Jana Skerlova žFrancis II (1792 – 1836), since 1804 ruled as the Austrian Emperor Francis I žthe era of absolutism žthe first minister – Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich – convinced conservative monarchist – The Metternich absolutism ž1811 – General Civil Code (ABGB)– compromis between old and new ideologies ž1811 – devastating collpase of the state finances in February (paper currency was devalued to one fifth of its original value) ž ž žWhat is absolutism? ž ža political system and theory of government žthe King (or Queen) is all-powerful and possesses a monopoly on the use of force and the administration of justice žthe ultimate authority to run a state was in the hands of a king who ruled by divine right (i. e. a King/ Queen was given his/her position by some higher power – by God) žThe prerequisites for absolutism: 1. The King (or Queen) has an orderly and efficient bureaucracy where all power and directives flow downward from the monarch. ž 2. The King (or Queen) has a large standing army with which to enforce his (or her) will. ž 3. The power of any other groups or traditional institutions is suppressed, especially the power of the nobility as a class. ž 4. Absolute government is costly and usually requires heavy taxation for support. ž 5. Absolute government depends heavily for its success on strong personality traits in the King (or Queen) as a personal symbol of the state/country. ž ž žEmperor Francis and his Family, a portrait by Jozef Kreutzinger Josef_Kreutzinger_-_Kaiserliche_Familie.jpg žCongress of Vienna ža conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September, 1814 to June, 1815 žthe aim – finishing the wars with France and restauration of old principles – the situation before the revolution (no revolutions, no republicanism, lesser civil rights etc.) ž4 Great Powers: Russia (Tzar Alexandr I, Foreign Minister Count Carl Robert Nesselrode), Prussia (King Frederick William III, Chancellor Karl August von Hardenberg) , Austria (Emperor Francis I., the Foreign Minister Prince Metternich) and Great Britain (Foreign Secretary Viscount Castelreagh, later Duke of Wellington) žsurprisingly important role of defeated France – thanks to Ministre of Foreign Affairs Maurice de Talleyrand – a very good diplomat ž žThe Congress of Vienna was not only a political congress but also a festive event with concerts, dances, hunting and coursing etc . Due to that it is sometimes called „A Dancing Congress“. Congres 4.jpg žThe Final Act – June 1815: žRussia was given most of the Duchy of Warsaw (so called Congress Poland was formed) and was allowed to keep Finland (annexed from Sweden in 1809) žPrussia was given two fifths of Saxony, parts of the Duchy of Warsaw, Danzig, and the Rhineland/Westphalia. žA German Confederation of 38 states was created from the previous 360 of the Holy Roman Empire, under the presidency of the Austrian Emperor žthe United Kingdom of the Netherlands was established žThe neutrality of Switzerland was guaranteed. žThe Bourbon Ferdinand IV, King of Sicily was restored to control of the Kingdom of Naples žThe slave trade was condemned ž žClement Wenceslas Nepomuk Lothar von Metternich-Winneburg-Beilstein (1773 – 1859) Portrait-of-Klemens-Lothar-Wenzel-von-Metternich.jpg Map_congress_of_vienna.jpg žso called The Concert of Europe, also known as the Congress System or Vienna System – it was the network of treaties, institutions and practices that should ensure the balance of power that existed in Europe from the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) to the outbreak of World War I (1914) ž1815 – the Quadruplle Aliance was established – the winners over Napoleon (United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia, Russia) ž1815 – the Holy Alliance was signed by Russian Tzar, Austrian Emperor and Prussian King – the aim of this document was to implement the Christian values and principles into the political life, the moral principles were emphasized, the main goal was again the cooperation against revolutionary, liberal and democratic movements žlater it was signed by almost all European rulers, except those from Skandinavia, Osman Sultan and the Pope, the Great Britain left the system of the Holy Alliance in 1822 ž1818 – the occupation of France was finished – France acceded the Quadrupple Alliance → the Quintupple Alliance was established žthe meetings of the Great Powers during this period: Aachen (1818), Carlsbad (1819), Verona (1822), London (1832), Berlin (1878) žRebirth of national spirits ž žThe first wave of the national