Reading Handbook
R2 reading handbook
1.3 reading a play
Strategies for Reading
• Read the stage directions to help you visualize
the setting and characters.
• Question what the title means and why the
playwright chose it.
• Identify the main conflict (struggle or problem)
in the play. To clarify the conflict, make a chart
that shows what the conflict is and how it is
resolved.
• Analyze the characters. What do they want?
How do they change during the play? You may
want to make a chart that lists each character’s
name, appearance, and traits.
1.4 reading literary nonfiction
Strategies for Reading
• If you are reading a biography, an autobiography,
or another type of biographical writing (such as
a diary, a memoir, or letters), use a family tree or
word web to keep track of the people mentioned.
• When reading an essay, evaluate the writer’s
ideas. Is there a clear main idea? Does the writer
use appropriate details to support a main idea?
Reading any text—whether it is a short story, poem, magazine article, newspaper,
or Web page—requires the use of special strategies. For example, you might
plot the events of a short story on a diagram, or use text features to spot
main ideas in a magazine article. You might also need to identify patterns of
organization in the text. Using such strategies can help you read different texts
with ease and also help you understand what you’re reading.
1 Reading Literary and Nonfiction Texts
Literary and Nonfiction texts include short stories,novels,poems,dramas,
biographies,autobiographies,and essays. To appreciate and analyze literary and
nonfiction texts,you will need to understand the characteristics of each type of
text.
1.1 reading a short story
Strategies for Reading
• Read the title. As you read the story, you may
notice that the title has a special meaning.
• Keep track of events as they happen. Plot the
events on a diagram like this one.
Climax
Rising Action Falling Action
Resolution
Exposition
• From the details the writer provides, visualize
the characters. Predict what they might do next.
• Look for specific adjectives that help you
visualize the setting—the time and place in
which events occur.
1.2 reading a poem
Strategies for Reading
• Notice the form of the poem, or the number of
its lines and their arrangement on the page.
• Read the poem aloud a few times. Listen for
rhyme and rhythm.
• Visualize the images and comparisons.
• Connect with the poem by asking yourself what
message the poet is trying to send.
• Create a word web or other graphic organizer to
record your reactions and questions.
Title and author of poem
Question
about poem
Opinion of
poem
Meanings of
difficult words
Favorite line
in poem
Included in this handbook:
RI 1, RI 2, RI 3, RI 5, RI 6, RI 8
RI 1 Cite textual evidence that most strongly
supports an analysis of what the text says
explicitly. RI 2 Identify a central idea of a text and
analyze its development over the course of the
text. RI 3 Analyze how a text makes connections
between individuals, ideas, or events. RI 5 Analyze
in detail the structure of a specific paragraph in a
text. RI 6 Determine an author’s point of view or
purpose in a text. RI 8 Delineate and evaluate the
argument and specific claims in a text.
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2 Reading Informational Texts:Text Features
An informational text is writing that provides factual information.
Informational materials—such as chapters in textbooks and articles in
magazines, encyclopedias, and newspapers—usually contain elements that
help the reader recognize their purpose, organization, and key ideas. These
elements are known as text features.
2.1 understanding text features
Text features are design elements of a text that indicate its organizational
structure or otherwise make its key ideas and information understandable.
Text features include titles, headings, subheadings, boldface type, bulleted
and numbered lists, and graphic aids, such as charts, graphs, illustrations, and
photographs. Notice how the text features help you find key information on
the textbook page shown.
A The title identifies the topic.
B A subheading indicates the
start of a new topic or section
and identifies the focus of that
section.
C Questions may be used to focus
your understanding of the text.
D A bulleted list shows items of
equal importance.
E Graphic aids, such as illustrations,
photographs, charts, diagrams,
maps, and timelines, often make
ideas in the text clearer.
F A caption, or the text that
accompanies a graphic aid, gives
information about the graphic
aid that isn’t necessarily obvious
from the image itself.
practice and apply
1. What is a surplus?
2. What facts do the photograph and
caption add to the text?
3. What informational texts do you
read outside of class? Why are
they informational?
A
B
FE
D
C
practice and apply
answers
1. more than what is needed to survive
2. The photograph shows the reader what a
modern farming village in Morocco looks
like, and the caption tells you that ancient
farming villages probably didn’t look much
different.
3. Possible answers: newspapers, magazines,
user’s manuals—you read them because
they give factual information about current
events and can teach you how to use
products
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I. Villages Around the World
A. Surpluses
1. Lead to growth
a. support more people
b. specialized skills
B.
1.
2.
Main heading
Roman-numeral
entry
Subheading
capital-letter
entry
Detail
number
entry
Strategies for Using Text Headings
• Preview the headings and subheadings in the text
to get an idea of what different kinds there are
and what their positions might be in an outline.
• Be consistent. Note that subheadings that
are the same size and color should be used
consistently in Roman-numeral or capital-letter
entries in the outline. If you decide that a
chapter heading should appear with a Roman
numeral, then that’s the level at which all other
chapter headings should appear.
• Write the headings and subheadings that you
will use as your Roman-numeral and capitalletter
entries first. As you read, fill in numbered
details from the text under the headings and
subheadings in your outline.
practice and apply
Reread “So You Want to be an Entomologist?”
pages 894–895. Use text features in the selection
to take notes in outline form.
Preview the subheadings in the text to get an
idea of the different kinds. Write the headings and
subheadings you are using as your Roman numeral and
capital letter entries first. Then fill in the details.
2.4 graphic aids
Information is communicated not only with
words but also with graphic aids. Graphic aids are
visual representations of information. They can
be charts, webs, diagrams, graphs, photographs,
or other visual representations of information.
2.2 using text features
You can use text features to locate information,
to help you understand it, and to take notes. Just
use the following strategies when you encounter
informational text.
Strategies for Reading
• Preview the text by looking at the title,
headings, and subheadings to get an idea of the
main concepts and the way the text is organized.
• Before you begin reading the text more
thoroughly, skim it—read it quickly—to get an
overview.
• Read any questions that appear at the end of a
lesson or chapter. Doing this will help you set a
purpose for your reading.
• Turn subheadings into questions. Then use
the text below the subheadings to answer the
questions. Your answers will be a summary of
the text.
• Take notes by turning headings and
subheadings into main ideas. You might use a
chart like the following.
The First Communities
Villages
Around the
World
1. prosperity means
growth
2. specialized skills
3. varied economies
Main heading
Subheading
• As you read to locate particular facts or details,
scan the text. Look for key words and phrases as
you move slowly down the page.
2.3 turning text headings into
outline entries
After you have read a selection at least once,
you can use text features to take notes in outline
form. An outline can help you see relationships
between ideas in a text and can reveal the logical
order of ideas. The following outline shows how
one student used text headings from the sample
textbook page on page R3. Study the outline and
use the strategies that follow to create an outline
based on text features.
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Graphic aids usually make complex information
easier to understand. For that reason, graphic
aids are often used to organize, simplify, and
summarize information for easy reference.
Graphs
Graphs are used to illustrate statistical information.
A graph is a drawing that shows the relative values
of numerical quantities. Different kinds of graphs
are used to show different numerical relationships.
Strategies for Reading
A Read the title.
B Find out what is being represented or
measured.
C In a circle graph, compare the sizes of the parts.
D In a line graph, study the slant of the line. The
steeper the line, the faster the rate of change.
E In a bar graph, compare the lengths of the bars.
A circle graph, or pie graph, shows the
relationships of parts to a whole. The entire
circle equals 100 percent. The parts of the circle
represent percentages of the whole.
MODEL: CIRCLE GRAPH
Line graphs show changes in numerical quantities
over time and are effective in presenting trends such
as changes in temperature. A line graph is made
on a grid. Here, the vertical axis indicates degrees
Fahrenheit,and the horizontal axis shows dates.
Points on the graph indicate data. The line that
connects the points highlights a trend or pattern.
MODEL: LINE GRAPH
In a bar graph, vertical or horizontal bars are used
to show or compare categories of information,
such as the heights of different buildings. The
lengths of the bars in this case indicate height.
MODEL: BAR GRAPH
Evaluate carefully the information
presented in graphs. For example, circle graphs
show major factors and differences well but tend
to reduce the importance of smaller factors and
differences.
A
B
E
t
d31
40
60
75 119 13
0
20
Date
Temperature(°F)
Daily High Temperature Dec. 1 – Dec. 14
D
B
0
days/week
3–4
days/week
7
days/week
How Often Do People
Exercise?
20%
15%
45%
5–6
days/week
1–2
days/week
10%
10%
C
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Charts and Tables
A chart presents information, shows a process, or
makes comparisons, usually in rows or columns.
