End of Democracy žForeign policy – E. Beneš and others – advocated an alliance with the West and the East (continue of policy – exile) but they knew – USSR will be the main power factor in CE žE. Beneš and J. Masaryk – Czechoslovakia – bridge between East and West – they didn’t expect so fast division of the world and such development of USSR - consolidation of the Stalinist dictatorship and imperial policy žCSR – not only communist party, democratic parties following Western concept of democracy but they couldn’t rely on effective alliances with the West - dependence on the USSR žJ. Masaryk: „… I flew to Moscow as the Czechoslovak Minister of Foreign Affairs and return as Stalin's henchman…“ ž žgovernment at the local level = National Committee žNational Front of Czechs and Slovaks - Association of parties had representation in exile and to participate in the liberation žMajority of approved parties – socialism žNew political order rely on Kosice government program - foundation of the People's Democratic regime ždiffered from parliamentary democracy - guaranteed the Constitution of 1920 žnon-communist parties didn’t want to admit – KGP (Košice`s gover. prog.) – a lot of changes to parliamentary democracy žCzech and Slovak National Interests - Munich atonement, war damage and suffering žSocial and socializations steps - nationalization and land reform žCSR: two equal nations žpunishment of war criminals,collaborators and betrayers žCzechoslovak citizenship lost: Germans and Hungarians, who ran afoul of the Republic žX citizenship was given to those who actively fought against fascism žproperty transferred under national administration and then was confiscated and nationalized žadvantage of the Communist Party in government žlegislative power in the hands of the President – decrees had to be signed by goverment and it was agreed once The National Assembly is established – decrees must be retrospectively approved, 89 ž žBanks, insurance companies, key industries and mines and industries with more than 500 žPlanned economy žPrivate sector and craft small žLand reform (dercee June 1945) – land of Germans or of collaborator - landless, peasant - in the borderlands ž ž89 žconcerned: constitutional government, restoring the national economy and public finances, the establishment of new universities, nationalization and the expulsion of German and Hungarian minorities – there is not any decree ordering the expulsion – explusion accordingly article XII of Potsdam Conference and decision of Allied Control Council, decrees concerning citizenship and property žprosecution of crimes committed during the war - People's Court and the national courts in Praha and Bratislava žration supply not only food but also textile for taylors žLack of food ž1947 - disastrous drought - threat of food crisis žPrerequisite for economic recovery -Monetary reform -Payroll reform -child benefit -Xmas benefits -extension of paid leave ž Volume of industry ½ compare to before WWII žURNA – food, clothes, help to industries, drugs,… - žMay 1945 – wild expulsion (15,000 – 30, 000)!! - displacement and expulsion of German populations, Saxon, Austria – 660, 000 ž žAgaints human right žnot concern only the notables of the Nazi regime in Sudeten County or in the Protectorate – in general related to all Germans žMain actions: adventurers, looters and thugs who wanted to enrich and to vent anger – masive violence žhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g6IFfQdM7EI&feature=related ž žAugust 1945 – transfer of German populatin from Czechoslovakia and Poland, expulsion of Hungarian population was not agreed žRelated President´s Decrees - revoke citizenship, National Administration of firms, confiscation of land žimmovable property, valuables žPersonal luggage 30 – 50 kilos žOrganized transfer – 1946 - Allied Control council. 2, 256,000 ž1947 – 48 - Additional transfer - family reunification – 80, 000 žIn Slovakia 600, 000 Hungarians žWest powers did not agree with the transfer but 1946 - Czechoslovakian - Hungarian Agreement on exchange of populations ž(only 73,000 to Slovakia and quite a lot of Romas) žPopulation exchange didn’t work out– reslovacization and transfer to border area ž ž ž1939 – 118, 310 x 1945 14, 045!!!!!!!!!! žOpen asylum policy, pro – Jewish state policy žAnna Hanusová – Flachová ž žBRENNER, H.: The Girls of Room 28: Friendship, Hope, and Survival in Theresienstad. New York 2009. ž ž žCSR – trying to solve transfer of Eastern Jews (Poland) and strong support for the establishment of an independent state in Palestine žUN – CSR supported establishment of Israel and provided military aid žIntegration of jewish population to czechoslovak society – difficult – as many of Jews - german nationality žAntisemitism žreturn of property to persons of Jewish origin ž disappointment, Israel,injustice, coup d`Etat 1948 žSince 1947 - departure of Jews from CSR žAfter April 1949 only 500 Jews in CSR ž¼ of Romas victims from Czech lands žcontrolled assimilation ž žFeis, H.: Between War and Peace: The Potsdam Conference. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1983. žRoberts, G.: Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939-1953. Yale University Press, 2006. žKaplan, K.: The Short March: The Communist Takeover in Czechoslovakia, 1945-1948. