Jana Hrabcova žSince the Crimean War (1853–1856) there was a period without a great war in Europe (only local conflicts) žThe tensions persisted on the Balkan Peninsula (1908 – the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary, 1912–1913 the Balkan Wars etc.) žPacifist movement - peace conferences in Hague (1898 and 1907) - unsuccessful ž žtwo blocks of powers at the beginning of the war: žEntente (Allied Powers): Great Britain + France + Russia žCentral Powers: Germany + Austria-Hungary + (later) Bulgaria + Turkey ž žItaly – firstly neutral, in May 1915 joined the Entente (the London Treaty in April 1915 promised territorial gains to Italy) žneutral countries: Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland, Albania žUSA – neutral at the beginning of the war, entered the war in April 1917 ž žThe blocs of Powers Europe1914.gif františek_ferdinand.jpg žthe pretext for starting the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914 žJuly 28, 1918 – Austria-Hungary declared the war on Serbia ž žGermany – the most agresive, wanted new colonies and wanted to expand to the Middle East (Berlin-Baghdad railroad), also wanted to rule in the Central, Eastern and South-East Europe (with the help of Austria-Hungary), Germany also wanted some areas in France and Belgium žAustria-Hungary – wanted to expand into the Balkan Peninsula and defeat the Kingdom of Serbia, which was independent, Serbia was the enemy for A-H also becauce of Bosnia and Herzegovina žFrance – wanted to get back Alsace and Loraine from Germany + keep its colonial domains žRussia – wanted Galicia (which was Austro-Hungarian province in those times), Silesia, and some parts of Balkan Peninsula, especially around the straits between Asia and Europe - Bosphorus and Dardanelles žSerbia – wanted to keep its independence and to form the Balkan federation – with Croats, Slovenes and Serbs living in Austria and Hungary žGreat Britain – wanted to keep its colonies and exclude Germany from world trade, stop its expansion to the Middle East žUSA – wanted to defend democracy in the world and the principle of self-determination of the nations (Woodrow Wilson) ž qAugust – December 1914 – offensive operations ž q1915–1916 – trench warfare ž q1917–1918 – the era of total exhaustion ž qMarch 191 –November 1918 – supremacy of Allied Powers (USA entered the war in April 1917) ž žBalkan front (Balkan Peninsula, firstly in Serbia, then in Greece) žWestern front (against France) žEastern front (against Russia) žItalian front ž žalso naval war (in the Pacific Ocean – Japan + Great Britain against Germany, in the Nothern Sea – Great Britain against Germany) žwarfare in the colonies ž žthe Germans attacked France according to the so called Schlieffen Plan - designed to attack France quickly through neutral Belgium žGreat Britain declared war on Germany because of breaking Belgic neutrality žthe German troops were stopped at the First Battle of Marne in September 1914 – the offensive war changed into the trench warfare žMarch 1915 – the second Battle of Ypres – the Germans used chlorine gas – 15 thousands of men were poisoned žfrom February till September 1916 – bloody battle of Verdun – 600 thousands of casualties, žfrom July till November 1916 the great battle of the Somme - totally 1 million casualties during the whole battle, the new British invention was used – the tanks ž žThe Second Battle of Ypres žThe Battle of the Somme fww0828.jpg Battle-of-the-Somme.jpg žAustrian army was not succesful in Serbia žSeptember 1915 – Bulgaria entered the war žduring October and November 1915 German-Austrian and Bulgarian troops occupied Serbia žin spring 1915 – the Allied Powers prepared the operation in Gallipoli against Turkey, British troops under the command of Winston Churchill, but the operation was not successful žthen in 1916 the Macedonian Front in Greece was opened žthe Bulgarians were defeated in September 1918 ž ž žIn the east, Russia attacked East Prussia but was defeated by German army at the series of battles colectively known as the Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914 žAlready in 1914 – the Czech Company in Russian Army – Legions (originally – the Czechs living in Russia, prisoners of war, volunteers) žsummer 1916 – so called Brusilov offensive ž1917 – the