A table is a specific type of chart that presents a
collection of facts in rows and columns and shows
how the facts relate to one another.
Strategies for Reading
A Read the title to learn what information the
chart or table covers.
B Study column headings and row labels to
determine the categories of information
presented.
C Look down columns and across rows to find
specific information.
MODEL: CHART
The Domestication of Animals
Animal Location Use
llama South America transport, meat
turkey North America meat
cattle Europe, Asia, Africa milk, meat
horse Asia (southwest
steppes)
transport
dog Asia (possibly
China)
guarding, herding,
hunting
MODEL: TABLE
Diagrams
A diagram is a drawing that shows how something
works or how its parts relate to one another.
A picture diagram is a picture or drawing of the
subject being discussed.
Strategies for Reading
A Read the title.
B Read each label and look at the part it
identifies.
C Follow any arrows or numbers that show
the order of steps in a process, and read any
captions.
MODEL: PICTURE DIAGRAM
In a schematic diagram, lines, symbols, and words
are used to help readers visualize processes or
objects they cannot normally see. A cutaway
diagram is a drawing or model of something with
part of the outside removed, to show the inside.
MODEL: CUTAWAY DIAGRAM
A
B
C
Light Rail Meadowview Route Monday–Friday A.M.
Meadowview City College Arden/
Del Paso
Watt/l-80
6:05 6:14 6:42 6:53
7:05 7:14 7:42 7:53
7:20 7:29 7:57 8:08
7:50 7:59 8:27 8:38
8:05 8:14 8:42 8:53
8:35 8:44 9:12 9:23
9:05 9:14 9:42 9:53
9:50 9:59 10:27 10:38
10:05 10:14 10:42 10:53
11:05 11:14 11:42 11:53
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
C
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Maps
A map visually represents a geographic region,
such as a state or country. It provides information
about areas through lines, colors, shapes, and
symbols. There are different kinds of maps.
• Political maps show political features, such as
national borders.
• Physical maps show the landforms in areas.
• Road or travel maps show roads and highways.
• Thematic maps show information on a specific
topic, such as climate, weather, or natural
resources.
Strategies for Reading
A Read the title to find out what kind of map it is.
B Read the labels to get an overall sense of what
the map shows.
C Look at the key or legend to find out what the
symbols and colors on the map stand for.
MODEL: PHYSICAL MAP
MODEL: THEMATIC MAP
B
C
A
practice and apply
1. According to the circle graph, how many days a
week do most people exercise?
2. On which date was a temperature of 60˚F recorded?
3. According to the bar graph, where is the world’s
tallest structure located?
4. How many kinds of canals were used in ancient
irrigation?
5. What material formed the bottom layer of Roman
roads?
6. According to the chart, which animal was
domesticated in South America?
7. What time would you have to leave City College to
get to the Watt/I-80 train station by 11:00?
8. What body of water is on the east coast of India?
9. What is the main economic activity of Afghanistan?
A
b
C
practice and apply
answers
1. 1–2 days per week
2. December 4th
3. North Dakota, U.S.
4. three
5. rubble
6. llama
7. 10:14
8. Bay of Bengal
9. raising livestock
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R8 reading handbook
• To find an implied main idea, ask yourself:Whom
or what did I just read about? What do the
details suggest about the topic?
• Formulate a sentence stating this idea and add
it to the paragraph. Does your sentence convey
the main idea?
Notice how the main idea is expressed in each of
the following models.
model: main idea as the last sentence
His body tried to maintain a
healthy temperature by producing
large amounts of sweat. Because the
air was so humid and there was no
breeze, the sweat didn’t evaporate
and cool him at all. It just dripped
unpleasantly, and he grew even hotter as
he angrily tried to wipe it away. Despite
losing all that water, he wasn’t even
thirsty. Though he didn’t know it, he
was in danger of becoming dehydrated.
model: implied main idea
As he walked along the street
looking for something to drink, he
began to feel light-headed. He
ignored the feeling for a few minutes,
but then became so dizzy that he had
to sit down. Soon he started to feel
sick to his stomach. As he stretched
out, he began to shiver. “How can
I be cold when it’s 110 degrees?” he
wondered before he fainted.
model: main idea as the first sentence
On the second day of the heat
wave, the temperature soared to a
sweltering 110 degrees. The sun
melted the tar of the newly paved
driveway. It was almost impossible
to escape the fumes, which caused
him to hold his nose and breathe
through his mouth. The air felt like
a wet blanket smothering his lungs.
Each breath was a struggle.
Implied
main idea:
He was
dehydrated,
which was
a serious
problem.
Main idea
Main idea
Supporting
details
Supporting
details
3 Reading Informational Texts:
Patterns of Organization
Reading any type of writing is easier once you
recognize how it is organized. Writers usually
arrange ideas and information in ways that best
help readers see how they are related. There are
several common patterns of organization:
• main idea and supporting details
• chronological order
• cause-effect organization
• compare-and-contrast organization
• problem-solution organization
Writers also typically present arguments in ways
that will help readers follow their reasoning.
For more about deductive and inductive methods of
organization, see Analyzing Logic and Reasoning,
pages R22–R25.
3.1 main idea and supporting details
Main idea and supporting details is a basic pattern
of organization in which a central idea about a
topic is supported by details. The main idea is
the most important idea about a topic that a
particular text or paragraph conveys. Supporting
details are words, phrases, or sentences that tell
more about the main idea. The main idea may be
directly stated at the beginning and then followed
by supporting details, or it may be merely implied
by the supporting details. It may also be stated
after it has been implied by supporting details.
Strategies for Reading
• To find a stated main idea in a paragraph,
identify the paragraph’s topic. The topic is
what the paragraph is about and can usually be
summed up in one or two words. The word, or
synonyms of it, will usually appear throughout
the paragraph. Headings and subheadings are
also clues to the topics of paragraphs.
• Look for the topic sentence,or the sentence that
states the most important idea the paragraph
conveys. It is often the first sentence in a
paragraph; however,it may appear at the end.
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writers use order words such as after,next,and later
and time words and phrases that identify specific
times of day,days of the week,and dates,such as
the next morning,Tuesday, and March 13,2007.
Strategies for Reading
• Scan the text for headings and subheadings
that may indicate a chronological pattern of
organization.
• Look for words and phrases that identify times,
such as in a year, three hours earlier, in a.d. 1066,
and the next day.
• Look for words that signal order, such as first,
afterward, then, during, and finally, to see how
events or steps are related.
• Note that a paragraph or passage in which ideas
and information are arranged chronologically
will have several words or phrases that indicate
time order, not just one.
• Ask yourself: Are the events in the paragraph or
passage presented in time order?
Notice the words and phrases that signal time order
in the first two paragraphs of the following model.
model
The Life of Jack London
Jack London was born in San
Francisco, California, in 1876.
His family was poor and moved
frequently in search of work. In
1881, the family began working on
farms. London’s dislike of farming
drew him to literature as a way “to
get beyond the sky lines of my narrow
California valley.”
The Londons were unlucky in
farming. When they lost their land,
they moved across the bay to Oakland.
To help support his family, the
10-year-old London took his first
job. By the time he was 15, he had
quit school and was working long
hours in a factory. London became a
tough teenager who knew how to fight
but who never lost his burning passion
for books.
Time words
and phrases
Events
3.2 chronological order
Chronological order is the arrangement of events
in the order in which they happen. This type
of organization is used in many short stories
and novels,historical writing,biographies,and
autobiographies. To show the order of events,
Read each paragraph, and then do the following:
1. Identify the main idea in the paragraph, using one
of the strategies discussed on the previous page.
Tell whether it is stated or implied.
2. Evaluate the pattern of organization used in the
paragraph. Does it express the main idea effectively?
practice and apply
The earthquake shook down in San
Francisco hundreds of thousands of dollars’
worth of walls and chimneys. But the
conflagration that followed burned up
hundreds of millions of dollars’ worth of
property. There is no estimating within
hundreds of millions the actual damage
wrought. Not in history has a modern
imperial city been so completely destroyed.
San Francisco is gone. Nothing remains of it
but memories and a fringe of dwelling houses
on its outskirts.
—Jack London, “The Story of an Eyewitness”
They never saw him. Now and then they
heard whispered rumors to the effect that he
was in the neighborhood. The woods were
searched. The roads were watched. There was
never anything to indicate his whereabouts. But
a few days afterward, a goodly number of slaves
would be gone from the plantation. Neither
the master nor the overseer had heard or seen
anything unusual in the quarter. Sometimes
one or the other would vaguely remember
having heard a whippoorwill call somewhere in
the woods, close by, late at night. Though it was
the wrong season for whippoorwills.
