnification and
the reference collection. The additional standard identification keys
were also used (Schweingruber, 1990; Heiss, 2000).
The relative species abundance was expressed in the number of
charcoal fragments (e.g., proposed by Delhon, 2006), charcoal
anthracomass (e.g., Carcaillet and Thinon,1996), and the qualitative
Fig. 1. Location of the Prague e Korcak site at Roztoky (20.6 ha) situated on the bottom of a canyon-like valley of the Vltava River, Czech Republic. Left part of the figure refers to the
location of sampled sunken houses. Arrow A refers to the location of the studied site, arrow B refers to the pollen site “Brve”.
J. Novák et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 808e817 809
frequency of identified species (the qualitative approach where
taxa are recorded as a presence/absence data; e.g., Willcox, 1974;
Neumann, 1989; Figueiral, 1992). The individual taxa were
weighted with an accuracy of 0.001 g. The sediment anthracomass
(mg charcoal per kg of sediment; Talon et al., 1998) was derived
from the charcoals larger than 2 mm.
3.2. Micromorphology
The micromorphogical samples were taken from 20 houses in
the different parts of the settlement (Fig. 1). Sampling was done
usually for each divided layer, but in some cases intentionally
chosen horizons were sampled. The sampling and the preparation
followed the standard procedures. Samples from the different
lithological units of the sunken infills were taken into the
“Kubiena boxes”, dried, impregnated by resin in vacuum and thin
sectioned. Thin sections were studied by binocular microscope
Olympus SZX 16 and by polarizing microscopes Olympus DP 70 at
different magnifications ranging from 10e800x and described
according to Stoops (2003) and Bullock et al. (1985).
3.3. Pollen and micro-charcoal analysis
The nearest site suitable for performing off-site pollen analyses
has been discovered 13 km SW from the studied settlement at
Roztoky. Present soils and vegetation conditions around the
studied pollen site quite resembles that around Roztoky settlement,
if we do not take into the account the interior of the Vltava
River valley.
The study pollen site is small calcareous spring mire that lies in
the western edge of the city of Prague (5004’00"N, 1414’20"E;
362 m a.s.l.; see Fig. 1). Today the site is drained off and strongly
affected by management, especially over-fertilization from the
surrounding cultural landscape (fields and settlements). The local
vegetation is drying-out open Carex-dominated fen with
spreading reed (Phragmites australis) population. The organic
sediment at the sampling spot is 200 cm deep and was sampled
from an open pit dug with spades. The entire section consists of
calcareous fen peat without visible stratigraphic transitions.
AMS radiocarbon measurements were carried out on plant
macrofossils (small twigs with buds) at the Physikalisches Institut der
Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany (Erl-4308; Erl-4309; Erl-
4310; See Table 2). Calibration was made using INTCAL 09 calibration
set (Reimer et al., 2009). Absolute chronology was then
obtained using linear interpolation between the midpoints of the
calibrated ranges (95% confidence interval) of its three 14
C dates. No
reservoir effect was assumed. Sediment surface (0 cm) was included
in the depth-age model and was assumed to have an age of 2000 BC/
AD.
Sediment samples for pollen analysis were treated by acetolysis
after pre-treatment by cold, concentrated HF for 10 h. Usually more
than 700 pollen grains were counted per sample. Pollen diagram is
based on total terrestrial pollen sum (AP þ NAP ¼ 100%). The
percentages of aquatic taxa and all non-pollen objects (like
microscopis charcoal particles) are related to this sum. Pollen
nomenclature follows Czech Quaternary Palynological Database e
PALYCZ (Kunes et al., 2009). The key of Beug (2004) was the main
source for pollen determination besides reference collection.
Zonation of the pollen diagram was performed using subjective
evaluation criteria. Curves of trees and anthropogenic indicators
were given stronger relative weight during this procedure.
