Jana Skerlova, Ph.D. žthere were 8 smaller states in Italy - rulers - the Habsburgs, the Bourbons, the Pope žin the north-western part the most economicaly developed Kingdom of Sardinia and Piemont was situated, the home dynasty was ruling there – the House of Savoy – king Victor Emanuel II mediterranea4nunificationitaly1870.bmp ž1859 - the war with Habsburg Monarchy žat the same time, the revolution in smaller states in central Italy broke out and the local pro-Habsburg rulers were everted žafter the plebiscit these states were connected with Victor Emanuel’s state žthe uprising led by legendary hero Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–1882) – he led one thousand of men in red shirts to Palermo (Sicily), occupied it, in September they entered the city of Naples and defeated the army of king Francis (from the house of Bourbons) žthen Garibaldi gave his power to Victor Emanuel II and southern parts of Italy were unified with the nothern parts žMarch 1861 – the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in Torino ž1866 – after Austrian-prussian war Veneto (the territory around the touwn of Venice) was connected with the Kingdom of Italy ž1870 – the Papal state with Rome was annexed by the Kingdom of Italy ž1871 – Rome became the capital city of Italy žVictor Emanuel II ruled till 1878 ž Victor Emanuel.jpg žbetween 1849–1866 – the struggle between Austria and Prussia for domination in German states (German Confederation) žin Prussia the king William I (1861–1888, since 1871 the first German Emperor) žsince 1862 – the Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck – his target was to unify Germany „by blood and iron“ that means by army and military power and make Germany the strongest Empire in Europe ž1866 – the alliance between Prussia and Italy – againsthabsburg Monarchy žNot all the German states wanted the unification – e. g. Bavaria - allied with Austria against Prussia ž ž žKingdom of Italy in 1859 („the orange area“) žThe Kingdom of Italy in 1870. 507px-RegnoItalia1870.png 507px-Italia1859.png 594px-Deutscher_Bund.svg.png žAustro-Prussian war broke out in 1866 žJuly 3rd 1866 the battle of Sadowa near Königgratz (Hradec Králové), 2nd greatest battle in Europe since the Battle of Leipzig in 1813 žAustria was defeated and lost some areas in Germany and Veneto in Italy) hradec_kralove_img_big_01.jpg žthe German Confederation existing since 1815 was dissolved žinstead of that the North German Commonwealth was constituted – 21 states – customs union, common currency and common foreign policy – the first step to unification žPrussian king became the President of this Commonwealth and the commander-in-chef of the army žPrussia provoked France to declare war on Prussia in 1870 žFrance was defeated at the battle of Sedan in September 1870 – French king Napoleon III was captured what caused the fall of the French Empire and proclamation of the third republic žParis was besieged since September 1870 till January 1871 žin January 1871 – The German Empire was proclaimed ž ž 800px-Wernerprokla.jpg MapGermany1871.jpg žGermany annexed Alsace and Loraine what were the richest French provinces žGermany became federation of 25 states (22 states + 3 cities) with its own representatives žeach state nominated its represesentative to the Senate (Bundesrat), the memers of the assembly (Bundestag) were voted – the suffrage was universal for all the men since 25 years žGermany became European and world power with strong army and imperial politics žWilliam II (1888–1918) – the last prussian king and German Emperor ž žReadings: ž Breuilly, John (ed.): Nineteenth-Century Germany: Politics, Culture and Society 1780-1918.New York: Oxford University Press, 1997 and 2001. žGreat powers at the end of the 19th century: ž USA - the strongest žGermany (2nd world industrial area), the most powerful state in Europe, strong army, developed economy and culture žFrance – the bank of the world, 2nd strongest European state, succesful colonial politicis – colonies in Africa and in Asia žGreat Britain – the greatest colonial power – its domain included the geatest colony – India, also colonies in žin Asia Japan – constitutional monarchy, development of industry, expansive politics žAustria-Hungary –cooperation with Germany, its foreign politics focused on the Balkan Peninsula žRussia – economicaly and politicaly the weakest state among the great powers, military-political system, absolute power of the Tsar, no political rights for citizens, social movement, expansion to Asia – conflicts with Japan and Great Britain ž ž1879 – the secret agreement was concluded between Germany and Austria-Hungary – against France and Russia ž1882 – Italy joined this pact → Tripple Alliance (later the Central Powers) ž1893 – Russia and France made an agreement – they both were isolated and were affraid of strong and aggresive Germany ž1904 – so called Entente Cordial concluded between France and Great Britain (affraid of strong Germany) ž1907 – Russia + Britain → Tripple Entente ž žthe first conflict in Europe after 40 years žthe Balkan nations were fighting against Turkey which was occupiing them ž1912–1913 - 1st Balkan War – so called Balkan League (Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro) X Turkey – Turkey was defeated and its European areas were liberated žbut then the former allies started to fight with each other because of deviding of the liberated areas, Bulgaria had greatest war casualties and invested the most but the deliberated areas (Macedonia, Thrakia) got especially Greece and Serbia → Bulgaria was dissatisfied and declared war on Greece and Serbia → 2nd Balkan War – 1913 žTurkey and Rumania joined Greece and Serbia and they were fighting against Bulgaria which was defeated and lost also the areas which obtained after the 1st Balkan War žbut also Serbia was dissatisfied with the results of the wars (Serbia was expecting enlargement of its territory and wanted to raise Adriatic coast but instead of that Albania was formed) žSerbia started to prepair for the new war – wanted tu unify all the southern Slavs – who were living in Austria-Hungary ž ž1st Balkan War ž2nd Balkan War first_balkan_war_map.jpg Second Balkan War.JPG žSince the Crimean War (1853–1856) there was a period without a great war in Europe (only local conflicts) žThe tensions persisted on the Balkan Peninsula (1908 – the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary, 1912–1913 the Balkan Wars etc.) žPacifist movement - peace conferences in Hague (1898 and 1907) - unsuccessful ž žtwo blocks of powers at the beginning of the war: žEntente (Allied Powers): Great Britain + France + Russia žCentral Powers: Germany + Austria-Hungary + (later) Bulgaria + Turkey ž žItaly – firstly neutral, in May 1915 joined the Entente (the London Treaty in April 1915 promised territorial gains to Italy) žneutral countries: Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland, Albania žUSA – neutral at the beginning of the war, entered the war in April 1917 ž žThe blocs of Powers in WWI Europe1914.gif františek_ferdinand.jpg žthe pretext for starting the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914 žJuly 28, 1918 – Austria-Hungary declared the war on Serbia ž žGermany – the most agresive, wanted new colonies and wanted to expand to the Middle East (Berlin-Baghdad railroad), also wanted to rule in the Central, Eastern and South-East Europe (with the help of Austria-Hungary), Germany also wanted some areas in France and Belgium žAustria-Hungary – wanted to expand into the Balkan Peninsula and defeat the Kingdom of Serbia, which was independent, Serbia was the enemy for A-H also becauce of Bosnia and Herzegovina žFrance – wanted to get back Alsace and Loraine from Germany + keep its colonial domains žRussia – wanted Galicia (which was Austro-Hungarian province in those times), Silesia, and some parts of Balkan Peninsula, especially around the straits between Asia and Europe - Bosphorus and Dardanelles žSerbia – wanted to keep its independence and to form the Balkan federation – with Croats, Slovenes and Serbs living in Austria and Hungary žGreat Britain – wanted to keep its colonies and exclude Germany from world trade, stop its expansion to the Middle East žUSA – wanted to defend democracy in the world and the principle of self-determination of the nations (Woodrow Wilson) ž qAugust – December 1914 – offensive operations ž q1915–1916 – trench warfare ž q1917–1918 – the era of total exhaustion ž qMarch 1918 –November 1918 – supremacy of Allied Powers (USA entered the war in April 1917) ž žBalkan front (Balkan Peninsula, firstly in Serbia, then in Greece) žWestern front (against France) žEastern front (against Russia) žItalian front ž žalso naval war (in the Pacific Ocean – Japan + Great Britain against Germany, in the Nothern Sea – Great Britain against Germany) žwarfare in the colonies ž žAustrian army was not succesful in Serbia žSeptember 1915 – Bulgaria entered the war žduring October and November 1915 German-Austrian and Bulgarian troops occupied Serbia žin spring 1915 – the Allied Powers prepared the operation in Gallipoli against Turkey, British troops under the command of Winston Churchill, but the operation was not successful žthen in 1916 the Macedonian Front in Greece was opened žthe Bulgarians were defeated in September 1918 ž ž žthe Germans attacked France according to the so called Schlieffen Plan - designed to attack France quickly through neutral Belgium žGreat Britain declared war on Germany because of breaking Belgic neutrality žthe German troops were stopped at the First Battle of Marne in September 1914 – the offensive war changed into the trench warfare žMarch 1915 – the second Battle of Ypres – the Germans used chlorine gas – 15 thousands of men were poisoned žfrom February till September 1916 – bloody battle of Verdun – 600 thousands of casualties, žfrom July till November 1916 the great battle of the Somme - totally 1 million casualties during the whole