—Ann Petry, Harriet Tubman:
Conductor on the Underground Railroad
practice and apply
answers
1. San Francisco has been destroyed by an
earthquake—stated; A person helped
slaves escape without being detected—
unstated
2. cause-and-effect order; chronological order
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R10 reading handbook
3.3 cause-effect organization
Cause-effect organization is a pattern of
organization that shows causal relationships
between events, ideas, and trends. Cause-effect
relationships may be directly stated or merely
implied by the order in which the information
is presented. Writers often use the cause-effect
pattern in historical and scientific writing. Causeeffect
relationships may have several forms.
One cause with one effect
Cause Effect
One cause with multiple effects
Cause
Effect
Effect
Multiple causes with a single effect
Effect
Cause
Cause
A chain of causes and effects
Cause EffectEffect/Cause
Strategies for Reading
• Look for headings and subheadings that indicate
a cause-effect pattern of organization, such as
“Effects of Food Allergies.”
• To find the effect or effects, read to answer the
question“What happened?”
• To find the cause or causes, read to answer the
question“Why did it happen?”
• Look for words and phrases that help you
identify specific relationships between events,
such as because, since, had the effect of, led to,
as a result, resulted in, for that reason, due to,
therefore, if . . . then, and consequently.
• Look closely at each cause-effect relationship.
Do not assume that because one event
happened before another, the first event caused
the second event.
• Use graphic organizers like the diagrams shown
to record cause-effect relationships as you read.
Notice the words that signal causes and effects in
the following model.
practice and apply
Reread the preceding model and then do the following:
1. List three words or phrases in the last three
paragraphs that indicate time or order.
2. Describe how London became interested in books.
3. Explain why he returned home after living as a tramp.
Living by the sea, London became fascinated
by the ships that promised contact with faraway
places. At the age of 17, he joined the Sophia
Sutherland on a seal-hunting voyage to Japan.
This trip provided material for his first short story,
“Story of a Typhoon off the Coast of Japan,” for
which he won first prize in a writing contest.
London then returned to California with a
passion for travel. The next year, he “hopped a
train” heading east and lived as a tramp. However,
homelessness persuaded him to return to high
school in Oakland. In 1896, with only one year
of high school behind him, he passed the entrance
exam for the University of California at Berkeley.
Unfortunately, London had to give up his
university studies for lack of money. After
working for a while in a laundry, he joined the
rush north to Canada’s Klondike River in search
of gold. Although London never struck it rich, his
Klondike experiences inspired his later writing.
model
We’re Destroying Our Rain Forests
According to a study done by
Brazilian scientists, nearly 5 million
acres of rain forest are disappearing
a year. That’s equal to seven football
fields a minute.
The cause of this destruction is
simple—cutting down trees. Every
minute, around 2,000 trees are
felled to create highways, railroads, and
farms. Some trees, such as mahogany
and teak, are harvested for their
beautiful hardwood.
Signal words
Effect
Cause
practice and apply
answers
1. at the age of 17, then, the next year, in 1896,
after
2. to take his mind off his dislike of farming
and boredom with California
3. He didn’t like being homeless.
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3.4 compare-and-contrast organization
Compare-and-contrast organization is a pattern of
organization that provides a way to look at
similarities and differences in two or more subjects.
A writer may use this pattern of organization to
compare the important points or characteristics of
two or more subjects. These points or characteristics
are called points of comparison. There are two ways
to develop compare-and-contrast organization:
Point-by-point organization—The writer discusses
one point of comparison for both subjects, then
goes on to the next point.
Subject-by-subject organization—The writer
covers all points of comparison for one subject and
then all points of comparison for the next subject.
Strategies for Reading
• Look in the text for headings, subheadings,
and sentences that may suggest a compareand-contrast
pattern of organization, such as
“Common Behaviors of Different Pets,” to help
you identify where similarities and differences
are addressed.
• To find similarities, look for words and phrases
such as like, all, both, every, and in the same way.
• To find differences, look for words and phrases
such as unlike, but, on the other hand, more, less,
in contrast, and however.
• Use a graphic organizer, such as a Venn diagram
or a compare-and-contrast chart, to record points
of comparison and similarities and differences.
Subject 1 Subject 2
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
Subject 1 Both Subject 2
As you read the following models, use the signal
words and phrases to identify the similarities and
differences between the subjects and how the
details are organized in each text.
practice and apply
Refer to the preceding model to do the following:
1. Use one of the graphic organizers on page R10 to
show the multiple effects of cutting down trees
described in the model.
2. List three words or phrases used to signal cause and
effect in the last four paragraphs.
model 1
Mr. Frank and Mr. Van Daan
Moving into a tiny apartment with
people you have never met is a sure
way to discover your differences. In
the play The Diary of Anne Frank,
Mr. Frank and Mr. Van Daan are
in a similar situation, but have very
different personalities, behaviors, and
relationships with their families.
Both men are Jews living in
Nazi-occupied Amsterdam during
World War II. Both have children:
Mr. Frank, two daughters; and Mr.
Van Daan, a son. They try to hide
Subjects
Comparison
words and
phrases
This destruction of the rain forests has wideranging
effects on living things. About 30,000
plant species live in the Amazon rain forest alone.
These plants provide important foods such as
bananas, coffee, chocolate, and nuts, as well as
medicinal compounds found nowhere else. Just
four square miles of a rain forest shelters more
than 550 species of birds, reptiles, and amphibians.
Almost 100 species worldwide face extinction every
day, many due to habitat loss in rainforests.
Rain forests also act as climate regulators,
balancing the exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere and helping to offset
global warming. The earth’s well-being will
suffer as a result of the rain forests’ destruction.
It is crucial that steps be taken immediately to
reduce the number of trees being cut down. If this
destruction is not reversed, within 50 years, thriving
rain forests will be no more than a memory.
practice and apply
answers
1. cause—cutting down trees;
effect/(cause)—destruction of rain forest;
effect 1—extinction of plants and animals;
effect 2—endangering Earth’s well-being
2. cause, effects, due to, as a result of
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Although Mr. and Mrs. Van Daan
are close, they quarrel often. Mr. Van
Daan criticizes his son’s slowness and
threatens to get rid of his beloved cat.
In contrast, Mr. Frank shows only love
and respect for his wife and daughters.
Even when he scolds Anne, he does it
privately and gently. After Anne hurts
her mother’s feelings, Mr. Frank tells
her that parents “can only try to set a
good example. The rest you must do
yourself.”
The differences between Mr. Frank
and Mr. Van Daan in The Diary
of Anne Frank far outnumber their
similarities. Mr. Van Daan’s selfishness
endangers both families, while Mr.
Frank’s compassion and consideration
help them all make the best of a
terrible situation.
model 2
Two for Tea
Next to water, tea is the most popular
drink worldwide. Served hot or iced,
it comes in a variety of flavors to suit
every taste. Yerba maté and green tea
are two varieties that seem to suit
the tastes of increasing numbers of
people of all ages and nationalities.
Yerba maté is native to South
America. Made from the dried leaves
of the yerba maté tree, it is traditionally
brewed in hollow gourds, which are
themselves called matés. The gourd is
filled three-quarters full with leaves,
and they are then covered with hot
water. When the leaves have completely
absorbed the moisture, more water is
added. The brewed tea is then drunk
through a tube with a strainer at one
end called a bombilla. Yerba maté is
sometimes served with milk, sugar, or
lemon juice to cut its slight bitterness.
Yerba maté is thought to offer
many health benefits. It is loaded
with antioxidants that may boost
Subjects
Comparison
words and
phrases
their families from the Nazis in the
same apartment.
Despite these similarities, there
are many differences between the
two men. First, they have nearly
opposite personalities. Mr. Van Daan
is very concerned with appearances
and wears expensive clothes. He can
be kind, but often loses his temper.
He also has strong opinions about the
roles of men and women. For example,
he acts embarrassed that his son Peter
likes his pet cat and disapproves of
Anne’s outspokenness. He tells her,
“A man likes a girl who’ll listen to
him once in a while.”
In contrast, Mr. Frank doesn’t
seem to care about material things.
He always stays calm and has
compassion for other people. Even
when Mr. Van Daan is caught stealing
food, Mr. Frank tries to understand
the man’s behavior. Mr. Frank’s
attitude about women differs from Mr.
Van Daan’s as well. Mr. Frank never
criticizes Anne for being unladylike;
instead, he encourages her to be
herself. He gives her a diary because
he knows she loves to write, and he is
proud of her creativity when she makes
Hanukkah presents for everyone.
As Anne says about her father, “He’s
the only one who’s ever given me the
feeling that I have any sense.”