Microscopic charcoal particles were counted directly from
pollen slides using a simple method described by Kangur (2002):
Particles larger than 100 mm2
were registered at the same area
where pollen was counted. The area of every charcoal particle was
Table1
Thequotationofquantitativefrequency,anthracomassandthenumberofcharcoalfragmentsofdifferentcharcoaltaxafromtheEarlyMedievalsettlement,Roztoky,CzechRepublic.Thesmeanstheexpressionforthestandard
deviation.
CharcoaltaxaQualitativefrequency(%)Antracomass(mg/kg)Numberofcharcoalfragments(n/kg*100)
LayerGLayerCLayerBLayerELayerGsGLayerCsCLayerBsBLayerEsELayerGsGLayerCsCLayerBsBLayerEsE
Abiesalba14.333.322.747.20.0670.220.1010.200.2701.003.0759.363.100.12.260.042.990.0855.301.41
Acersp.25.06.640.922.20.3661.640.0310.140.6221.750.1032.984.450.180.530.025.300.111.420.03
Alnussp.10.713.322.722.20.1280.520.0770.291.2125.170.8054.221.840.070.510.022.900.055.730.25
Betulasp.50.040.072.780.60.3570.60.2430.460.5960.901.5893.16.540.104.800.089.570.1327.250.42
Carpinusbetulus46.460.077.266.71.3673.191.0622.273.6979.412.5517.321.650.5410.950.2229.390.4121.740.37
Cornussp.3.60.04.50.00.0070.040.0000.100.0190.270.0003.80.150.010.000.010.790.020.000.00
Corylusavellana27.67.131.830.60.2240.560.0110.100.0820.260.1822.941.780.040.270.001.620.041.770.04
Fagussylvatica10.728.631.850.00.4452.220.0560.110.330.9314.71667.20.310.011.290.022.490.04163.076.67
Fraxinusexcelsior17.620.013.611.10.0280.090.1320.460.0830.290.0433.30.890.022.770.071.470.040.680.02
Juniperuscommunis7.10.02.70.00.0180.090.0000.100.0020.280.0003.70.460.020.000.000.060.050.000.00
Pinussylvestris46.446.759.155.60.7041.530.2270.430.8812.171.685.2213.750.264.960.0712.920.2720.580.48
Piceaabies0.00.04.516.70.0000.000.0000.100.0130.270.0433.30.000.000.000.000.450.021.340.04
Pomoideae17.20.04.511.10.0510.190.0000.100.0110.270.15131.350.030.000.000.170.011.230.03
Prunussp.0.00.04.52.70.0000.000.0000.100.0040.270.0013.70.000.000.000.000.090.010.030.00
Quercussp.100.0100.0100.0100.026.53531.7917.44624.5533.32352.7147.82292.58274.472.3211.011.2277.591.85417.185.22
Salix/Populus7.16.69.111.10.0560.270.0120.100.0100.270.1412.990.790.040.280.010.330.011.240.04
Tiliasp.14.36.613.611.10.1330.590.4061.510.1590.590.0583.21.780.079.600.384.60.180.740.02
Ulmussp.7.16.622.711.10.2320.900.0210.110.1970.550.1162.982.130.091.110.042.990.081.420.04
S30.7219.8341.5173.08335.35250.34354.91720.72
J. Novák et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 808e817810
estimated by multiplying the lengths of the longest and shortest
axes. The charcoal particles curve displayed in the pollen diagram
shows the ratio between number of charcoal particle units (each
unit ¼ 100 mm2
) and total pollen sum.
4. Results
4.1. Sedimentological and micromorphological analysis of the
studied objects
Sedimentological background of the Roztoky site is represented
by alluvial deposits of the Vltava River. Because there were
observed similar sedimenthological and micromorphological
features within the studied objects, the description used in this
paper is generalized and refers to the description based on the
micromophological study of 20 houses and the sedimenthological
study of minimally 50 houses. Former sunken houses excavated at
Roztoky near Prague were originally about 1 m deep, but the
preserved sedimentary infill 40e70 cm thick is composed of three
to four layers marked as P, G, C and B (Fig. 2). Each of the studied
sunken houses has an oven in the corner and layer E, which was
divided on the base of archaeological context and sedimenthological
observations, refers to the infill of the oven.
