žJ. V. Stalin died in 1953. žNikita Khrushchev outmaneuvered his rivals and achieved power in the Soviet Union. žMarch 1956 Khrushchev denounced Stalin's cult of personality at the 20th Congress of the Soviet Communist Party žThe de-Stalinization: official Soviet ideology - left Polish Stalinist in a difficult position žDesire for reform and change among both intellectuals and workers was beginning to surface throughout the Eastern Bloc and the death of B. Bierut in March 1956 exacerbated an existing split in the PZPR. žB. Bierut was succeeded by Edward Ochab as First Secretary of the PZPR, and by Jozéf Cyrankiewicz, as Prime Minister žThe Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance - Warsaw Pact: mutual defense treaty among eight communist states of Eastern Europe žTreaty was established under the initiative of the Soviet Union on 14 May 1955 Warsaw žThe Warsaw Pact military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CoMEcon),regional economic organization for the communist states of Eastern Europe The Warsaw Pact was a Soviet military reaction to the integration of West Germany into NATO in 1955 žAfter J.V. Stalin death 1953 – hope for change žGrowing dissatisfaction: low standard of living, cultural decay and cases of brutal political repression žDemonstration: raise (salary), enough food, trouble-free supply žSlowly began to manifest itself incidents of political dissent žThese conflicts were compounded by fighting Stalin's followers (after his death in Soviet Union) žrise to dissatisfaction žFirst signs of dissatisfaction: Czechoslovakia and the GDR žMay 1953 – monetary reform -depreciation savings, increased food prices and other goods - a crisis of confidence of still loyal population (Czechoslovakia) žJune 1953 – strike of construction workers in Berlin žFirst signs of dissatisfaction with the low living standard, cultural bankruptcies and brutal cases of political persecution žCzechoslovakia: monetary reform 30th May 1953 - devaluation savings, increased food prices, clothing, and other goods and it also meant a crisis of confidence of the population žGDR: expression of discontent among Berlin construction workers – 17th June 1953 – strike - riots spread žWorkers' uprising was stopped by Soviet tanks and state of emergency was declared žWalter Ulbricht - General Secretary and President of the National Council- repressive measures continuous flow of refugees to the West ž1949 – 1961 from GDR to West – 2, 700, 000 žMainly very good educated - top experts from all sectors žAugust 1961 – construction on Berlin Wall – as prevention žanother crisis of communist regime after the 20th Congress – February 1956 - revealed of the bloodiest sides of Stalinist regime in all the countries of the Soviet bloc profound moral and ideological crisis žPoland: assassinated of polish communist leaders in soviet prison - strengthening opposition (center: catholic church) and weakened Communist regime and hatred from WWII for Soviet War crimes in Poland žJune 1956 – Poznan - Workers' uprising, violent suppression, 50 people died žAll over country: formed Workers' councils žCrises in Communist Party: neo-Stalinist x reformists žConfrontation culminated – October 1956 žLeader of Polish united Workers Party after 8 years of prison – Wladyslaw Gomulka žSituation was dramatical žEven N.S. Khrushchev came to Poland, soviet tanks, demonstration in streets, … žChanges: soviet marshal K. Rokossovski left Polish army, some Catholic priests were released, relaxation of censorship ž žEconomical changes: small private business, agricultural cooperatives – canceled, 87% of farmland – private again ž1957 - restoration of censorship and artistic and scientific life again under strict control of Communist Party and Workers' councils were closed žW. Gomulka disappointed hopes of his followers, was unable to resist Soviet pressure žOnly: countryside – farmland private and Catholic church remained a privileged position žDemocratization process failed žTension btw neo – Stalinist and reformists since 1953 žAfter J. V. Stalin died – Mátyás Rákosi was able to keep his power, March 1955 M. Rákosi accused Imre Nagy (reformist) of right-wing opportunism žM. Rákosi – oriented to Moscow – help from Moscow against opposition žFear from similar event as happed in Poland – N. S. Khrushchev removed M. Rákosi from his post žHungarian society was not satisfied žPolish Uprising - information about events in Poland led