The two men also respond
differently to their situation. Mr. Van
Daan is self-centered and believes he
suffers more from hunger than the
others. He even tries to take Anne’s
piece of cake. Mr. Frank, on the
other hand, always puts the needs of
others before his own. For example,
he makes the newcomer, Dr. Dussel,
feel welcome and gladly offers him
food. He also risks his own safety to
investigate when a robber enters the
downstairs warehouse.
Mr. Frank and Mr. Van Daan relate
differently with their families.
Subject
Comparison
words and
phrases
Contrast
words and
phrases
Contrast
words and
phrases
Subject
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Reading Handbook
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3.5 problem-solution organization
Problem-solution organization is a pattern
of organization in which a problem is stated
and analyzed and then one or more solutions
are proposed and examined. This pattern of
organization is often used in persuasive writing,
such as editorials or proposals.
Strategies for Reading
• Look for an explanation of the problem in the
first or second paragraph.
• Look for words such as problem and reason that
may signal an explanation of the problem.
• To find the solution, ask:What suggestion does
the writer offer to solve the problem?
• Look for words such as propose, conclude, and
answer that may signal a solution.
practice and apply
Refer to the preceding models to do the following:
1. Find one similarity and one difference in the
organization of these two models.
2. For each model, list three words or phrases that
signal comparisons or contrasts.
3. Identify two points in each model that the writer
compares or contrasts.
4. Make a Venn diagram or compare-and-contrast
graphic to show the similarities and differences in
one of the models.
model
Teachers, administrators, school board members,
and parents have begun expressing concerns that
the foreign language students aren’t getting enough
practice using their languages in conversation.
Students read dialogues from their textbooks
and respond to questions. They also use the
language lab to get more practice speaking the
language. The facilities are limited, though, and
have to be used after school, which conflicts with
other activities. Also, the language lab doesn’t
give them real-life experience with using the new
language to listen to others, either.
One solution to this problem would be to
establish language tables in the lunchroom.
Students taking a given language would eat lunch
at a specific table one day a week. For that time,
they would speak only the foreign language.
This plan has several advantages. First, it
doesn’t require any additional equipment, staff,
or materials. Second, it wouldn’t take time away
from other classes or activities. Language students
have to eat lunch just like everyone else, so why
not make it an enjoyable learning experience?
Setting up language tables would let students
supplement their language skills while nourishing
their bodies. That’s a recipe for success!
the immune system and help prevent
cancer. It also seems to aid digestion.
Green tea, on the other hand, is
native to China and was exported
to Japan in about a.d. 800. Unlike
yerba maté, green tea usually is
brewed in teapots. Only about a
teaspoonful of leaves is used per pot.
The leaves are steeped for only around
two minutes—much less than the
soaking time for yerba maté. Green
tea has a very mild taste and generally
is served plain in ceramic cups so the
delicate taste can be savored.
Like yerba maté, green tea also is
beneficial to health. Similarly rich
in antioxidants, it has been reputed
to lower cholesterol and blood sugar
and also to relieve the pain of arthritis.
So, the next time you have tea for two,
try one of these two popular drinks—
yerba maté and green tea.
Contrast
words and
phrases
Comparison
words and
phrases
practice and apply
Reread the model and then answer the following
questions:
1. According to the model,what is the cause of the
problem?
2. What solution does the writer offer? What words
are a clue?
practice and apply
answers
1. The models are similar in that they both use
compare-and-contrast organization, but
they differ in their specific arrangement of
similarities and differences. The first model
uses point-by-point organization, while the
second uses subject-by-subject organization.
2. Model 1—both, same, similarities, differences,
in contrast, on the other hand, differently;
Model 2—and, on the other hand,
unlike, like, also
3. Model 1—personalities, behavior, family
relationships; Model 2—country of
origin, leaves, brewing methods, how drunk,
what’s added
4. Answers will vary. Possible graphic:
practice and apply
answers
1. Problem: Students have no opportunity
to practice the foreign language they are
studying. Cause: Facilities are limited and
the language lab does not offer real-life
experience using the new language.
2. Solution: Establish language tables in the
lunchroom. Clues: “one solution to this
problem,” “several advantages”
Characteristic Yerba mate Green tea
Country of
origin
South
America
China
Brewing
method
brewed in
gourd,
absorbs
boiling water
twice
brewed in
teapot for
2 minutes
Served in bombilla ceramic cup
What’s added milk, sugar,
lemon juice
nothing
Health
benefits
antioxidants,
aids digestion
antioxidants,
lowers cholesterol
and
blood sugar,
relieves
arthritis
pain
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R14 reading handbook
4 Reading Consumer,Public,and Workplace Documents
Informational texts can be grouped into three major categories: consumer, public,
and workplace documents. In this section, you will learn strategies for reading these
different kinds of texts. At the end of this section, you will also have the chance to use
these texts to explain decisions and solve problems.
4.1 reading consumer documents
Consumer documents are printed
materials that accompany consumer
products and services, such as
product care tags, warranties,
contracts, schedules, and assembly
instructions. Take a moment now
to familiarize yourself with the text
features and information commonly
found in these types of documents,
using the strategies provided.
Strategies for Reading
A Look for the product name,which
is usually in the largest type.
B Skim subheadings to identify the
types of product facts you can find.
C Don’t be swayed by appealing
language in a product description.
Focus on facts rather than feelgood
phrases.
D A warranty explains the rules
you must follow to get the item
repaired or replaced for free.
E Always read the fine print. It
often tells what the warranty
won’t cover or what will release
the manufacturer from having to
keep its promises.
F Before throwing anything away,
read the warranty to find out
what proof(s) of purchase you
must provide to qualify for its
protection. A proof of purchase
is a document that verifies you
paid for the item. It may be your
receipt,a bar code from a box,or
the product information tag.
GENERAL WARRANTY
If any part of your Student Traveler Luggage is ever broken or damaged,
we will repair it free of charge if you send or bring it to an Authorized
Repair Center.
To locate an Authorized Repair Center near you, call 888–555–TRAV or
go to www.studenttravelerluggage.com.
NOTE: You must pay for shipping the bag to us, but we’ll take care of the cost for its
repair and return. Allow 2–3 weeks from your bag’s date of arrival for its repair and
safe return.
EXCEPTIONS: Cosmetic damage and cleaning are not covered under this warranty.
We are not responsible for the replacement of lost or stolen bags or their contents.
To qualify for our repair service, please supply the following items with
your luggage:*
• Warranty certificate (this card)
• Proof of purchase (original receipt or product information tag)
*Alternatively, to avoid having to provide paper documentation in the future,
register your product online now. Just go to www.studenttravelerluggage.com,
click on “activate warranty,” and answer the prompts.
WARRANTY CODE 276URX-8A
E
F
D
C
B
A
model: product information tag
model: warranty
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Reading Handbook
reading handbook R15
G When reading a consent form
or other contract, review all the
options before picking one.
H Notice write-on lines, which are
lines provided for signatures and
handwritten information you may
need to supply.
I To figure out what you need to put
on a write-on line,look to its left
for a question or a noun phrase
followed by a colon. Also follow
any instructions in parentheses.
4.2 reading public documents
Public documents are texts
written to provide information
that is of interest or concern
to the general public. Such
documents include speeches,
laws, government documents,
and posted rules and regulations.
For example, the following public
document was issued by a school
for its eighth grade field trip
to Washington, D.C. Study this
document, using the strategies
provided.
Strategies for Reading
A Read the heading to see what
the document is about.
B Regard each numbered item as
important.
C Pay close attention to verbs
describing actions you should or
should not take.
D Pay close attention to
statements that identify the
consequences for breaking or
failing to properly follow a rule.
practice and apply
Use the three preceding consumer documents to do the following.
1. Compare the product information tag and the warranty. What purpose
and text features do they share? What else do they have in common?
2. Contrast all three documents. What is unique about each document?
PARENT/GUARDIAN CONSENT FORM
___I hereby GRANT permission for my child’s photo to be used in school
district materials and distributed to local newspapers.
___I hereby DO NOT GRANT permission for my child’s photo to be used
in school district materials or to be distributed to local newspapers.
(I understand this means photographs of my child in plays, athletic
competitions, awards ceremonies, and recitals will not be included in
promotional materials or in the local newspaper.)
Student’s Name: (please print) _________________________________
Name of Parent/Guardian: (please print) _________________________
Signature of Parent/Guardian: (please sign) ______________________
Date: _______________________________________________________
G
I
H
Trip Rules
1. Keep your itinerary with you at all times.
2. Arrive promptly for departures and report directly to your chaperone.
3. Answer promptly whenever a head count is taken.
4. When out touring, dress and behave with decorum. Unacceptable clothing
includes torn jeans, pants that fall 4 inches or more below one’s natural
waistline, skirts shorter than mid-thigh, tops that expose any part of the
midriff, and T-shirts with hostile messages.