Description: layer P e A typical floor layer is usually missing or
trampled by a background more rich in clay minerals. In some
cases, a low number of voids are preserved. Organic matter is
present in the form of punctuations, and forms a natural occurrence
of organic matter within the alluvial zone. This layer does not
contain any charcoal found in other archaeological remains. In
some parts of the houses, this trampled layer has nearly disappeared
or has not been preserved. This fact was interpreted as
the result of cleaning activities inside the house, or the presence of
wooden floor during the occupation phase (Fig. 3).
Layer G e The layer above is sometimes preserved as a dark,
moderately sorted, silty, non-calcareous layer 1e5 cm thick. It is
rich in organic matter decomposed to a variable degree, bone
remains, and a large amount of charcoal characteristic of strong
bioturbation. The microstructure is typical by the presence of vughs
(Fig. 3). This lithological unit is preserved in ca. 30% of the studied
objects. The layer is interpreted either as a residue of the last
human activities in the house before the destruction, or as a part of
a destructed roof.
Layer C e this layer is situated above layer G; it is largely free of
archaeological remains, charcoal fragments or other remains of
human activities. It is composed of light brown, non-calcareous
silty loam, very similar to the material of the sedimentological
background at the studied locality. The thickness of this layer is
usually 10e50 cm and is continuous throughout the extent of the
sunken house. The shaping [top surface] of this layer is usually
reminiscent of a bowl with edges rising toward the peripheries of
the house. The layer was macroscopically described as smeared on,
which, in terms of micromorphology, means small concentrations
of clay minerals originated due to the post-sedimentary processes
caused by activities within the objects.
Layer B e The final destruction layer usually contains a huge
amount of archaeological remains, charcoals, partly decomposed
organic remains, burned bones, and stones from destroyed ovens.
This layer is dark brown, non-calcareous silty loam approximately
10e50 cm thick, filling the uppermost part of the studied objects.
This dish-shaped lithological layer was found in all objects at the
studied locality. The dark brown colour of the layer is caused by
a high concentration of micro-charcoal.
4.2. Anthracological analysis
The concentration of charcoal fragments was found to be rather
low (Table 1). The average degree of the charcoal fragmentation
was counted as 5 mm. The radial cracks within the charcoal fragments
were observed in 8% of charcoal fragments. The results of the
anthracological study are quite similar to those from the sedimentological
record. All the layers show a very similar vegetation
composition, except for Layer E which is identified as an oven infill
(Fig. 4). A combination of three anthracological outcomes (the
number of charcoal fragments, the anthracomass, and the qualitative
frequency of charcoal species) was used for determining the
sunken house layers and the reconstruction of vegetation patterns
in the surrounding landscape.
4.2.1. The number of charcoal fragments
In total 10,731 charcoal fragments of eighteen tree taxa were
identified. Oak (Quercus sp.) clearly dominated, while hornbeam
(Carpinus betulus), birch (Betula sp.), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and
maple (Acer sp.) were also commonly preserved (Fig. 4). A mosaic of
oak-hornbeam forest, sparse coppice and brushwood used for
pasture probably surrounded the settlement. Remarkably, two
woody species indicating pastures were discovered: rarely
preserved juniper (Juniperus communis) and cornel (Cornus sp.).
Despite the locality being situated on the bank of the Vltava River,
the presence of the riverine species (alder, willow/poplar) was low.
Table 2
Results of AMS radiocarbon analyses used to date the studied pollen sequence from
Brve locality.