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 1987. žZeman, Z.: The Life of Edvard Beneš, 1884-1948: Czechoslovakia in Peace and War. Clarendon Press, 1997. ž ž ž ž1946 – last democratic election - Constituent National Assembly žOnly parties united in National front žrestoration of the structure of state power, the formation of CNA, which should prepare a new constitution žParties: Communists (1,000,000) – chairman K. Gottwald ž- National Socialists (520, 000) – P. Zenkl, middle class, continuity – T.G. Masaryk and E. Beneš ž - The People's Party – J. Šrámek ž - Social Democrats – Z. Fierlinger -Democratic Party – J. Letrich – Slovakia,… - - žCzech lands: -Communists – 40% žX žSlovakia: ž- Democratic Party – 62% x Communists – 30% žNegotiations on forming a government – a lot of disputes led by National Socialists (wanted democracy) žCommunist - Ministry of Interior Aff.; Ministr of Foreign Aff. J. Masaryk; Ministr of national Security L. Svoboda; deputy of Prime Minister P. Zenkl žMain goal: 2 two-year economic plan and the new constitution žGrowing political tention – non cummunist parties profiling as an anti-communist ž1947 – drought žRation supply žReduction of the supplying – growing black market žSlovakia – real poverty žSoviet Union help – 600,000 tons of grain x propaganda – Soviets saved Czechoslovakia again… ž žpotato beetle žpropaganda and publicity campaigns, mass protests, staged affair and assassination attempts, some of the policy component – provocation and espionage + close ties to the Soviet Union effort to influence opinion about situation in CSR žconvergence process of democratic forces began late – lack of unifying personality žCommunists – mass POPULARITY žExtra income for the state bugdet ž6,000,000,000 Czechoslovak crown ž(76 304 993 000 Kčs), CP – big success ž žNon communist opposition hope – new elections planned for spring 1948 žMain aim - preservation of democratic principles ž1947/1948 – dispute about anything in National Front, in government, national committee,….2 blocs ž19th February 1948 – Valerian Zorin Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs of USSSR – arrived to Praha. He Prompted K. Gottwald, if need, asked for Soviet military aid (soviet army was ready – slovak/hungarian boarders) žK. Gottwald refused direct military intervention žspecific suggestions to the government crisis – Corps of state security žNon communists criticized the investigation procedure in some political affaires - protesting at government meeting, but no reaction from min. of Interior – these ministers refused to participate next gm ž20th February 1948 12 ministers (3 non communistic government parties) resigned žThey hoped that: President will not accept their resignation. They expected new election of resignation of CP žThey wanted to resolve the government crisis Parliamentary ways x CP started counterattack žCP – 21st February organized manifestation – Old Town Square, Praha žpressure on President žOnly 2 actions supporting democracy – university Students in Praha – marchs and support to President žPresident E. Beneš accepted demission of 12 ministers, affraid of civil war, millitary intervantion from USSR and neverending pressure of CP žPresident Edvard Beneš accepted demission of the ministers and the new government was accepted (Gottwald’ s proposal), majority Communists = mission completed žAction Committee žJune 1948 merging: Communists and SD žMay 9th new constitution , E. Beneš refused to sign žEnd of May – parliamentary election – manipulated žE. Beneš resigned and died žNew President Klement Gottwald, prime minister Antonin Zápotocký žhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WNFMmgE8etY ž žEmigration žmanifestations of discontent (Sokol festival) žState Security - goal to end the regime's opponents, help from Soviet advisors ž wave of terror similar to the Nazi regime žFirst victims: enemy of the regime political processes - people were prosecuted for crimes they did not commit!!! -1949 General Heliodor Pika was executed -June 1950 process with the National Socialist MEP Milada Horakova žhttp://www.ustrcr.cz/en/milada-horakova-en žMilada Horaková along with others were sentenced to death and despite the protests of prominent foreign figures e.g. Albert Einstein, Winston Churchill or Eleanor Roosevelt,(contrived conspiracy and treason), judicial murder žhttp://www.radio.cz/en/section/special/olga-hruba-supporter-of-milada-horakova-and-campaigner-for- religious-freedom žShow trials: priest, diplomats, officers, žParticipants of resistance ž žhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8tNMgCGahyM žLater also against Communists – Rudolf Slanský, some of trials – antisemitic, Gustav Husák žEconomy: central planning, tasks that have to be fulfilled were included in the five-year plans, collectivization, decline in living standards, 1953 monetary reform, president Antonín Zapotocký žAfter WWII – most powerfull Polish Workers' Party (Polska Partia Robotnicza; PPR) under Władysław Gomułka and Bolesław Bierut ž1946 a national plebiscite, known as the "3 times YES" referendum, was held first, instead of the parliamentary elections žThe Communists consolidated power by gradually