to a wave of discontent ž23rd October 1956 – Budapest - manifestation of solidarity with the Polish workers – more then 200, 000 people came, requirements: Imre Nagy – Prime Minister, departure of Soviet troops from the country and punishment of all who participated in the Stalinist processes and lawlessness žRiots spread, new leader of CP Erno Gero and his speech in Hungarian radio on 23rd October evening – huge impulse for public anger žPeople started to occupy the public buildings žDemonstrations escalated into a popular uprising žHead of new government Imre Nagy žSoviet troops (In response to requests for assistance) entered to Budapest on 24th October 1956 and Soviet tanks occupied militarily significant points ž25th October – peaceful demonstration in front of the Parliament – Soviet army was attacked by machine-gun salute and they responded and more then 60 demonstrators died shooting before Parliament was obviously a provocation from the side of members of the Political police ž from this moment uprising in Budapest – bloody character and anti – soviet as well ž žSimilar situation in other place žReal power in the hands of revolutionary or national councils žGeneral strike – main motto: immediate withdrawal of the Soviet Army žE. Gero we replaced by Janos Kadar žN.S. Khrushchev – only military intervention is the solution ž1st November 1956 neutrality of Hungary and leaving from Warsaw Pact – even better reason for Soviet bloc to intervene – it is not possible in such times of to leave the Pact and weaken the strength (NATO could abuse the situation) ž žAll satellites states gave their agreement to military intervention žSoviets learnt that USA and NATO will not react – confirmed by J. F. Dulles (U.S. Secretary of State under Republican President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1959. He was a significant figure in the early Cold War era, advocating an aggressive stance against communism throughout the world) and even D. Eisenhower žFrance and G. Britain – interested in Suez Crises žHungarian uprising was supported just by Radio Free Europe and Austria – possibility to cross the boards for refugees ž4th November 1956 – soviet attack – soviet tanks in Budapest žFights took more then 1 week in Budapest, some place even more ž ž žHungarian resistance was broken, massive exodus to Austria more then 200, 000 žImre Nagy asked UN for help – only formal answer – Hungary stayed ALONE, western democracies confirmed their agreement with Soviet intervention žhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LVdQ9PK9Q5o ž žCongdon, L.: 1956: the Hungarian revolution and war for independence. Boulder, 2006: žDiefendorf, J.-M.: In the wake of war: the reconstruction of the German cities after World War II. New York, 1993. žHaynes, R. – Rady, M.: In the shadow of Hitler: personalities of the right in Central and Eastern Europe. London 2011. žHett, B. – C.: Crossing Hitler: the man who put the Nazis on the witness stand. New York, 2008. žHihnala, P. – Vehvilainen, O.: Hungary 1956. Tempere, 1995. žKőrösi, Z. – Molnár, A.: Carrying a secret in my heart: children of the victims of the reprisals after the Hungarian Revolution in 1956: an oral history. Budapest, 2003. žPlesch, D.: merica, Hitler and the UN [electronic resource] : how the Allies won World War II and forged a peace . London 2011. žPrůcha, V.: The system of centrally planned economies in central-eastern and south-eastern Europe after world war II and the causes of its decay. Prague, 1994. žSnyder, T.: Bloodlands : Europe between Hitler and Stalin. New York, 2010. žStedman, A.: Alternatives to appeasement : Neville Chamberlain and Hitler’s Germany. London 2011. ž žSince 2nd half 1950s new relation btw 2 blocs - out of the question - political rapprochement, but emergency of objective need of crises management on international scale – fear of nuclear weapons žNeed of coexistence: both blocs in fact needed each other – economical interests: Soviet Bloc – technical and technologically backwardness x USA: possibility of new market - Eastern Europe ž1962: after Caribbean Crisis – beginning of the negotiations on the control of nuclear danger ž ž ž žBUT basic objectives of both superpower remained incompatible žUSA: balance bwt 2 blocs x Soviet Union: aim to spread the power ž alternating periods of negotiations, conflict, tension and loosening (end 1989) ž1st phases lasted until end of 1960s: quite successful solution: Indo-China and Austria x lasting issue – Germany (2nd Berlin Crises 1961) and August 1968 in Czechoslovakia žOne of the most sensitive question – Germany - conflicts of interest žHallstein doctrine (named after Walter Hallstein, was a key doctrine in the foreign policy of the Federal Republic of Germany after 1955. It established that the Federal Republic would not establish or maintain diplomatic relations with any state that recognized the German Democratic Republic.Important aspects of the doctrine were abandoned after 1970 when it became difficult to maintain and the Federal government changed its politics towards the GDR) žEconomical miracle žControl of west Berlin – N. S. Khrushchev – neutral or part of GDR – pressure Paris conference 1960 – not successful žJ.F. Kennedy žhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XjHcNhcahv4 žAugust 1961 – Berlin Wall ž ž žhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_vXsdaUmG8s ž1960 – new constitution and new name Czechoslovak Socialistic Republic and new state symbol žPresident A. Zápotocký – ex fist secretary of CP, 1957 žDrastic decline of Czechoslovak Economy žNeed of Economical reform – the most – radical one in Soviet Bloc – showed that democratization and liberalization of the economy is not possible without changes in policy žLiberalization: 1st phases of liberalization of the political regime ž ž žFirst time criticism of dogmatism and the aim go back to “Young or authentically Marx” žNot only democratization but also democracy: main tension between culture and political power ž žArtists – requirement: creative freedom žCzechoslovak film: Miloš Forman, Ivan Passer, Jan Němec, Vojtěch Jasný, Jiří Menzel, Věra Chytilová... žhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WM3lrSc0Tp4 žWriters: Milan Kundera, Ivan Klíma, Ludvík Vaculík,Josef Škvorecký, Bohumil Hrabal, Arnošt Lustig,... ž4th Congress of writers 1967 – open criticism of political conditions - cruel punishment – cancel: Literární noviny and movement against liberalism žrequirements: demission of the President, economical reform and liberalization of life BUT all changes should be done under the control of CP žHead of CP Alexander Dubček ž= beginning of the democratization of the Czechoslovak society žEnd of censorship žlaw to the Federation žPrague Spring žagainst: bureaucratic-totalitarian model of socialism žRequirement: more democratic, more economical and more social regime žIdea of political pluralism žCatholic Church žAction program – April 1968 - principles of market economy, facilitate political freedoms and citizens' rights, did not guarantee political pluralism and creation of democratic regime of standard mode ž žEffort to restore the Czechoslovak Social Democratic Party žSince May 1968 – growing tension – reform in deep crises žJune 27th 1968 - Manifesto “2000 words”, http://www.radio.cz/en/section/curraffrs/the-two-thousand-words-that-started-the-prague-spring žConservative part of CP supported by Soviet Union - preparation of the coup d etat žAugust 18, 1968 Moscow - adopted a resolution on military intervention žAt night August 20, 1968 – Soviet troops, Hungarian, GDR s, Polish and Bulgarian crossed the boards žCzechoslovak government adopted resolution – occupation is against the will of Czechoslovak citizens, international law ž ž21st August 1968 – troops of 5 states entered žAgainst occupiers - citizens unarmed resistance žMoscow Protocol – was signed – Soviet troops can stay in Czechoslovakia ž žMoscow Protocol - demanded normalization = no reformators in CP žNormalization = also period from August 1968 – November 1989 žImportant function – People loyal to the Soviet Union žSlovakia – leader of CP Gustav Husák guarantees at least of some reforms žSoviet leading – back to period before Prague Spring žPeople connected with Prague Spring – out of public life žJan Palach burned himself to protest against the regime in January 1969 žMarch 1969 – Ice Hokey World Championship – Czechoslovakia beat Soviet Union – DEMONSTARTION x Soviet protest žApril 1969 – A . Dubček was replaced by Gustav Husák = strict censorship, no protest; ž„ review“ in CP žAll society = apathy žEmigration žEconomy = since 1968 back to Central planning ž1975 G. Husák – president žConferences in Helsinki – Soviet Block agreed on Respect for Human Rights ž žEx CP members, intelectuals, artists, church - fellowship, which was to monitor respect for human rights „Charta 77“ – Jan