Depth Material Measured
value
Lab. no. Calibration
result (95%)
40 cm Carex seeds 813 Æ 58 BP Erl-4308 1055 ADe1275 AD
130 cm Small twigs
with buds
2080 Æ 52 BP Erl-4309 330 BCe30 AD
180 cm Small twigs
with buds
2344 Æ 54 Erl-4310 720 BCe240 BC
Fig. 2. Section of a typical house infill (house 1265). B, C, G, P: Distinctive layers of the
house infill.
J. Novák et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 808e817 811
Ovens (layer E) were relatively specific structures of the former
sunken houses and contained the highest amount of charcoal
fragments. The spectrum of species represents the composition of
wood used as fuel from a short time before the abandonment of the
house (Fig. 4). Layer E differs from other layers in its high proportion
of beech (Fagus sylvatica), fir (Abies alba), Scots pine and birch
charcoals.
A relatively high number of charcoal fragments were found in
layer B. The cover of layer B, which also contains a high proportion
of bones and macrofossil remains, is interpreted as a dump layer.
The number of charcoal fragments in layer G is only slightly lower
than in layer B, however, a slightly higher number of beech charcoal
fragments were found in layer B. The lowest number of fragments
(and charcoal species) was found in layer C.
4.2.2. The anthracomass
The highest average anthracomass was found in the ovens. Layer
E is the richest (73.08 mg/kg), followed by layer B (41.50 mg/kg).
Layer G has an average anthracomass of 30.72 mg/kg, and layer C
contained the lowest average anthracomass (19.83 mg/kg). Oak
represented the highest anthracomass among all layers. Hornbeam,
pine, birch, alder and maple reached lower values accordingly. The
anthracomass of the rest of the found species was relatively low
(Fig. 4). Remarkable are the high anthracomass values of fir, Scots
pine and beech in the ovens (layer E).
4.2.3. Qualitative frequency of charcoal taxa
The contexts of layers E and B are outstanding for the higher
taxa frequencies (see Table 1). Oak, the light-demanding and
coppiced wood, is quite frequent for most of the oven infills but fir,
beech or Scots pine also form a significant part (Fig. 5). Layer B is
dominated by oak, birch, hornbeam, Scots pine but also maple,
beech, hazel (Corylus avellana) and elm (Ulmus sp.). Many species
with a low anthracomass were quite frequent in layers G and C.
Oak was present everywhere. Other high frequented species
were birch, hornbeam, Scots pine, and also ash (Fraxinus excelsior).
Layer C is characterized by relatively higher frequencies of fir and
beech. The frequencies of maple and hazel reached higher values in
layer B.
4.3. Regional vegetation
Fig. 6 shows the results of pollen-analytical corroboration of the
studied off-site sedimentary profile. Based on these results, we will
now briefly describe regional vegetation development using the
advantage of the pollen diagram zonation.
In zone BRV-1 the local mire had nutrient-rich alder carr (Alnus,
monolete fern spores), the close surroundings had Corylus shrublands,
and natural forest remnants contained Tilia, Ulmus, and
Fagus. During zone BRV-2 the local fen was less nutrient-rich with
Fig. 3. Typical micromorphological features observed in the sedimentary infill of the Early Medieval sunken houses. B e micromorphological features of layer B; unsorted material
of minerals, charcoal and decomposed matter dumped into the uppermost infill of a house (plan- polarized light). C e accumulations of clay minerals as the typical micromorphological
features of layer C. (cross-polarized light) G e bioturbated material composed mainly of decomposed and non-decomposed organic matter, charcoal, unsorted material
and fragments of bones. (Plan-polarized light) P e compacted structure of the uppermost part of layer P. (plan-polarized light).
Fig. 4. Histogram of charcoal species in distinguished layers from twenty Early
Medieval houses a) number of charcoal fragments b) anthracomass c).
J. Novák et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 808e817812
Betula, Cyperaceae, Potentilla-type, and Gramineae, while Tilia and
Ulmus disappeared from the surroundings. The compositional
changes in the woodlands can be attributed to increased human
influence as indicated by rising curves of most of anthropogenic
indicators. During zone BRV-3, the dominance of Pinus (surely
P. sylvestris) and the scarcity of herbal taxa suggest open, nutrientpoor
forest.