movements – 1820s: •German states •Italian states ž žThe second wave of national movements in 1830s: •almost in the whole Europe •started in France (against extremly conservative king Charles X) , then spread to Belgium, to Italy and to other states ž žafter Napoleonic wars and the Congress of Vienna there were three states in Poland: •the semi-autonomous so-called Congress Poland controlled by Russia – it was united with Russia through a personal union •the semi-autonomous Grand Duchy of Poznań controlled by Prussia •the semi-autonomous Kingdom of Galicia and Sandomer controlled by Austria ž 605px-Congress_Poland_in_1815.PNG žthe outbreak of the uprising – November 29, 1830 in Warsaw žOn 25 January 1831, the Sejm passed the Act of Dethronization of Tsar Nicolas I and ended the personal union with Russia žon 29 January 1831 Prince Adam Czartoryzski became President of the new Polish National Government žthe Russians formed very strong army and defeated Polish army at the Battle of Ostrolenka in May 1831 žthe Polish Uprising was supressed žcruel persecution succeded, the leaders of the uprising were sentenced to death so they emigrated žthe cosequence of the vawe of national movements during the 1830s – the collapse of the Holy Alliance ž žgeneral economic depression spread from England to the rest of Europe in mid-1840s žbad harvest, potato blight and drought in 1846 → famine žstrong influence of industrial revolution on politics žbourgeouisie (owners of factories, businessmen) had money but only small political influence žbad living conditions of working classes ž žthe revolution started in January 1848 in Italy (Sicily) – against the Bourbons žFebruary 1848 – revolution in France – ended constitutional monarchy of Louis Phillipe of Orleans ž žthe March Revolution – southern and western parts žit was led by well educated students and intellectuals, but there were also many mass demonstrations žthere were 39 states – demand of German national unity žwanted civil rights žtwo conceptions: •"greater German solution" (including German-speaking areas of Austria) •"smaller German solution" žMarch 1849 - the new German constitution was proclaimed žthey decided to proclaim constitutional monarchy – the crown was offered to Prussian king Frederick William IV – refused to accept the crown from the hands of revolutionary parliament žthe new constituion was refused by most of the German rulers žthe revolution was unsuccesful žFerdinand I (1836–1848) žweak ruler, mentally challenged, the real ruler of the monarchy was the konservative Chief Minister Klemens Wenzel von Metternich žso called pre-March period - restricted freedom of the press, of the speech, of association žlimited many university activities, strong censorship, police control žthe empire, ruled from Vienna, included Austrian Germans, Hungarians, Slovenes, Poles, Czechs, Croats, Slovaks, Ukrainians, Romanians, Serbs and Italians, žall of them wanted to either achieve autonomy, independence, or even hegemony over other nationalities žRebirth of the national spirits among the nationalities of the Habsburg Monarchy ž ž žthe first unrests in Prague in March 1848 žthe conception of austroslavism žJune 1848 – the Pan-Slav Congress was held in Prague under the leadership of the historian František Palacký žDiscussions whether the Slavs should support federated Austria or work to hasten its dissolution – but no decision župrising in June – supressed by an Austrian army led by Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz žMarch 1848 – revolution in Vienna žMetternich was removed from the office and escaped from Vienna žin September 1848 – the Emperor´s decree – the serfdom was completely cancelled (citizens got civil rights but the suffrage was not general) žOctober – new uprising in Vienna - supressed žDecember 1848 – Ferdinad I resigned, lived in Prague till 1875 žFranz Joseph I of Austria ž(1848–1916) ž žabsolutism again žConstituonal experiments and autocratic measures žso called Stadion´s constitution – was not accepted by an assembly ž ž ž 439px-Franz_Joseph_1865.jpg žMarch 1848 – revolution also in Hungary ž12 Demands – among others: authonomy, control over its foreign policy, budget and army, general taxes žHungary was multinational (Slovaks, Croats, Rumanians, Ruthenians, Serbs, Germans etc.) ž1848 – Demands of the Slovak Nation – first Slovak political programme demanding national and territorial authonomy within the framework of Hungary žtheir demands were refused (no politic nor national rights) so they (togenther with other non-Hungarian