whittling away the rights of their non-Communist foes, particularly by suppressing the leading opposition party – Mikołajczyk's Polish People's Party (PSL). žIn some widely-publicized cases, their perceived enemies were being sentenced to death on trumped up charges — among them Witold Pilecki, the organizer of the Auschwitz resistance; and numerous leaders of Armia Krajowa and the Council of National Unity. Many resistance fighters were murdered extrajudicially, or forced to exil žBy 1946, all rightist parties had been outlawed, and a new pro-government Front of National Unity was formed which included only the forerunner of the communist Polish United Workers' Party and its leftist allies. žJanuary 19, 1947, the first parliamentary elections took place featuring PPR candidates and a token opposition from the Polish People's Party already powerless due to government control. Results were adjusted by Stalin himself to suit the Communists. Through rigged elections, the regime's candidates gained 417 of 434 seats in parliament (Sejm), effectively ending the multi-party system in politics. ž Many opposition members, including Mikołajczyk (threatent), left the country. žWestern governments did not protest, which led free-spirited Poles to speak about a continued "Western betrayal" regarding Central Europe. In the same year, the new Legislative Sejm created the Small Constitution of 1947. žOver the next two years, the Communists monopolizied their political power in Poland žIn 1948, the Communists and Cyrankiewicz's own faction joined ranks to form the Polish United Workers' Party in power for the next four decades. žPoland became a de facto single-party state, and a satellite state of the Soviet Union. žOnly two other parties were allowed to exist legally, a small one for the farmers (United People's Party) and a token one for the intelligentsia, called the Democratic Party žA period of Sovietization and Stalinism started ž1948 September, Communist leader Władysław Gomułka, who opposed Stalin's direct control of the Polish party, was charged with "nationalistic tendency" and dismissed from his posts of First Secretary. He was arrested by the Ministry of Public Security. ž W. Gomułka was put under house arrest without typical show trial, and released unharmed a few years later, in 1954 or 1955. žBierut replaced him as party leader until his own sudden death žThe new government was controlled by Polish Communists aided by he Ministry of Public Security, and the Soviet "advisers" who were placed in every arm of the government as guarantee of the pro-Soviet policy of the state ž ž The most important of them was Konstantin Rokossovsky Defense Minister from 1949 to 1956, former Marshal in the Soviet Armed Forces,backed by a slew of well-trained Russian Commissars in control of Polish state security. žThe Soviet-style secret police and UB grew to around 32,000 agents as of 1953. There was one UB agent for every 800 Polish citizens. The MBP ministry was also in charge of Internal Security Corps, the Civil Militia, Border guard, prison staff and paramilitary police used for special actions (with 125,000 members). For many years, the public prosecutors and judges as well as functionaries of MBP, engaged in acts recognized by international law as crimes against humanity and crimes against peace, such as the torture and execution of seven members of the 4th Headquarters of anti-Communist organization in the Mokotów Prison in Warsaw after the official amnesty and their voluntary disclosure. All executed members of WiN took active part in anti-Nazi resistance during World War II. The postwar Polish Army, intelligence and police were full of Soviet NKVD officers who stationed in Poland with the Northern Group of Forces until 1956. žMass arrests continued during the early 50's – in October 1950, 5,000 people were arrested in one night, in so called "Operation K"; in 1952 over 21,000 people were arrested . According to official data, there were 49,500 political prisoners in the second half of 1952 ž žThe government control over art and artists deepened. The Soviet-style Socialist Realism became the only formula accepted by the authorities after 1949. Most works of art and literature presented to the public had to be in line with the voice of the Party žpersecuting the Catholic Church ("PAX Association") created in 1947 worked to undermine grassroot support from Roman Catholicism and attempted to create a Communism-friendly Church ž1953 the Cardinal Primate of Poland Stefan Wyszyński, was placed under house arrest, although before that he had been willing to make compromises with the government žIn the early 1950s, the war against religion by secret police led to the arrest and torture of hundreds of Polish religious personalities, culminating in the Stalinist show trial of the Kraków Curia. žPolish Constitution of 1952 officially established Poland as a People's Republic, ruled by the Polish United Workers' Party, which since the absorption of the left wing of the Socialist Party in 1948 had been the Communist Party's official name. žThe post of President of Poland was abolished, and Bierut, the First Secretary of the Communist Party, became the effective leader of Poland žJ. V. Stalin died in 1953. ž1953 and 