Czechoslovak Corps in Russia – from 38,000 to 70,000 of men žthe Russians were more succesful against Austria-Hungary in Galicia (today – western Ukraine) žRussia occupied parts of Galicia and Bukovina žJuly 1917 – so called Kerensky offensive – the Battle of Zborov (Galicia) – Czechoslovak Legions won over the Austria-Hungary, the offensive was unsuccesfull for Russians žAfter the Russian Revolutions the Czechoslovak Legions were fighting against bolsheviks ž žItaly entered the war in April 1915 – the Allied Powers promised to Italy Istria with Trieste, Dalmacia and Trentino (Austro-Hungarian provinces), so Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary and later also on Germany žbut the Italians were not very succesful, their offensives along the Isonzo River were repelled by the Austro-Hungarians ž1917 – the Battle of Caporetto – Italian troops were defeated by Austro-Hungarian army and the front line was broken through, usage of poison gas žduring 1916 the front stabilized at the Piave River till 1918 – June 1918 – the Battle of the Piave River – participation of Czechoslovak Legions žthe Austro-Hungarians were defeated in October – the Battle of Vittorio Veneto – participation of Czechoslovak Legions again ž žafter the Russian revolutions in 1917 Russia concluded separate peace with Germany in Brest Litevski in March 1918 žGeneral exhaustion – of sources, armies, people in real (lack of labour power – participation of women) ž žApril 1917 – USA declared war on Germany – originally USA persued the politics of non-interventions, but German submarines several times attacked merchant ships and civil ships with American passengers žThe United States were never formally a member of the Allies but became a self-styled "Associated Power" žAmerican troops came to Europe and after the great offensive of Allied Powers in summer 1918 the Central Powers collapsed very quickly žOn November 3, 1918 Austria–Hungary sent a flag of truce to ask for an Armistice and the armistice with Austira was signed in Vila Giusti near Padua žon November 11, 1918– an armistice with Germany signed in railroad carriage near Compiègne žat 11 a.m. on November 11, 1918 a ceasefire came into effect ž žCasualties: v10 million of soldiers died v7 million of civilians died žThe map of Europe has changed: vdissolution of four monarchies (Russia, Austria-Hungary, German Empire and Otoman Empire) vafter dissolution of Austria-Hungary: constitution of 5 new states (Austrian Republic, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes) vLatvia, Lithuania and Estonia was established, independent and unified Poland was renewed vhttp://www.the-map-as-history.com/demos/tome03/index.php žEconomic changes: vDevelopment of industry (iron and steel, textiles, etc.) and technologies(armament industry, automobiles, aircrafts …) vFirstly the in many countries the war prosperity, later economic depresse žSocial changes: vSocial radicalism – rise of totalitarism, revaschism etc. vSocial status of women has changed(sufrage) vMany veterans – problems with reintegration v ž ž žEurope after WW I žthe meeting of the Allied victors following the end of World War I – the aim was to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers following the armistices of 1918 žIt took place in Paris in 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities. They met, discussed various options and developed a series of treaties ("Paris Peace Treaties") for the post-war world žthe winning powers – France, Great Britain, USA, Italy, Japan žother figthing states – Belgium, British dominiums, Poland, Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Greece, Portugal and other non-european states ždefeated states – Germany, Austria, Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria žRussia was not invited to the Paris Peace Conference (bolshevik revolution and civil war in Russia) žThe Big Four – žDavid Lloyd Geroge (GB), Vittorio Orlando (It), George Clemencau (Fr), Woodrow Wilson (US) – from left to right 781px-Big_four.jpg žThe following treaties were prepared at the Paris Peace Conference: žthe Treaty of Versailles, 1919, 28 June 1919, (with the German Empire in Weimar Republic form) žthe Treaty of Saint-Germain, 10 September 1919, (with Austria) žthe Treaty of Neuilly, 27 November 