nations in Hungary) fought against Hungarians žApril 1849 –independent Hungarian state was proclaimed žFranz Joseph asked Russian Tzar for a help against Hungarian revolt ž13 August 1849 – the Battle of Villágos – Hungarians defeated žRepressions ž žafter the defeat of revolution movement in Habsburg monarchy conservative absolutism again žthe ruler – Emperor ž1851 – the constitution was cancelled – neoabsolutism was introduced žthe main personality – the Prime Minister Alexander Bach → Bach’s absolutism žpolice regime, centralism, control of public life, strict censorship žpolitical rights cancelled žkept – eqality before the law, freedom of religion and cancellation of the serfdom žeconomic reforms ž ž ž žForeign policy – unsuccesful ž žneutrality in Crimean War 1853–1856 oOriginally a conflict between Ottoman Empire and Russia – the dispute for protection of the rights of Christians in the Holy Land (controlled by Ottoman Empire) oRussia wanted to use the decline of the Ottoman Empire („sick man of Europe“) and take control over the straits Bosporus and Dardanells oNovember 1953 – Ottoman fleet destroyed by Russians at the Battle of Sinope oGreat Britain nad France declared the war against Russia and supported the Ottoman Empire, later also the Kingdom of Sardinia oAustrian Emperor agreed the intervention but did not support it, declared neutrality o1854 – the Russians advanced to the Danubian Principalities Wallachia and Moldavia, after their withdrawl their place in these Principalities was taken by the Austrians o1856 – Paris Peace Treaty – neutrality of the Black Sea and the straits oAfter the end of the war Austria had to return The danubian Principalities to the Ottoman Empire, practically they became independent oInternational isolation of Habsburg Monarchy during and after the Crimean War ž crimean_war_1853-6_map.jpg ž1859 – the war with Italy – oHabsburgs were defeated and lost Lombardy (the territory in Nothern Italy) ž žthis war caused deep financial crisis in Habsburg Monarchy žthis crisis and dissatisfaction with absolutist policy led to its end žits main representatives headed by Alexander Bach were withdrawn ž1860 – the October Diploma – the new imperial code – was proclaimed ž1861 – February – a new the constitution was instroduced, it was the beginning of parliamentary monarchy in the Habsburg Empire ž ž ž ž ž1866 – Austrian-prussian war oAustria was defeated oAustria lost its influence in Italy and in Germany ointernal weakness of Habsurg Monarchy was shown oit was used by Hungarians – their representative count Julius Andrássy (1823–1890) othey refused centralism but also federalism which proposed the Czech political representation o žso called „Ausgleich“ – a political compromise reached between Germans and Hungarians in Habsburg Monarchy in 1867 othe empire was devided into two parts: the border was the river Leithan between Austria and Hungary – the dual monarchy was established vCisleithania (Austrian lands, Bohemia, Moravia, Galicia and Bukovina, Adriatic lands – Dalmacia, Istria, Terst, Gorica) – domination of German nation vTranslaithania (Hungary, Upper Hungary – Slovakia, Transylvania, Croatia, Slavonia, Rijeka) – domination of Hungarian nation ž Austria-Hungary_map.svg.png žEmpire of Austria (Cisleithania): ž1.Bohemia, ž2. Bukovina, ž3. Carinthia, ž4. Carniola, ž5. Dalmatia, ž6. Galicia, ž7.Austrian Littoral, ž8. Lower Austria, ž9. Moravia, ž10. Salzburg, ž11. Silesia, ž12. Styria, ž13. Tyrol, ž14. Upper Austria, ž15. Vorarlberg; ž žKingdom of Hungary (Transleithania): ž16. Hungary ž17. Croatia-Slavonia; ž žAustrian Condominium: ž18. Bosnia and Herzegovina ž žAustria-Hungary became an union of two states with different constitutions and political system žthey had common ruler – the Emperor Franz Joseph I., common Ministry of War, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Foreign Affairs žthey were connected also economicaly – common currency, customs union žcommon legislative organ for common issues ž žDifferent political develpment: vAustria – 1867 – liberal constitution, parliament monarchy – the power of the ruler was limited by parliament, the ministrers were responsible to the parliament which was approving the legislation and the taxes othe ruler was not responsible to parliament (the rest of absolutism) vHungary – no liberalization but centralisation, the only Hungarian nation, the only official language was hungarian, the other nations without any rights, high schools only in Hungarian language etc. ž žthe Czech political representation was dissatisfied