5. When out touring, do not wear shoes that might bother your feet, including
flip flops, clogs, and high heels.
6. At the hotel, you are not permitted to order from room service or attach
any electronic devices to the hotel television (leave your TV game stations at
home).
7. By 10 p.m. you must be in your assigned hotel room for the night.
If you break the 10 p.m. curfew, you will be expelled from the trip.
practice and apply
Refer to the preceding public document to answer the next questions.
1. On this trip, would you wear a pair of flip flops to tour Washington, D.C.?
Why or why not?
2. What will happen if you are discovered in the hall after 10 p.m.?
A
D
C
B
model: contract
model: rules and regulations
practice and apply
answers
Possible answers:
1. No, you would not wear flip flops to tour
Washington, D.C., because according to trip
rule #5, students are not permitted to wear
them while touring.
2. You will be expelled from the trip.
practice and apply
answers
1. Both are written to inform consumers.
Common text features include headings,
different sizes of type, boldfaced type, and
formats designed to make it easy for consumers
to find precisely the kind of information
they are searching for, whether that’s
the product’s dimensions and price or how
to locate an Authorized Repair Center. Both
also contain codes that are presumably
used only by the manufacturer.
2. Answers will vary. Students might note that
only the product tag contains a description,
only the warranty has fine print, and only
the consent form has write-on lines.
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R16 reading handbook
4.3 reading workplace documents
Workplace documents are texts produced or used within the workplace, such
as memos, business letters, and company policy statements. You can become
familiar with some of the conventions used in workplace documents by
reading the following business letter, using the strategies provided.
Strategies for Reading
A Read the heading to find out
when the letter was written and
by whom.
B Read the inside address to identify
the person for whom the letter is
intended.
C Notice the salutation,or initial
greeting. It is usually impersonal
(as in“To Whom It May Concern”)
or formal (as in“Dear”).
D As you read the body of the
letter, notice what the sender
wants the reader to know or do.
E Slow down when reading a
bulleted list, which is meant
to make complex information
clearer. Every item on a bulleted
list is of equal importance.
F In the closing, you can find
the sender’s name, his or her
position, and, sometimes, an
e-mail address or other contact
information.
model: business letter
practice and apply
Refer to the business letter to answer
the following questions.
1. Who is the sender of this letter,
and what does he want?
2. By what method are submissions
supposed to be made?
May 5, 2010
Jerry Meyers, Features Editor
Shady Grove Press
1154 Main Street
Shady Grove, VT 05064
Ms. Corinne Anderson
Newgate Middle School
Shady Grove, VT 05064
Dear Ms. Anderson:
Thank you for informing me of your eighth grade students’
upcoming trip to Washington, D.C. On behalf of Shady Grove Press, I
would like to invite your students to submit feature articles about their
trip for possible publication in our special “back to school” edition.
We can only publish one student-written article, but the writer of
that article will receive a byline (sorry, no cash payment). Interested
students must follow these submission guidelines:
• Articles should be no longer than 750 words.
• Lines must be double-spaced. Type must be 12 pt. Times Roman.
• Article should focus on descriptions of historic sites and personal
thoughts about these sites.
• If photos are included, they must come with captions as well as the
full names and phone numbers of all students appearing in them.
• All submissions must be made electronically (as e-mail attachments),
to the e-mail address provided below no later than June 15.
• The writer’s contact information must be provided with the article.
I look forward to reading your students’ work.
Sincerely,
Jerry Meyers
Jerry Meyers, Features Editor
jmeyers@shadygrovepress.com
A
B
E
C
F
D
practice and apply
answers
1. The sender of the letter is Jerry Meyers, the
features editor of the Shady Grove Press. He
wants the teacher to encourage students to
submit articles to the newspaper about the
class trip. He also wants to provide information,
such as submission guidelines and
what he will (and won’t) do for the student
whose article is accepted.
2. Submissions should be made electronically,
via e-mail.
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4.4 using consumer, public, and workplace documents
to explain a decision or situation or to solve a problem
The information you need to make decisions, handle situations, and solve
problems can often be found in consumer, public, or workplace documents. For
example, imagine that you are going on a class field trip to Washington, D.C.
Use the preceding consumer, public, and workplace documents to tackle the
following decisions, situations, and problems.
1. Use the notice from the airlines shown here and the product information
tag on page R14 to determine whether you can use the Deluxe Carry-On
manufactured by Student Traveler Luggage as your carry-on bag. Then
share what you decide and explain how you reached your decision.
2. What would you do if the zipper on your Deluxe Carry-On broke just 3V
weeks before your flight was scheduled to depart? To solve this problem,
consult the warranty on page R14. Then explain your decision.
3. Review the consent form on page R15. What cannot happen if your parent
or guardian chooses the second option on that contract?
4. Use the rules and regulations on page R15 to decide whether you would
pack any of the following: a TV game station, torn jeans, a T-shirt printed
with a controversial message that you use only as a pajama top. Share your
decisions and your reasons for them.
5. Imagine that the letter on page R16 was sent to your teacher. Reread it to
decide whether you would want to write an article for the paper. State your
decision and note details from the letter that led you to make this choice.
model: airline regulations
CARRY-ON BAGGAGE
For travel worldwide on our airlines, you may carry on one bag and one
personal item such as a purse, briefcase, or laptop computer.
• Carry-on bag dimensions should not exceed 9˝ x 14˝ x 22˝ (length x
width x height) or 45 linear inches (the length, height, and width added
together).
• A carry-on bag must fit under your seat or in an overhead bin.
If your carry-on item cannot be safely stowed on a particular flight, the item
will have to travel as checked baggage.
answers
1. The product from Student Traveler
Luggage can be used as a carry-on bag
because it fits within the limits given by
airlines (9" x 14" x 22").
2. Answers will vary. Sample answer:
Immediately ship or bring the bag to an
Authorized Repair Center (found by calling
the phone number on the warranty or
going to the Web site). If shipping, pay for
the shipping yourself, but first ask if they
can return the bag to you before you leave
on the trip.
3. If the second box is marked, your photo cannot
be used in school district materials or
given to local newspapers.
4. You should not pack a TV game station
because it is not permitted according to
the rules. You might pack torn jeans and a
T-shirt with a controversial message that
you use only as a pajama top because there
is no rule against wearing torn jeans or such
a T-shirt in your own hotel room. There
is only a rule against wearing these items
while out touring Washington, D.C.
5. Answers will vary—there is no right or
wrong decision. Strong answers will use
facts and other details from the letter to
explain the choice made.
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R18 reading handbook
5 Reading Technical Directions
Technical directions are a type of procedural text, or text that explains how to
do something. Specifically, technical directions are detailed instructions for
assembling or operating a product, such as a cell phone. They often can be
found in manuals that accompany electronic devices.
Because you need to be able to follow technical directions precisely and
locate information within them quickly, you may find it helpful to learn the
following strategies for reading technical directions.
Strategies for Reading
A Look at the heading to find out
the purpose of the document.
B Scan the subheadings to see what
kinds of information are covered.
C Examples may be provided to
help you with measurements or
calculations.
D Numbers will show you the
order in which steps should be
followed or actions taken.
E As you read the steps, look for
key terms, codes, or parts. These
may be printed in capital letters
to make them easier to spot.
F Study any diagrams closely,
noticing labels that match terms,
codes, or parts mentioned in the
steps. Then review the steps to
better visualize what you will
need to do.
practice and apply
Refer to the technical directions to
answer the following questions.
1. What must you do before entering
your stride length into the
pedometer?
2. Is any information missing from
the directions? Do they contain
any unnecessary information?
3. How helpful is the diagram to your
understanding of the directions?
model: technical directions from an instruction manual
PEDOMETER INSTRUCTIONS
Set Your Stride
1. Measure your stride length by
walking 10 steps, then dividing the
total distance by 10.
example: 20 ft ÷ 10 = 2 ft 00 in
2. Press the mode (A) button until
dist is displayed on the screen.
3. Press the set (B) button to enter
your stride length. Keep pressing
until the correct value is displayed.
4. To enter a new value later, press reset (C) while the unit is in
distance mode, then repeat step 3.
Set Your Weight
1. Press the mode (A) button until weight is displayed.
2. Press the set (B) button to enter your weight. Keep pressing until
the correct value is displayed.
3. To enter a new value later, press reset (C) while the unit is in
weight mode, then repeat step 2.