battle, the new British invention was used – the tanks ž žThe Second Battle of Ypres žThe Battle of the Somme fww0828.jpg Battle-of-the-Somme.jpg žIn the east, Russia attacked East Prussia but was defeated by German army at the series of battles colectively known as the Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914 žAlready in 1914 – the Czech Company in Russian Army – Legions (originally – the Czechs living in Russia, prisoners of war, volunteers) žsummer 1916 – so called Brusilov offensive ž1917 – the Czechoslovak Corps in Russia – from 38,000 to 70,000 of men žthe Russians were more succesful against Austria-Hungary in Galicia (today – western Ukraine) žRussia occupied parts of Galicia and Bukovina žJuly 1917 – so called Kerensky offensive – the Battle of Zborov (Galicia) – Czechoslovak Legions won over the Austria-Hungary, the offensive was unsuccesfull for Russians žAfter the Russian Revolutions the Czechoslovak Legions were fighting against bolsheviks ž žItaly entered the war in April 1915 – the Allied Powers promised to Italy Istria with Trieste, Dalmacia and Trentino (Austro-Hungarian provinces), so Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary and later also on Germany žbut the Italians were not very succesful, their offensives along the Isonzo River were repelled by the Austro-Hungarians ž1917 – the Battle of Caporetto – Italian troops were defeated by Austro-Hungarian army and the front line was broken through, usage of poison gas žduring 1916 the front stabilized at the Piave River till 1918 – June 1918 – the Battle of the Piave River – participation of Czechoslovak Legions žthe Austro-Hungarians were defeated in October – the Battle of Vittorio Veneto – participation of Czechoslovak Legions again ž žafter the Russian revolutions in 1917 Russia concluded separate peace with Germany in Brest Litevski in March 1918 žGeneral exhaustion – of sources, armies, people in real (lack of labour power – participation of women) ž žApril 1917 – USA declared war on Germany – originally USA persued the politics of non-interventions, but German submarines several times attacked merchant ships and civil ships with American passengers žThe United States were never formally a member of the Allies but became a self-styled "Associated Power" žAmerican troops came to Europe and after the great offensive of Allied Powers in summer 1918 the Central Powers collapsed very quickly žOn November 3, 1918 Austria–Hungary sent a flag of truce to ask for an Armistice and the armistice with Austira was signed in Vila Giusti near Padua žon November 11, 1918– an armistice with Germany signed in railroad carriage near Compiègne žat 11 a.m. on November 11, 1918 a ceasefire came into effect ž žCasualties: v10 million of soldiers died v7 million of civilians died ž žThe map of Europe has changed: vdissolution of four monarchies (Russia, Austria-Hungary, German Empire and Ottoman Empire) vafter dissolution of Austria-Hungary: constitution of 5 new states (Austrian Republic, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes) vLatvia, Lithuania and Estonia was established, independent and unified Poland was renewed vhttp://www.the-map-as-history.com/demos/tome03/index.php ž žEconomic changes: vDevelopment of industry (iron and steel, textiles, etc.) and technologies(armament industry, automobiles, aircrafts …) vFirstly the in many countries the war prosperity, later economic depresse žSocial changes: vSocial radicalism – rise of totalitarism, revaschism etc. vSocial status of women has changed(sufrage) vMany veterans – problems with reintegration v ž ž žthe meeting of the Allied victors following the end of World War I – the aim was to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers following the armistices of 1918 žIt took place in Paris in 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities. They met, discussed various options and developed a series of treaties ("Paris Peace Treaties") for the post-war world žthe winning powers – France, Great Britain, USA, Italy, Japan žother figthing states – Belgium, British dominiums, Poland, Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Greece, Portugal and other non-european states ždefeated states – Germany, Austria, Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria žRussia was not invited to the Paris Peace Conference (bolshevik revolution and civil war in Russia) žThe Big Four – žDavid Lloyd Geroge (GB), žVittorio Orlando (It), George Clemencau (Fr), Woodrow Wilson (US) – from left to right 781px-Big_four.jpg žThe following treaties were prepared at the Paris Peace Conference: žthe Treaty of Versailles, 1919, 28 June 1919, (with the German Empire in Weimar Republic form) žthe Treaty of Saint-Germain, 10 September 1919, (with Austria) žthe Treaty of Neuilly, 27 November 1919, (with Bulgaria) žthe Treaty of Trianon, 4 June 1920, (with Hungary) žthe Treaty of Sèvres, 10 August 1920; subsequently revised by the Treaty of Lausanne, 24 June 1923, (withTurkey) ž ž