with the situation – the political rights of Hungarians were accepted but of Czechs were not žHungary obtained equality with Austria but the Bohemian Lands did not žThe Bohemian politicians tried to change this situations many times but their politics were unsuccesful žThe Czech hopes for restoration of their political rights received a severe blow žthey started so called passive politics – they were boycotting the parliament sitting and the council meetings till 1878 žThen they adopted a new constructive political program žthe new political leaders – Karel Kramář and Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk ž ž ž žReadings: ž žEvans, R. J. W. (ed.) (2000): The Revolutions in Europe 1848–1849. From Reform to Reaction. Oxford. žOkey, Robin (2001): The Habsburg Monarchy c. 1976–1918: From Enlightenment to Eclipse. London: Macmillan Press LTD. ž žthere were 8 smaller states in Italy - rulers - the Habsburgs, the Bourbons, the Pope žin the north-western part the most economicaly developed Kingdom of Sardinia and Piemont was situated, the home dynasty was ruling there – the House of Savoy – king Victor Emanuel II mediterranea4nunificationitaly1870.bmp ž1859 - the war with Habsburg Monarchy žat the same time, the revolution in smaller states in central Italy broke out and the local pro-Habsburg rulers were everted žafter the plebiscit these states were connected with Victor Emanuel’s state žthe uprising led by legendary hero Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–1882) – he led one thousand of men in red shirts to Palermo (Sicily), occupied it, in September they entered the city of Naples and defeated the army of king Francis (from the house of Bourbons) žthen Garibaldi gave his power to Victor Emanuel II and southern parts of Italy were unified with the nothern parts žMarch 1861 – the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in Torino ž1866 – after Austrian-prussian war Veneto (the territory around the touwn of Venice) was connected with the Kingdom of Italy ž1870 – the Papal state with Rome was annexed by the Kingdom of Italy ž1871 – Rome became the capital city of Italy žVictor Emanuel II ruled till 1878 ž Victor Emanuel.jpg žbetween 1849–1866 – the struggle between Austria and Prussia for domination in German states (German Confederation) žin Prussia the king William I (1861–1888, since 1871 the first German Emperor) žsince 1862 – the Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck – his target was to unify Germany „by blood and iron“ that means by army and military power and make Germany the strongest Empire in Europe ž1866 – the alliance between Prussia and Italy – againsthabsburg Monarchy žNot all the German states wanted the unification – e. g. Bavaria - allied with Austria against Prussia ž ž žKingdom of Italy in 1859 („the orange area“) žThe Kingdom of Italy in 1870. 507px-RegnoItalia1870.png 507px-Italia1859.png 594px-Deutscher_Bund.svg.png žAustro-Prussian war broke out in 1866 žJuly 3rd 1866 the battle of Sadowa near Königgratz (Hradec Králové), 2nd greatest battle in Europe since the Battle of Leipzig in 1813 žAustria was defeated and lost some areas in Germany and Veneto in Italy) hradec_kralove_img_big_01.jpg žthe German Confederation existing since 1815 was dissolved žinstead of that the North German Commonwealth was constituted – 21 states – customs union, common currency and common foreign policy – the first step to unification žPrussian king became the President of this Commonwealth and the commander-in-chef of the army žPrussia provoked France to declare war on Prussia in 1870 žFrance was defeated at the battle of Sedan in September 1870 – French king Napoleon III was captured what caused the fall of the French Empire and proclamation of the third republic žParis was besieged since September 1870 till January 1871 žin January 1871 – The German Empire was proclaimed ž ž 800px-Wernerprokla.jpg MapGermany1871.jpg žGermany annexed Alsace and Loraine what were the richest French provinces žGermany became federation of 25 states (22 states + 3 cities) with its own representatives žeach state nominated its represesentative to the Senate (Bundesrat), the memers of the assembly (Bundestag) were voted – the suffrage was universal for all the men since 25 years žGermany became European and world power with strong army and imperial politics žWilliam II (1888–1918) – the last prussian king and German Emperor ž žReadings: ž Breuilly, John (ed.): Nineteenth-Century Germany: Politics, Culture and Society 1780-1918.New York: Oxford University Press, 1997 and 2001.