During zone BRV-4, maxima of Quercus and Abies and increase of
Fagus, Corylus, and Alnus indicate partial forest recovery in the
surrounding region. Local fires (shown by microscopic charcoal
particles curve) might have decimated the Pinus trees near the site.
The transition between zones BRV-4 and BRV-5 is dated back to the
Early Medieval period. This is the time when the studied settlement
at Roztoky was in full prosperity. Pine (Pinus), oak (Quercus) and
silver fir (Abies alba) had special importance in the regional vegetation
at this particular period of time.
Grazing indicators increase stepwise in zones BRV-5, 6, and 7.
Crop cultivation (Secale cereale etc.) became dominant in zone BRV-
7 that dates to High Medieval and Modern periods.
5. Discussion
5.1. Composition of surrounding vegetation
The rich collection of anthracological material (a total of 10,731
charcoals representing 18 species) allows us to make a rather
precise inference of the tree species composition in the settlement’s
surroundings. The concentration of charcoal fragments was
generally rather low. Due to this, the low concentrations of charcoal
allowed us to determine all fragments in the samples. Low numbers
of charcoals in the samples were caused by the short period of the
existence of the settlement. Therefore, the charcoal in all studied
Fig. 5. Qualitative frequencies of charcoal species in distinguished layers (B, C, G, E).
J. Novák et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 808e817 813
layers is probably, in various ways, a modified picture of the same
vegetation.
Charcoal of layer B represents common firewood. The cover of
layer B, which also contains a high proportion of bones and
macrofossil remains, is interpreted as a dump layer. This charcoal
content of the layer is less transformed than charcoal content of
layers marked as C and G, and probably better represents the
composition of common firewood. This interpretation is supported
by higher anthracomass, a higher amount of charcoals per kilogram,
and also a higher qualitative frequency of the species than in
layers G and C. Layers B, G, E are of the same species diversity (17
species), whereas layer C is relatively poorer in charcoal species (13
species). The ascertained differences reflect the origin of the layers
and also the way houses were used and the way they decayed and
filled in.
Layer E is the infill of an oven. It contains charcoal left in the
oven before the house was abandoned. The anthracomass in it was
found to be the highest of all studied layers. Similarly to other data
sets from the ovens, the species composition is a result of a specific
activity. A high abundance of fir, Scots pine, and beech charcoal
fragments, along with coppiced and light-demanding species is
very common. Coniferous wood could have been collected selectively
as structural timber. This suggests a burning of the
construction by the inhabitants before they left, or burned waste
wood from newly built dwellings. Burning beech wood produces
heat for a very long time, which points to the use of the beech
firewood for a specific activity.
An interpretation toward the common presence of above
mentioned trees in regional vegetation is supported by the results
of pollen analyses from relatively nearby sedimentary sequence
“Brve” and also by previous regional vegetation-historical study
(Pokorný, 2005). At the period of interest, regeneration of woods
took place in the wider region. Both coniferous and broadleaf taxa
were involved in this woodland regeneration. Nevertheless, pine
was dominant as the results of continuous human presence and
influence.
A comparison with anthracological data sets from other PragueKorcak
culture sites is rather difficult due to the following reasons:
i) published results are based on small data sets (Benes, 2005); ii)
published charcoal data sets are related to younger phases of the
Early Middle Ages (Petrlíková and Benes, 2008); iii) published Early
Medieval data sets are linked with different vegetation types
(Opravil, 2000). On the other hand, comparisons with neighboring
anthracological data sets dated to the Bronze Age, Hallstatt, La Tene
and Roman periods (e.g., Novák, 2007; Smejda and Kocár, 2007)
give us a very similar picture to that of the vegetation composition
of the localities. The presented anthracological data from Roztoky,
as well as regional pollen data from the same period, are remarkable
for the high frequency of trees resistant to pollarding and
coppicing. Most of the found species are typical of the early
succession stages and high pasture pressure.