Patočka, Václav Havel and Jiří Hájek – members were persecuted ž1978 - Committee for the Defense of the Unjustly Persecuted žDissidents repeatedly jailed žRelease after 1985 – M. S. Gorbachev – As de facto ruler of the USSR, he tried to reform the stagnating CP and the state economy by introducing glasnost ("openness"), perestroika ("restructuring"), demokratizatsiya ("democratizatio n"), and uskoreniye ("acceleration" of economic development), which were launched at the 27th Congress of the CPSU in February 1986 ž1975 Conference in Helsinki – Final Act -signed the declaration in an attempt to improve relations between the Communist bloc and the West žSovereign equality, respect for the rights inherent in sovereignty žRefraining from the threat or use of force žInviolability of frontiers žTerritorial integrity of States žPeaceful settlement of disputes žNon-intervention in internal affairs žRespect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief žEqual rights and self-determination of peoples žCo-operation among States žFulfillment in good faith of obligations under international law ž žThe document was seen both as a significant step toward reducing Cold War tensions and as a major diplomatic boost for the Soviet Union at the time, due to its clauses on the inviolability of national frontiers and respect for territorial integrity, which were seen to consolidate the USSR's territorial gains in Eastern Europe following the Second World War ž1976 Soviet Block signed pact of UN – human rights žReflection of Helsinki – “Charta 77”,… ž1988 -89: Vienna meeting – „Human dimension“ – better human rights protection žLeonid Brezhnev – Neo-Stalinism žGrowing economical crises over all Soviet Bloc žGrowing prices – Hungary, Poland x keeping low prices USSSR and Romania – but no any goods žNo technological development, focus on heavy industry žX REFORMS of Mikhail Gorbachev ž žfirst manifestations of discontent – January –anniversary of Jan Palach´s death žNovember 17th 1989 - police suppressed a student demonstration beginning of the of the fall of communism žhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vh3r8tULhlA žThe Velvet Revolution was a non-violent revolution in Czechoslovakia November 17 to December 29 1989 žDominated by student and other popular people against the single-party government of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia - led to the collapse of CP's control of the country, conversion to a parliamentary republic žNovember 17 1989 - police suppressed student‘s demonstration in Prague -sparked a series of popular demonstrations from November 19 to late December žnumber of protesters ,two-hour general strike involving all citizens of Czechoslovakia was held on November 27 ž žCzechoslovakia announced on November 28 that it would relinquish power and dismantle the single-party state ž December 10, President Gustáv Husák appointed the first largely non-communist government in Czechoslovakia since 1948, and resigned žAlexander Dubček was elected speaker of the federal parliament on December 28 and Václav Havel the President of Czechoslovakia on December 29, 1989. žJune 1990first democratic elections žThe term Velvet Revolution was coined by Rita Klímová, dissidents, translator and ambassador of United States žThe term was used internationally to describe the revolution žAfter the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, Slovakia used the term Gentle Revolution, the term that Slovaks used for the revolution from the beginning. The Czech Republic continues to refer to the event as the Velvet Revolution. ž žBy the mid-1960s increasing economic and political difficulties žDecember 1970, a price hike led to a wave of strikes žGovernment introduced a new economic program based on large-scale borrowing from the West - resulted in an immediate rise in living standards x program failed because of the 1973 oil crisis žlate 1970s the government of Edward Gierek was finally forced to raise prices - led to another wave of public protests ž1978 – Karol Wojtyla – pope – supporting communistic opposition ž1980 – wave of strikes led to founding of trade union - movements Solidarity: Polish trade union federation that emerged on 31 August 1980 at the Gdańsk Shipyard under the leadership of Lech Wałęsa žRequirements: economical, Democratic civil rights ž Soviet Union - supported the military coup ž1981 – government of Wojciech Jaruzelski to declared martial law, 