1958 Nikita Khrushchev outmaneuvered his rivals and achieved power in the Soviet Union. žMarch 1956 Khrushchev denounced Stalin's cult of personality at the 20th Congress of the Soviet Communist Party žThe de-Stalinization of official Soviet ideology left Poland's Stalinist hard-liners in a difficult position žIn the same month as Khrushchev's speech, as unrest and desire for reform and change among both intellectuals and workers was beginning to surface throughout the Eastern Bloc, the death of the hardline Bierut in March 1956 exacerbated an existing split in the PZPR. žBierut was succeeded by Edward Ochab as First Secretary of the PZPR, and by Cyrankiewicz, brought back as Prime Minister žAugust 1949 the parliament passed the new constitution of Hungary (1949/XX.) modeled after the 1936 constitution of the Soviet Union žThe name of the country changed to the People's Republic of Hungary, "the country of the workers and peasants" where "every authority is held by the working people„ žSocialism was declared as the main goal of the nation. A new coat-of-arms was adopted with Communist symbols, such the red star, hammer and sickle žMátyás Rákosi, Hungarian Working People's Party was de facto the leader of Hungary, possessed practically unlimited žHis main rivals in the party were the 'Hungarian' Communists who led the illegal party during the war in Hungary, and were considerably more popular within party ranks. žTheir most influential leader, László Rajk, who was minister of Foreign Affairs at the time, was arrested in May 1949. He was accused of rather surreal crimes, such as spying for Western imperialist powers, L. Rajk was found guilty and executed. ž In the next three years, other leaders of the party deemed untrustworthy, like former Social Democrats or other Hungarian illegal Communists such as János Kádár, were also arrested and imprisoned on trumped-up charges žThe showcase trial of L. Rajk žMátyás Rákosi now attempted to impose totalitarian rule on Hungary. The centrally orchestrated personality cult focused on him and Joseph V. Stalin soon reached unprecedented proportions. Rákosi's images and busts were everywhere, all public speakers were required to glorify his wisdom and leadership. žSecret police persecuted all 'class enemies' and 'enemies of the people'. An estimated 2,000 people were executed and over 100,000 were imprisoned. Some 44,000 ended up in forced-labor camps, where many died due to horrible work conditions, poor food and practically no medical care. Another 15,000 people, mostly former aristocrats, industrialists, military generals and other upper-class people were deported from the capital and other cities to countryside villages where they were forced to do hard agricultural labor. žThese policies were opposed by some members of the Hungarian Working People's Party and around 200,000 were expelled by Rákosi from the organization žPreparations for a show trial started in Budapest in 1953[to prove that Raoul Wallenberg had not been dragged off in 1945 to the Soviet Union but was the victim of cosmopolitan Zionists žFor the purposes of this show trial, three Jewish leaders as well as two would-be "eyewitnesses" were arrested and interrogated by torture. The show trial was initiated in Moscow, following Stalin's anti-Zionist campaign. žAfter the death of Stalin and Lavrentiy Beria, the preparations for the trial were stopped and the arrested persons were released. žAs Hungary's new Prime Minister, Imre Nagy slightly relaxed state control over the economy and the mass media and encouraged public discussion on political and economic reform. žIn order to improve the general supply, he increase the production and distribution of consumer goods and reduced the tax and quota burdens of the peasants. žNagy also closed forced-labor camps, released most of the political prisoners - Communists were allowed back into Party ranks žGábor Péter, was convicted and imprisoned in 1954 žAll these rather moderate reforms earned him widespread popularity in the country, especially among the peasantry and the left-wing intellectuals. ž 1955, the Central Committee of the Hungarian Working People's Party condemned Nagy for "rightist deviation". Hungarian newspapers joined the attacks and Nagy was accused of being responsible for the country's economic problems and on 18 April he was dismissed from his post by a unanimous vote of the National Assembly. Nagy was even excluded from the Party žRákosi once again became the unchallenged leader of Hungary. žRákosi's power was undermined by a speech made by Nikita Khrushchev in February 1956, in which he denounced the policies of Joseph Stalin and his followers in eastern Europe and the cult of personality ž Ernő Gerő, as his successor, who was unpopular and shared responsibility for most of Rákosi's crimes. žThe fall of Rákosi was followed by a flurry of reform agitation both inside and outside the Party. László Rajk of the showcase trial of 1949 was cleared of all charges, and on 6 October 1956, the Party authorized a reburial, which was attended by tens of thousands of people and became a silent demonstration against the crimes of the regime. On 13 October it was announced that Imre Nagy had been reinstated as a member of the party. ž