Get Going
1. Clip the pedometer to your waist.
2. Press the mode (A) button until step is displayed.
3. Press reset (C) to reset the display to 0.
4. Close the case and start walking.
Review Your Data
After exercise, press the mode (A) button until scan is displayed.
The screen will show, in sequence:
• the number of steps taken
• the distance covered (in miles)
• the calories consumed (based on weight and distance)
A
B
E
C
F
D CBA
practice and apply
answers
1. You should first measure your stride length.
Then press the MODE button until DIST (for
distance) is displayed on the screen. Next,
press the SET button to enter the number.
2. Answers will vary. Students should give
reasons for why they think certain information
is missing or unnecessary. Some
students may say that it is not clear that
“DIST” means the unit is in distance mode.
3. Most students will say the diagram makes it
easier to understand the directions by showing
where each of the buttons is located.
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Reading Handbook
reading handbook R19
6 Reading Electronic Texts
Electronic text is any text that is in a form that a computer can store and display
on a screen. Electronic text can be part of Web pages, CD-ROMs, search engines,
and documents that you create with your computer software. Like books,Web
pages often provide aids for finding information. However, each Web page is
designed differently, and information is not in the same location on each page.
It is important to know the functions of different parts of a Web page so that
you can easily find the information you want.
Strategies for Reading
A Look at the title of a page to
determine what topics it covers.
B For an online source, such as a
Web page or search engine, note
the Web address, known as a URL
(Universal Resource Locator). You
may want to make a note of it
in case you need to return to the
page later.
C Look for a menu bar along the
top, bottom, or side of a Web
page. Clicking on an item in
a menu bar will take you to
another part of the Web site.
D Notice any hyperlinks to related
pages. Hyperlinks are often
underlined or highlighted in a
contrasting color. You can click
on a hyperlink to get to another
page—one that may or may not
have been created by the same
person or organization.
E For information that you want
to keep for future reference, save
documents on your computer or
print them. For online sources,
you can pull down the Favorites
or Bookmarks menu and
bookmark pages so that you can
easily return to them. Printing
the pages you need will allow
you to highlight key ideas on a
hard copy.
practice and apply
1. What is the URL of this Web page?
2. Which hyperlinks would you click on to find further information about
the photograph?
3. How could you find information about subscribing to National Geographic
magazine?
model: web page
C
D
A
C
http://www.nationalgeographic.org/
B
practice and apply
answers
1. http://www.nationalgeographic.org/
2. You can click on the hyperlink marked
“feature story.”
3. You could go to the button marked
“SUBSCRIBE” in the menu bar.
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R20 reading handbook
7 Reading Persuasive Texts
7.1 analyzing an argument
An argument expresses a position on an issue
or problem and supports it with reasons and
evidence. Being able to analyze and evaluate
arguments will help you distinguish between
claims you should accept and those you should not.
A sound argument should appeal strictly to reason.
However,arguments are often used in texts that
also contain other types of persuasive devices. An
argument includes the following elements:
• A claim is the writer’s position on an issue
or problem.
• Support is any material that serves to prove a
claim. In an argument, support usually consists
of reasons and evidence.
• Reasons are declarations made to justify an
action, decision, or belief. For example:“My
reason for walking so quickly is that I’m afraid
I’ll be late for class.”
• Evidence consists of the specific references,
quotations, facts, examples, and opinions that
support a claim. Evidence may also consist of
statistics, reports of personal experience, or the
views of experts.
• A counterargument is an argument made to
oppose another argument. A good argument
anticipates the opposition’s objections and
provides counterarguments to disprove or
answer them.
Read the following book review and use a chart like
the one shown to identify the claim, reason, evidence,
and counterargument.
practice and apply
Hatchet
Reviewed by Kristen Loos
What would you do if you suddenly found
yourself in the middle of a wilderness with no
one else around and only a hatchet to help you
survive? That’s what happens to Brian Robeson,
a boy about my age, in Gary Paulsen’s book
Hatchet. Even if this sounds like a situation
you’ll never be in, Hatchet is worth reading for
what it says about facing your fears.
After his parents get a divorce, Brian heads
up to northern Canada to spend the summer
with his dad. But the pilot flying the airplane
has a heart attack, and Brian is forced to
crash-land it by himself. From then on, he has
to handle everything by himself.
From the beginning all the way to the end
of the book, Brian faces big problems just
to survive. He’s a city kid, so he’s used to
opening up the refrigerator any time he wants
to eat. Now, at the edge of the woods, he has
to figure out things like how to be safe from
wild animals and how to make a fire without
matches. At first, he panics. He doesn’t even
know what to drink or how to find and
prepare food. Even so, he doesn’t give up.
One of the things I like about the book is
how Brian changes. At first, he hopes he will
be rescued very soon. He thinks he can hold
out for a few days until his parents or a search
party finds him. Then, when a plane flies
over without seeing him, he realizes that he is
really on his own. He learns to make tools to
fish and hunt with and to depend on himself
for everything he needs.
Some readers may not like the book
because they think this is an unusual situation
that most people will never have to face. I
don’t agree, though, because I think the real
message is not just about being lost in the
wilderness, but about bravely dealing with
whatever challenges we face in our lives.
I need a larger allowance.Claim
I don’t have enough money to pay
for my school lunches, fees, and
transportation.
I had to borrow money from my
friend two weeks in a row to buy
lunch.
My parents say I just need to
budget my allowance better,
but they don’t realize what my
expenses are.
Reason
Evidence
Counterargument
practice and apply
answer
Claim: Hatchet is a good book to read.
Reason: It’s an entertaining adventure story,
teaches important survival skills, and shows
how the main character changes.
Evidence: Brian learns to stay safe from wild
animals, find food and water, build a fire without
matches, and confront the dangers of the
wilderness.
Counterargument: People may not like that the
book is about an unusual and extreme situation,
but it’s really about facing and learning
from whatever difficulties life brings.
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The next paragraph introduces an editorial in
which the writer uses the strawman method.
7.3 recognizing persuasive techniques
Persuasive texts typically rely on more than
just the logical appeal of an argument to
be convincing. They also rely on ethical and
emotional appeals and other persuasive
techniques—devices that can convince you to
adopt a position or take an action.
Ethical appeals establish a writer’s credibility
and trustworthiness with an audience. When a
writer links a claim to to a widely accepted value,
the writer not only gains moral support for that
claim but also establishes himself or herself as a
reputable, moral person readers can and should
trust. For example, with the following appeal,
7.2 recognizing proposition and
support patterns
To find an author’s claim, support, and
counterarguments, it’s helpful to identify the
author’s method for making his or her case. Here
are two ways writers often make their cases:
• Proposition and Support The writer presents a
proposition, which is a claim that recommends
a policy, and two or three reasons for accepting
the policy. For example,“Cigarette smoking
should be banned in public places because it’s
bad for people’s health and smelly.” Then the
writer supports each reason with evidence.
• Strawman The writer presents a proposition.
Instead of supporting it, though, he or she sums
up the other side’s position and disproves it.
Once that “strawman” has been defeated, the
writer declares his or her proposition the best or
only option.
Writers usually reveal how they are going to
present their cases in the first few paragraphs of
their work. Study the following paragraph to see
how it signals that the argument to come will use
a proposition and support pattern.
model
The city should create bike lanes on
busy streets. Opponents of bike lanes
will tell you that such lanes are a waste
of money because drivers just ignore
them, but that’s not true.
supposed
argument
against
propostition
proposition
practice and apply
Now use the preceding models and instruction to help
you identify the way in which the author of this next
introduction plans to persuade her readers to adopt her
proposition. Explain how you arrived at your conclusion.
model
Have you wanted to ride your bike
to school but been frightened off by the
car traffic? If so, you’re not alone. The
city should create bike lanes on busy
streets because it would make cycling
safer and easier.
Proposition
Support
Every neighborhood should have a
community garden. If the people in our
neighborhood all had the chance to grow their
own fruits, flowers, and vegetables in side-by-side
garden plots, they would eat better, feel better,
and get along better. Of course, not everyone
would participate, but those who did would reap
the benefits!
I’m not going to spoil the book for you
by saying how it ends or whether Brian gets
rescued. Read it yourself for an exciting
adventure and some good lessons about
surviving in the wilderness. I hope you enjoy
it as much as I did.
practice and apply
answer
The author uses a proposition and support
method. The proposition is that every neighborhood
should have a community garden.
The support is that people who plant community
gardens eat better, feel better, and get along
better. Students will likely expect the author
to continue by supporting these claims about
people who plant community gardens.
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R22 reading handbook
the writer reminds readers of a value they should
accept and suggests that if they share this value,
then they should support the writer’s position:
“If you believe that all children deserve a good
education, then vote for this legislation.”