1983, Solidarity cancelled ž žreforms of Mikhail Gorbachev in USSR and increasing pressure from the West - Communists were forced to negotiate with the oppositions ž1989 Round Table Talks led to Solidarity's participation in the elections of 1989 žSolidarity candidates' won žIn 1990 Wojtiech Jaruzelski resigned as the President of the Republic of Poland and was succeeded by Lech Wałęsa after the December 1990 elections žL. Wałęsa's inauguration as president in December, 1990 - formal end of the Communist People's Republic of Poland and the beginning of the modern Republic of Poland. žCommunist Polish United Workers' Party dissolved in 1990 - transformed into Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland žThe Warsaw Pact was dissolved in the summer of 1991 žSoviet troops left in 1993 ž 27 October 1991 the first entirely free Polish parliamentary elections since the 1920s took place. This completed Poland's transition from Communist Party rule to a Western-style liberal democratic political system. žHungary achieved some lasting economic reforms and limited political liberalization during the 1980s (major reforms only occurred following the replacement of János Kádára General Secretary of the Communist Party in 1988) ž1988 Parliament adopted a "democracy package“ included trade union pluralism, freedom of association, assembly, and the press, new electoral law, radical revision of the constitution,… žImre Nagy whom communists had executed decades ago was rehabilitated žAugust 1989 Pan-European Picnic was a peace demonstration held on the Austrian-Hungarian border - important event in led to the fall of the Iron Curtain žIn October 1989 Communist Party convened its last congress and re-established itself as the Hungarian Socialist Party žOctober 1989 parliament adopted legislation providing for multi-party parliamentary elections and a direct presidential election ž The legislation transformed Hungary from a People's Republic into the Republic of Hungary, guaranteed human and civil rights, separation of powers among the judicial, legislative, and executive branches of government ž1st free parliamentary election - May 1990 žDemocratic Forum (MDF) winning 43% of the vote and the Free Democrats (SZDSZ) capturing 24%. žPrime Minister József Antall - MDF žMarch 1990 - June 1991 Soviet troops left Hungary žThe total number of Soviet military and civilian personnel stationed in Hungary was around 100,000 žhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=snsdDb7KDkg ž1989 public anger over the faking of results of local government elections - people applied for exit visas or left the country contrary to GDR laws žAugust 1989 Hungary removed its border restrictions and unsealed its border - 13,000 people left East Germany by crossing the "green" border via Czechoslovakia into Hungary and then on to Austria and West Germany ž žMany others demonstrated against the ruling party - Leipzig žKurt Masur, conductor of the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra, led local negotiations with the government and held town meetings in the concert hall žCP led by Erich Honecker, he resigned in October, and he was replaced by a slightly more moderate communist - Egon Krenz žNovember 1989 - few sections of the Berlin Wall were opened, resulting in thousands of East Germans crossing into West Berlin and West Germany žEgon Krenz resigned a few days later žGDR held its last elections in March 1990 - winner was a coalition headed by the East German branch of West Germany's Christian Democratic Union which advocated speedy reunification žAfter 2+4 Talks - were held involving the two German states and the former Allied Powers which led to agreement on the conditions for German unification. žThe five original East German states that had been abolished in 1952 were recreated ž October 1990 five states officially joined the Federal Republic žeconomic depression žDeep economic, political, social and moral crisis žBárta, M.: Victims of the occupation: the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia: 21 August - 31 December 1968. Prague 2008. žBrown, A.: The rise and fall of communism. London 2009. žFowkes, B.: The rise and fall of communism in Eastern Europe. Basingstoke 1995. žShepherd, Robin H. E.: Czechoslovakia : the velvet revolution and beyond. Basingstoke 2000. žCirtautas, A. – M.: The Polish solidarity movement: revolution, democracy and natural rights. London – New York 1997. ž ž