1919, (with Bulgaria) žthe Treaty of Trianon, 4 June 1920, (with Hungary) žthe Treaty of Sèvres, 10 August 1920; subsequently revised by the Treaty of Lausanne, 24 June 1923, (withTurkey) ž ž žThe so-called "Paris Peace Treaties", together with the accords of the Washington Naval Conference of 1921-1922, laid the foundations for the so-called Versailles-Washington system of international relations ž žthe United States never ratified the Treaty of Versailles, never joined the League of Nations, and signed separate peace treaties with the three countries it had declared war against ž ž1920 – the League of the Nations was established othe all over the world organization which goal was to save peace in the World oUSA did not join this organization oIn fact –useless – did not have any instruments how to enforce its decessions (only resolutions without the real effect) ž žEconomy ž1921–1922 – economic depression as a consequence of the war ž1924–1929 – economic boom, liberal economic reforms, technical development, intensification and growth of production ž1929, October 24 – the Black Tuesday, New York Stock Market Crash (Wall Street) → The Great Depression – the longest, most widespread, and deepest depression of the 20th century, drop of industrial production, high unemployment, social unrests, crisis of democracy žsince 1933 – economic development again, but slow ž žunstable peace, effort to avoid conflicts, era of democratism a pacifism žApril – May 1922 – Conference in Genova, Italy žalso Russia and Germany invited žthe conference should discuss German reparations - Germany was not able to pay it but France insisted on it → no agreement žthe result of the conference: meeting of German and Soviet diplomats – they concluded an Agreement in Rappalo –Germany was the first state which recognized the Soviet Union de iure ž1924 – the Dawes Plan – the plan of stabilization of German economy and economical recovery (stabilization of German mark, budget, sequential paying of reparations) žThe Dawes Plan relied on money given to Germany by the US – high loans ž žLocarno Conference, Switzerland – October 1925 ž4 great powers (Great Britain, France, Italy, Germany) – an attempt to overcome the differences between the winners and losers žThe principal treaty concluded at Locarno was the "Rhineland Pact" between Germany, France, Belgium, the United Kingdom, and Italy. The first three signatories undertook not to attack each other, with the latter two acting as guarantors žthe western borders of Germany were guaranted but the eastern were not – there could come up to some changes – central European countries felt endangered by German imperialism and revanchism žGermany's admission to the League of Nations žthe subsequent withdrawal (completed in June 1930) of Allied troops from Germany's western Rhineland ž žBriand-Kellog Pact - also called the General Treaty for the Renunciation of War or the World Peace Act) was signed on August 27, 1928 57 states žprohibited the use of war as "an instrument of national policy" and as an instrument of settlement of disputes between states žthe problem was that there were not defined any sanctions in case of breaching the Pact žno program of disarmement žThe Young Plan was a program for settlement of German reparations debts after World War I written in 1929 and formally adopted in 1930 žGermany was not able to pay the huge annual payments, so the amount of the reparation payments was reduced again – to 112 billion Gold Marks, Germany should pay them in next 59 years, 2 bilion marks every year qWWI: žhttp://www.firstworldwar.com žhttp://www.the-map-as-history.com/demos/tome03/index.php ž q14 point of Woodrow Wilson: žhttp://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc_large_image.php?doc=62 ž qMacMILLAN, Margareth: Peacemakers Six Months That Changed the World: The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and Its Attempt to End War. žhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L8uWgbRd8So ž qHENIG, Ruth B. (1995). Versailles and after, 1919-1933. 