The chart shown here explains several other
means by which a writer may attempt to sway
you. Learn to recognize these techniques, and you
are less likely to be influenced by them.
Sometimes persuasive techniques are misused
to create rhetorical fallacies. A rhetorical fallacy is
writing or speech that is false or misleading. For
example, an athlete who endorses a line of athletic
shoes would be misleading the public if he or she
wears a different kind of shoe in competitions.
7.4 analyzing logic and reasoning
While persuasive techniques may sway you to
side with a writer, they should not be enough
to convince you that an argument is sound.
To determine the soundness of an argument,
examine the argument’s claim and support and
the logic or reasoning that links them. Identifying
the writer’s mode of reasoning can help.
The Inductive Mode of Reasoning
When a person uses specific evidence to
arrive at a generalization, that person is using
inductive reasoning. Similarly, when a writer
presents specific evidence first and then offers
a generalization drawn from that evidence, the
writer is making an inductive argument. Here is
an example of inductive reasoning.
specific evidence
Fact 1 Wind and water wear away rocks over time.
Fact 2 Earthquakes and volcanoes create
immediate and drastic changes in the land.
Fact 3 The slow movement of the continents and
spreading of the sea floor create new landforms.
generalization
Natural forces continually change the surface
of the earth.
Strategies for Determining the Soundness
of Inductive Arguments
Ask yourself the following questions to evaluate
an inductive argument:
• Is the evidence valid and sufficient support
for the conclusion? Inaccurate facts lead to
inaccurate conclusions.
practice and apply
Identify the persuasive techniques used in this model.
A Dry Future?
One of the most talked-about books
published this year is Glass Half Empty. This
informative book paints a frightening picture of
our dwindling water resources. In the next few
decades, fresh drinking water may become more
expensive and harder to find than gasoline! The
author warns that competition for water will
Persuasive Technique Example
Bandwagon appeal
Taps into people’s desire
to belong.
Join the millions of healthconscious
people who
drink Wonder Water!
Testimonial
Relies on endorsements
from well-known people
or satisfied customers
Send your game over the top
with Macon Ace—the racket
designed and used by tennis
legend Sonja Macon.
Snob appeal
Taps into people’s desire
to be special or part of an
elite group
The best deserve only
the best—you deserve
Beautiful Bubbles bath
soap.
Appeals to pity, fear,
or vanity
Use strong feelings, rather
than facts, to persuade
Why go unnoticed when
Pretty Face can make you
the center of attention?
cause nations to go to war with each other. Over
40 scientists have spoken in praise of the book.
If you care about the planet, rush out and get a
copy of Glass Half Empty.
practice and apply
answer
Possible answer:
• Bandwagon appeal: “One of the most talkedabout
books,” “If you care about the planet,
rush out and get a copy”
• Testimonial/Appeal to authority: “Over 40
scientists have spoken in praise of the book”
• Appeal to fear: “fresh drinking water may become
more expensive and harder to find than
gasoline!”, “competition for water will cause
nations to go to war with each other”
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• Does the conclusion follow logically from the
evidence? From the facts listed, the conclusion
that Earth’s core as well as its surface are
constantly changing would be too broad.
• Is the evidence drawn from a large enough
sample? These three facts are enough to
support the claim. If you wanted to claim that
these are the only forces that cause change, you
would need more facts.
The Deductive Mode of Reasoning
When a person uses a premise,or general principle,
to form a conclusion about a particular situation or
problem, that person is using deductive reasoning.
For example,
Premise, or general
principle
The situation being
observed or considered
Conclusion (also considerd
a deduction)
To drive a car well, all
drivers must give driving
their complete attention.
Talking on a cell phone
takes some of a person’s
attention.
Drivers shouldn’t talk on cell
phones while driving.
Similarly, a writer is making a deductive
argument when he or she begins the argument
with a claim that is based on a premise and
then presents evidence to support the claim.
For example, a writer might begin a deductive
argument with the claim “Drivers should not talk
on cell phones while they are driving.”
Strategies for Determining the Soundness
of Deductive Arguments
Ask yourself the following questions to evaluate
a deductive argument:
• Is the premise actually stated,or is it implied?
Writers often present deductive arguments
without stating the premises. They just assume
that readers will recognize and agree with the
premises. So you may want to identify the
premise for yourself.
• Is the premise correct? Don’t assume it is true.
Ask yourself whether it is really true.
• Is the conclusion valid? To be valid, a conclusion
in a deductive argument must follow logically
from the premise and the specific situation.
The following chart shows two conclusions drawn
from the same premise.
All spiders have eight legs.
Accurate Deduction Inaccurate Deduction
The black widow is a
spider, therefore it has
eight legs.
An octopus has eight legs,
therefore it is a spider.
An octopus has eight legs, but it belongs to a
different category of animals than the spider.
Now, as you read the following model, pay
attention to how the author arrives at her
conclusion.
The other day when I was waiting at the
stoplight on my bike, I noticed that the car in front
of me was in the right lane and had its right turn
signal on. Wouldn’t you have assumed, just like I
did, that the driver was going to turn right? Well, I
was wrong, and you probably would’ve been, too.
As soon as the light turned green, the car swerved
across two lanes and turned left.
Then there was the surprise birthday party the
neighborhood kids and I had for one of our friends.
We’d managed to keep it a secret, so we all expected
her to be really surprised and pleased. Instead,
she was upset and embarrassed because she wasn’t
dressed properly for a party.
It’s dangerous to make assumptions about how
other people will act. I’ve learned that the hard way!
practice and apply
Refer to the preceding model and instruction to do the
following:
1. Identify the mode of reasoning used in the model.
2. In your own words, explain the difference between
inductively and deductively organizing ideas.
practice and apply
answers
1. Inductive reasoning: the writer presents two
pieces of evidence—anecdotal examples
about surprising reactions—and generalizes
from them that it is unwise to assume how
people will act.
2. When you arrange ideas inductively, you
present each one and add them all up to
reach a generalization or conclusion about
them. When you arrange ideas deductively,
you start with your generalization, or premise,
make a claim based on that generalization,
and then present your ideas.
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R24 reading handbook
Identifying Faulty Reasoning
Sometimes an argument at first appears to make sense but isn’t valid because
it is based on a fallacy. A fallacy is an error in logic. Learn to recognize these
common fallacies.
type of fallacy definition example
Circular reasoning Supporting a statement by simply repeating it
in different words
My mother is always busy because she has too
much to do.
Either/or fallacy A statement that suggests that there are only
two choices available in a situation that really
offers more than two options
Either I grow two inches this summer or I’ll
never make any friends at my new school.
Oversimplification An explanation of a complex situation or
problem as if it were much simpler than it is
All you have to do to get good grades is listen
carefully in class.
Overgeneralization A generalization that is too broad. You can
often recognize overgeneralizations by the
use of words such as all, everyone, every time,
anything, no one, and none.
Nobody has as many chores as I do.
Hasty generalization A conclusion drawn from too little evidence or
from evidence that is biased
I sneezed after taking a bite of the salad, so I
must be allergic to something in it.
Stereotyping A dangerous type of overgeneralization.
Stereotypes are broad statements about people
on the basis of their gender, ethnicity, race, or
political, social, professional, or religious group.
Artists are emotional and hard to get along
with.
Attacking the person
or name-calling
An attempt to discredit an idea by attacking
the person or group associated with it.
Candidates often engage in name-calling
during political campaigns.
The senator only supports this bill because he
is corrupt.
Evading the issue Responding to an objection with arguments
and evidence that do not address its central
point
I forgot to get the milk, but dairy products are
hard to digest anyway.
False cause The mistake of assuming that because one
event occurred after another event, the first
event caused the second one to occur
It rained this afternoon because I left my
umbrella at home.
Non sequitur A conclusion that does not follow logically from
the“proof” offered to support it
Mrs. Lewis will make Steve the baseball team
captain. He is already the captain of the
volleyball team.
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7.5 evaluating persuasive texts
Learning how to evaluate persuasive texts and
identify bias will help you become more selective
when doing research and also help you improve
your own reasoning and arguing skills.
Strategies for Identifying Bias
Bias is an inclination for or against a particular
opinion or viewpoint. A writer may reveal a
strongly positive or negative bias on an issue by
• presenting only one way of looking at it
• overlooking key information
• stacking more evidence on one side of the
argument than the other
• using unfairly weighted evidence, which is weak
or unproven evidence that a writer treats as if it
is more important than it really is
• using loaded language, which consists of words
with strongly positive or negative connotations
EXAMPLE: At the Village Star, we bring you up-tothe-minute
news. That’s why so many people read
our paper. (Someone who works for the paper
is making the claim. Up-to-the-minute has very
positive connotations. The writer also fails to
mention important information: the paper is free.)