All the above mentioned founds are very probably the result of
an intensive, long-term human impact on vegetation in the region.
The short-term character of the Early Medieval settlement at
Fig. 6. Percentage pollen diagram from the studied sections of organic sediments (peat) analyzed by P. Pokorný. The period of interest overlaps roughly with the depth 80e90 cm
(6th to 7th centuries A.D. according to the interpolations of radiocarbon measurements).
J. Novák et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 808e817814
Roztoky and the tree species composition imply the probable longterm
human impact on the vegetation before the appearance of the
Prague-type Culture. This result is well confirmed by studied pollen
record. Species richness documented by the charcoal data is much
higher compared to previous studies where, generally, oakhornbeam
forests or the riverine willow/alder/poplar-dominated
forests were documented. In the charcoal remnants, the relative
abundance of species typical of alluvial forests is relatively low,
indicating that the riverbeds were mostly devoid of trees.
A high abundance of charcoal with radial cracks is worth noting.
Radial cracks in charcoal, caused by rapid dehydration and conflagration,
may indicate burning of green wood (e.g., Théry-Parisot,
2001). Dry firewood was may be unavailable due to a dense
settlement with an intensive wood consumption, or, more interestingly,
it was used for specific purposes such as fish smoking (we
expect a high abundance of salmon in the Vltava River at that time)
or repelling of insects.
5.2. The charcoal information value in the sedimentological context
The representativeness of charcoal from archaeological contexts
and their potential for paleoecological reconstructions is a long
discussed topic (e.g., Clark et al., 1998; Delhon, 2006). The anthracomass
is usually interpreted as one of the best indicators of the
abundance of species in the analyzed file (Carcaillet and Thinon,
1996). This is caused by the fragmentation, post-depositional
processes, separation and/or drying procedures. The correlation
of anthracomass with the wood hardness of species (species with
soft wood are less abundant due to easier burning) is still
questionable.
The amount of charcoal pieces is positively correlated with the
anthracomass in the presented study with exceptions: the fragment/anthracomass
ratio was apparently higher for fir and low for
beech. The qualitative frequency of species was used to highlight
the species diversity. However, the results of our study show that
the final anthracological interpretation is controlled not only by
human practices and combustion processes: additional factors are
post-depositional agents, sampling and quantification methods.
5.3. The interpretation of the origin of layers
Our interpretation of sedimentary units recognized in the infills
of Prague - Korcak sunken houses at Roztoky is primarily based on
field observations made during the archaeological excavations and
later verified by the method of micromorphology (microstratigraphy
of sedimentary units). Based on this type of data, we
can assume that layer P developed due to the porosity reduction of
the background overbank deposits of the Vltava River due to
compaction by trampling (Simpson et al., 1999; Rentzel and Narten,
2000). The absence of the cultural layer may be the result of
cleaning activities but the presence of a wooden floor is also taken
into account. Gebhardt and Langohr (1996) observed a complete
disappearance of wooden floor within the oxidation zone in the
medieval motte at Werken (Belgium), in contrast to its perfect
preservation in the reduction zone. Small fragments of organic
matter are preserved in the studied sections. Therefore, if a wooden
floor existed there, it was probably removed before the house was
abandoned. The cleaning, resulting in a depletion process, usually
involves the removal of refuse from the activity area (La Motta and
Schiffer, 1999). The absence of the accumulation of the clay fraction
was probably due to the repeated maintenance of the floor. During
the use of the houses, coarser material was swept away periodically
but finer particles remained and became incorporated into the floor
(Davidson et al., 1992). The very fine mineral material might also be
carried into the houses on the soles of feet or as an airborne dust
(Macphail et al., 1990; Milek, 1997). The presence of the small pit
features within studied features is, on one side, an indirect indicator
showing that the floors were maintained, disturbed in some
way and not really covered by a wooden floor (compare with Miller
et al., 1998) or skin (Jones et al., 2010). On the other hand, however,
holes in the wooden floor would provide additional support to
sticks or bars purposely and repeatedly driven into the sediment
below.