2nd ed. London: Routledge. ž qTreaty of Locarno žhttp://treaties.un.org/Pages/showDetails.aspx?objid=08000002801683d0 ž q q ž ž ž žThe Czech lands were constituent part of Habsburg monarchy – no effort to destroy the monarchy till 1917/1918 žOnly a small conspiracy group – The Maffia – cooperation with South Slavs žEmigrants – Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, Edvard Beneš and Milan Rastislav Štefánik – 1915 – founded The Czechoslovak National Council in Paris žarmy in abroad – Legions (France, Italy, Russia) – during 1918 de facto recognized as the allied army žMasaryk travelled around Europe (Geneve, Paris, London), to Russia (summer 1917) and to the USA – looking for the support for the idea of independent Czechoslovak state žJanuary 1918 – The Fourteen Points of the US President Woodrow Wilson – the self-determination of the nations ž10th Point: The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safeguarded and assured, should be accorded the freest opportunity to autonomous development. žhttp://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/President_Wilson%27s_Fourteen_Points žJanuary 1918 – Czech politians in A-H – demand of independence žJuly 1918 – The Czechoslovak National Comitee in Prague – Karel Kramář žOctober 1918 – the Emperor Charles I (1916–1918) offered the federalisation of Habsburg Monarchy but its nations refused it ž žTomaš Garrigue Masaryk žEdvard Beneš tgm.jpg benes_edvard2.jpg žthe First Czechoslovak republic was proclaimed on October 28, 1918 in Prague žconsisted of: Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia žThe first Prime Minister – Karel Kramář ž1920 – the constitution - plural parliament democracy žin 1920 – Tomas Garrigue Masaryk (1850–1937) was elected the first President (reelected in 1925 and 1929, served till 1935), he was a philosopher and politician, very influential personality, his wife was American – Charlotte Garrigue, their son Jan Masaryk served later as Czechoslovak Foreign Minister žmost important and most influential political party - Republican Party of Agricultural and Smallholder People - Peasant party, they ussually had a Prime Minister – Antonín Švehla in 1920s, Jan Malypetr and Milan Hodža in 1930s žThe first Czechoslovak republic consisted of: Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia (Sub-Carpathian Rus) 800px-Czechoslovakia01.png žnational minorities – more than 3 million of ethnic Germans were living in Bohemian lands, they were called Sudeten Germans oThe German minority living in Sudetenland demanded autonomy from the Czech government, claiming they were suppressed and repressed by the Czech government oIn the 1935 Parliamentary elections, the newly founded Sudeten German Party under leadership of Konrad Henlein, financed with Nazi money, won an upset victory, securing over 2/3 of the Sudeten German vote, which worsened the diplomatic relations between the Germans and the Czechs o1938 - Munich Agreement žOther national minorities in Czechoslovakia: o750 000 of Hungarians in southern Slovakia o450 000 of Ruthenians in Karpathian Ruthenia o75 000 of Poles oJews, Gypsies ž cr-pohranici.gif žSudetenland – the areas inhabited by Germans in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia during the interwar period žforeign policy – led by Minister Edvard Beneš from 1918 to 1935 – one of the most important European diplomats during the interwar period, in 1936 he was elected second President of Czechoslovakia ž1921 – the Little Entente was formed – an alliance of Czechoslovakia, Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and Romania – against Hungary and its revanchism and against restoration of Habsburgs, Little Entente was supported by France (1924 – Czechoslovak-French Agreement) žthe Little Entente was an idea of Czechoslovak Foreign Minister Edvard Beneš žsince 1925 – economic growth, cultural development žthe great depression since 1930 žsince 1933 – Czechoslovakia was threatened by Nazi Germany žBorder fortification ž žCzechoslovakia + Yugoslavia + Rumania Little_Entente.png žCzechoslovak fortification – Hanička žhttp://www.hanicka.cz/ žCzechoslovak fortification – Bouda žhttp://www.boudamuseum.com/ Hanička.jpg 800px-Boudatvrz.jpg žReadings: žTUMA, Oldrich – JINDRA, Jiri (eds.): Czechoslovakia and Romania in the Versailles System. Prague 2006. žLUKES, Igor: Czechoslovakia Between Stalin and Hitler: The Diplomacy of Edvard Beneš in the 1930s. New York1996. žLUKES, Igor – GOLSTEIN, Erich (eds.): The Munich Crisis, 1938: Prelude to WWII. London 1999. ž ž ž ž ž