Strategies for Identifying Propaganda
Propaganda is any form of communication that
is so distorted that it conveys false or misleading
information. Logical fallacies such as name-calling,
the either/or fallacy,and false causes are often
used in propaganda. The following example shows
false cause. The writer uses one fact to support a
particular point of view but does not reveal another
fact that does not support that viewpoint.
EXAMPLE: Since Jack Carter was elected mayor,
unemployment has decreased by 25%. (The writer
does not mention that it was the previous mayor,
not Jack Carter, who was responsible for bringing
in the new factory that provides the extra jobs.)
For more information on logical fallacies, see Identifying
Faulty Reasoning, page R24.
Strategies for Evaluating Evidence
It is important to have a set of standards by
which you can evaluate persuasive texts. Use the
questions below to help you critically assess facts
and opinions that are presented as evidence.
• Are the presented facts verifiable? A fact, or
factual claim, is a statement that can be proved
by consulting a reliable source or doing research.
• Are the presented opinions and commonplace
assertions well informed? An opinion is a
statement of personal belief, feeling, or thought
that does not require proof. A commonplace
assertion is a statement that many people
assume to be true but isn’t necessarily so. When
evaluating either type of statement, consider
whether the author is knowledgeable about the
topic and uses sound reasoning.
• Is the evidence thorough and balanced?
Thorough evidence leaves no reasonable
questions unanswered. Be alert to evidence
that is weighted unfairly and contains loaded
language or other signs of bias.
• Is the evidence authoritative? The people,
groups, or organizations that provided the
evidence should have credentials that support
their authority.
• Is it important that the evidence be current?
Where timeliness is crucial,as in the areas of
medicine and technology, the evidence should
reflect the latest developments in the areas.
practice and apply
Look for examples of logical fallacies in the following
argument. Identify each one and explain why you
identified it as such.
Store clerks are so rude. A cashier was
impatient with me in the supermarket the
other day because I bought too much yogurt.
They must train the employees to treat
customers that way so more people will use
the self-checkout lines. I need to budget more
money for groceries.
practice and apply
answer
Stereotyping: “Store clerks are so rude.”
Hasty generalization: “A cashier was impatient
with me . . . because I bought too much yogurt.”
Unsupported inference: “They must train the
employees to treat customers that way so more
people will use the self-checkout lines.”
Non sequitur: “I need to budget more money
for groceries.”
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R26 reading handbook
practice and apply
Read the argument below. Identify the facts, opinions,
and elements of bias.
Ultra Bars are the tastiest and most
efficient way to get your daily requirement
of important nutrients. Our bodies need
a well-balanced combination of protein,
carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, and
trace elements to function most effectively
and make us feel our best. The ingredients
in Ultra Bars have been chosen in the perfect
proportion to ensure you get the maximum
benefit. Best of all, they taste terrific. And they
aren’t just for athletes—ordinary people should
carry these bars with them, too, for a quick
boost throughout the day!
Strategies for Determining a Strong Argument
Make sure that all or most of the following
statements are true:
• The argument presents a claim or controlling
idea.
• The claim is connected to its support by a premise
or generalization that most readers would readily
agree with. Correct premise:Doing your best will
bring you personal pride. Incorrect premise:Doing
your best will bring you success.
• The reasons make sense.
• The reasons are presented in a logical and
effective order.
• The claim and all reasons are adequately
supported by sound evidence.
• The evidence is adequate, accurate, and
appropriate.
• The logic is sound. There are no instances of
faulty reasoning.
• The argument adequately anticipates and
addresses readers’ concerns and counterclaims
with counterarguments.
practice and apply
Use the preceding criteria to evaluate the strength of
the following proposal.
model
Summary of Proposal
I propose that the city government create a
park on the unused plot of land at the edge
of town.
Need
We must preserve the natural beauty of the
area for all to appreciate and enjoy.
Proposed Solution
The five-acre plot of land on the south
side of town is now being considered for
improvement.
Some people want to sell the land to a
building developer. They say that doing this
would be profitable for the town and also
provide good housing for new residents.
It’s true that the town could make money
by developing the land. A park could also be
a source of income, however.
The park would generate income in a
number of ways. It could charge a small
admission fee for summer concerts and
other events. It also could lease the space to
neighboring communities for their gatherings
and to local food concessions and specialinterest
groups.
The cost of creating and maintaining a park
is less than what it would bring in. Community
groups already have agreed to donate plants,
provide volunteers to landscape and take care of
the grounds, create gazebos, and install benches,
water fountains, and trashcans.
Without a park, we can’t ensure the safety
and health of our residents. It would have
playgrounds and areas to bike, skate, picnic,
and walk or jog. Unlike commercial and even
residential buildings, parks do not encourage
vandalism and graffiti. The chief of police has
confirmed that parks are easier to supervise,
too, because it isn’t as hard to police them.
No one who cares about our community
could fail to see how important it is to create
this park.
practice and apply
answer
Possible answer:
Facts: “Our bodies need a well-balanced combination
of protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins,
minerals, and trace elements to function”; “The
ingredients in Ultra Bars have been chosen in
the perfect proportion”
Opinions: “they taste terrific”; “they aren’t just
for athletes—ordinary people should carry
these bars with them, too . . .”
Elements of Bias: Loaded language—“Ultra
Bars are the tastiest and most efficient way . . .”
practice and apply
answer
Answers will vary. Possible evaluations:
The writer’s reasons make sense and are presented
in logical order. The claim and reasons
could be better supported (for example, he or
she could provide figures on the exact costs of
creating/maintaining the park, and the income
from suggested activities). The argument
adequately addresses and counters opposing
views, but exhibits faulty logic:
• overgeneralization: “No one who cares . . .”
• either-or fallacy: “Without a park, we can’t
ensure . . .”
• circular reasoning: “parks are easier to
supervise, too, because it isn’t as hard to
police them”
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8 Adjusting Reading Rate
to Purpose
You may need to change the way you read certain
texts in order to understand what you read. To
adjust the way you read, you first need to be aware
of what you want to get out of the text. Then you
can adjust the speed at which you read in response
to your purpose and the difficulty of the material.
Determine Your Purpose for Reading
You read different types of materials for different
purposes. You may read a novel for enjoyment.
You may read a textbook unit to learn a new
concept or to master the content for a test. When
you read for enjoyment, you naturally read at a
pace that is comfortable for you. When you read
for information, you need to read more slowly
and thoroughly. When you are being tested on
material, you may think you have to read fast,
especially if the test is being timed. However, you
can actually increase your understanding of the
material if you slow down.
Determine Your Reading Rate
The rate at which you read most comfortably
is called your independent reading level. It is
the rate that you use to read materials that you
enjoy. To learn to adjust your reading rate to read
materials for other purposes, you need to be aware
of your independent reading level. You can figure
out your reading level by following these steps:
1. Select a passage from a book or story you enjoy.
2. Have a friend or classmate time you as you
begin reading the passage silently.
3. Read at the rate that is most comfortable for you.
4. Stop when your friend or classmate tells you
one minute has passed.
5. Determine the number of words you read in
that minute and write down the number.
6. Repeat the process at least two more times,
using different passages.
7. Add the numbers and divide the sum by the
number of times your friend timed you.
Reading Techniques for Informational Material
You can use the following techniques to adapt
your reading for informational texts, to prepare for
tests, and to better understand what you read:
• Skimming is reading quickly to get the general
idea of a text. To skim, read only the title,
headings, graphic aids, highlighted words, and
first sentence of each paragraph. Also, read
any introduction, conclusion, or summary.
Skimming can be especially useful when taking
a test. Before reading a passage, you can skim
the questions that follow it in order to find out
what is expected. This will help you focus on the
important ideas in the text.
When researching a topic, skimming can help
you decide whether a source has information
related to your topic. This will save time.
• Scanning is reading quickly to find a specific piece
of information, such as a fact or a definition.
When you scan, your eyes sweep across a page,
looking for key words that may lead you to the
information you want. Use scanning to review for
tests and to find answers to questions.
• Changing pace is speeding up or slowing down the
rate at which you read parts of a particular text.
When you come across explanations of familiar
concepts, you might be able to speed up without
misunderstanding them. When you encounter
unfamiliar concepts or material presented in an
unpredictable way,however,you may need to slow
down to understand the information.
Reading too slowly can affect
your ability to understand what you read. Make
sure you aren’t just reading one word at a time.
Practice reading phrases.
practice and apply
Find an article in a magazine or textbook. Skim the
article. Then answer the following questions:
1. What did you notice about the organization of the
article from skimming it?
2. What is the main idea of the article?
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