The interpretation of layer G is based mainly on the high
abundance of decomposed and non-decomposed organic matter,
mesofauna excrements, bone fragments, charcoal and bioturbation;
all this with no sign of compaction. This can happen when the
central part of the roof collapses (due to the human or natural
influence) (Simpson et al., 1999). The present waste causing
increased bioturbation (Jones et al., 2010) is probably of a postabandonment
origin, very probably a stochastic waste deposition
in the ruined house/house pits. No gradual accumulation and
compaction of domestic debris was observed (Simpson et al., 1999).
Structural collapse can also introduce objects onto the room floors,
primarily through the deposition of objects used as construction
material (Schiffer, 1985, 1996), or the waste deposited on the roof
during long-term usage of the houses (Goldberg and Macphail,
2006). Another possibility for the origin of layer G is the deposition
of an upper soil horizon from the new house built nearby. Soil
surface enclosing the Early Medieval houses probably contained
decomposed organic matter, mesofauna excrements, bone fragments
and charcoal. This hypothesis supports a secondary use of
construction timber from the abandoned houses.
Layer C represent an infill of a house pits either “naturally”, after
a collapse after abandonment, or with an intension to deposit the
redundant material from the new house built nearby; this can be
a very quick process and these layers usually lack organic
contamination.
Surface layer B aggraded probably as a dump (compare with
Simpson et al., 1999); it contains a large amount of ash, which was
commonly washed to layer C. It probably served as a secondary
refuse deposition (La Motta and Schiffer, 1999) for that also
produced by cleaning activities (compare with interpretations of
the uppermost part of layer P).
6. Conclusions
A combination of sedimentological observations and micromorphological
analyses provided a good context for the interpretation
of the environmental history of the study area.
The presented anthracological data are remarkable for their
high frequency of woods resistant to pollarding and coppicing.
Most of the ascertained species are typical of the degraded pasture
or early succession stages and high pasture pressure. The settlement
was probably surrounded by a mosaic of oak-hornbeam
forest, sparse coppice and brushwood used for pasture. The abundance
of species typical of alluvial forests is relatively low, indicating
that the riverbeds were mostly devoid of trees. This
interpretation has been confirmed by pollen analysis of relatively
nearby, continuous and radiocarbon-dated peat profile.
The rather low concentration of charcoal fragments in the infills
of the studied sunken houses was most likely caused by the short
period of the Early Medieval settlement. Charcoals in all studied
layers probably represent, in various ways, a modified picture of the
same vegetation. Together with coppiced and light-demanding
species, the high abundance of silver fir, Scots pine and beech
charcoals was very common. A high number of coniferous charcoals
may indicate residues of structural timber. Nevertheless, coniferous
trees were rather common element in regional vegetation, as
revealed by pollen analyses.
J. Novák et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 808e817 815
Frequently found charcoals coming most probably from the
originally fresh wood suggest its usage either as an alternative fuel
or for specific purposes (fish smoking, repelling of insects).
The combination of several independent interpretation
methods (charcoal qualitative frequency, anthracomass, and the
number of charcoal fragments/kg, pollen analyses) provides the
best picture of a vegetation cover in the vicinity of the studied
locality. However, the results of our study show that not only
human practices and combustion processes, but above all postdepositional
effects, sampling and quantification methods can
significantly contribute to the final interpretations.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Jirí Sádlo, Tomás Besta and Albert Krovinar for
inspiring critical comments on the manuscript, Václav Cílek for
positive spirit, and Petr Kunes for his help with the picture. The
research was funded by a project of the Czech Science Foundation:
GACR P405/10/2289, the Ministry of Education of the Czech Republic
grant project MSM 600 766 5801, and Research Program AV0Z
30130516 of the Institute of Geology AS CR, v. v. i. The Grant Agency of
the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic (project No.
IAAX00020701) supported pollen-analytical partof the investigation.
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244
3. Shrnutí
Studium jeskynních sedimentů a pokus o aplikaci provenienčních metod v mé diplomové
práci (Lisá a Přichystal, 2001) v podstatě předurčily další směřování mé vědecké kariéry. Studie
zaměřené na provenienci eolických sedimentů (hlavním téma mé dizertační práce) prohloubily mé
znalosti o provenienčních metodách zaměřených na studium asociací těžkých minerálů (Lisá et al,
2005) studium geochemie granátů (Lisá et al., 2009) nebo typologie zirkonů (Lisá a Uher, 2006).
Výstupem těchto prací byly jedny z prvních a prozatím nejkomplexnějších prací zaměřených na
provenienci sprašových sedimentů na území naší republiky. Současně se mi podařilo začlenit do
metodiky provenienčních studií i mikromorfologii povrchu křemenných zrn (Lisá, 2004), kterou jsem
později několikrát s úspěchem použila v jinak směřovaných studiích (Nývlt et al., 2011; Mentlík et al.,
2010; Engel et al., 2010; Křížová et al., 2011). Přínosem této metodiky bylo například rozpoznání
sedimentů transportovaných ledovcem v případě Šumavských jezer nebo sedimentů
transportovaných eolickými procesy v případě Labského dolu. Přestože i v současnosti publikuji
studie specializované na změny klimatu (Hošek et al., 2014, 2015; Bešta et al., 2015; Antonie et al.,
2013; Fuchs et al., 2012; Wisniewski et al., 2015; Petr et al., 2013; Cílek et al., 2013; Lisá et al.,
2013a,b), mé další profesní směřování ovlivnilo začlenění do projektu Cambridge University a
počátek spolupráce s archeology. Postupně vzniklo několik studií v rámci tohoto projektu
orientovaných na vztah měnícího se klimatu, formačních procesů v krajině a lidského impaktu (Lisá et
al., 2012, 2013c, 2014), a to především během MIS3 (marinní izotopové stádium 3).
Studie zaměřené na interpretace formačních procesů v přirozeném a archeologickém
kontextu by však nebylo možné provádět bez hlubších znalostí geoarcheologických metod a aplikace
metod, jako je mikromorfologie, environmentální magnetismus nebo geochemická charakteristika
studovaných sedimentů. Postupně bylo možné sestavit určitou metodiku geoarcheologie (Bajer ed.,
2014; Lisá a Bajer, 2014), která je dnes běžně používána v České republice a přednášena na několika
universitách. Nejdůležitější projekty posledních let sponzorované především agenturou GAČR
zahrnovaly například výzkum dřevěného předhradí (Plaček et al., 2015), v rámci kterého byla
například publikována komplexní celosvětově ojedinělá multioborová studie směřovaná na údržbu
středověké stáje (Dejmal et al., 2013), výzkum neolitických rondelů, při kterém jsme provedli první
studii zaměřenou na porovnání výplní hrotovitých příkopů z doby neolitu a doby římské (Lisá et al.,
2015) a výzkum ranně středověké lokality Roztoky u Prahy, kde bylo možné identifikovat a
interpretovat vznik, vývoj a zánik objektů a především jejich podlahových horizontů (Novák et al.,
2012; Kuna et al., 2013). Další podobné menší projekty byly směřovány na studium podlahových
horizontů v rámci pravěkých a středověkých kontextů (Parma et al., 2012; Beran et al., 2014) nebo
konceptu Dark Earth (Parma et al., 2015).
Studium formačních procesů je dnes již nezbytnou součástí environmentálních studií a je zde
viditelná snaha začleňovat tento metodický pohled i do projektů zaměřených na archeologii.
Metodické přístupy používané v tomto směru se neustále rozvíjejí a do budoucna má tento obor před
sebou velký potenciál.
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