Anti Soviet action žAugust 1949 the parliament passed the new constitution of Hungary (1949/XX.) modeled after the 1936 constitution of the Soviet Union žThe name of the country changed to the People's Republic of Hungary, "the country of the workers and peasants" where "every authority is held by the working people„ žSocialism was declared as the main goal of the nation. A new coat-of-arms was adopted with Communist symbols, such the red star, hammer and sickle žMátyás Rákosi, Hungarian Working People's Party was de facto the leader of Hungary, possessed practically unlimited žHis main rivals in the party were the 'Hungarian' Communists who led the illegal party during the war in Hungary, and were considerably more popular within party ranks. žTheir most influential leader, László Rajk, who was minister of Foreign Affairs at the time, was arrested in May 1949. He was accused of rather surreal crimes, such as spying for Western imperialist powers, L. Rajk was found guilty and executed. ž In the next three years, other leaders of the party deemed untrustworthy, like former Social Democrats or other Hungarian illegal Communists such as János Kádár, were also arrested and imprisoned on trumped-up charges žThe showcase trial of L. Rajk žMátyás Rákosi now attempted to impose totalitarian rule on Hungary. The centrally orchestrated personality cult focused on him and Joseph V. Stalin soon reached unprecedented proportions. Rákosi's images and busts were everywhere, all public speakers were required to glorify his wisdom and leadership. žSecret police persecuted all 'class enemies' and 'enemies of the people'. An estimated 2,000 people were executed and over 100,000 were imprisoned. Some 44,000 ended up in forced-labor camps, where many died due to horrible work conditions, poor food and practically no medical care. Another 15,000 people, mostly former aristocrats, industrialists, military generals and other upper-class people were deported from the capital and other cities to countryside villages where they were forced to do hard agricultural labor. žThese policies were opposed by some members of the Hungarian Working People's Party and around 200,000 were expelled by Rákosi from the organization žPreparations for a show trial started in Budapest in 1953 to prove that Raoul Wallenberg had not been dragged off in 1945 to the Soviet Union but was the victim of cosmopolitan Zionists žFor the purposes of this show trial, three Jewish leaders as well as two would-be "eyewitnesses" were arrested and interrogated by torture. The show trial was initiated in Moscow, following Stalin's anti-Zionist campaign. žAfter the death of Stalin and Lavrentiy Beria, the preparations for the trial were stopped and the arrested persons were released. žAs Hungary's new Prime Minister, Imre Nagy slightly relaxed state control over the economy and the mass media and encouraged public discussion on political and economic reform. žIn order to improve the general supply, he increase the production and distribution of consumer goods and reduced the tax and quota burdens of the peasants. žNagy also closed forced-labor camps, released most of the political prisoners - Communists were allowed back into Party ranks žGábor Péter, was convicted and imprisoned in 1954 žAll these rather moderate reforms earned him widespread popularity in the country, especially among the peasantry and the left-wing intellectuals. ž 1955, the Central Committee of the Hungarian Working People's Party condemned Nagy for "rightist deviation". Hungarian newspapers joined the attacks and Nagy was accused of being responsible for the country's economic problems and on 18 April he was dismissed from his post by a unanimous vote of the National Assembly. Nagy was even excluded from the Party žRákosi once again became the unchallenged leader of Hungary. žRákosi's power was undermined by a speech made by Nikita Khrushchev in February 1956, in which he denounced the policies of Joseph Stalin and his followers in eastern Europe and the cult of personality ž Ernő Gerő, as his successor, who was unpopular and shared responsibility for most of Rákosi's crimes. žThe fall of Rákosi was followed by a flurry of reform agitation both inside and outside the Party. László Rajk and his fellow victims of the showcase trial of 1949 were cleared of all charges, and on 6 October 1956, the Party authorized a reburial, which was attended by tens of thousands of people and became a silent demonstration against the crimes of the regime. On 13 October it was announced that Imre Nagy had been reinstated as a member of the party. ž žThe Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance - Warsaw Pact: mutual defense treaty btw eight communist states of Eastern Europe žTreaty was established under the initiative of the Soviet Union on 14 May 1955 Warsaw žThe Warsaw Pact military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CoMEcon),regional economic organization for the communist states of Eastern Europe The Warsaw Pact was a Soviet military reaction to the integration of West Germany into NATO in 1955 žAfter J.V. Stalin death 1953 – hope for change žGrowing dissatisfaction in žDemonstration: raise (salary), enough food, trouble-free supply žSlowly began to manifest itself incidents of political dissent žThese conflicts were compounded by fighting Stalin's followers (after his death in Soviet Union) žFirst signs of dissatisfaction with the low standard of living, cultural bankruptcies and brutal case of political persecution žCzechoslovakia: monetary reform 30th May 1953 - devaluation savings, increased food prices, clothing, and other goods and also meant a crisis of confidence the population žGDR: expression of discontent among Berlin construction workers – 17th June 1953 – strike - riots spread žWorkers' uprising was stopped by Soviet tanks and state of emergency žWalter Ulbricht - General Secretary and President of the National Council- repressive measures continuous flow of refugees to the West ž1949 – 1961 from GDR to West – 2, 700, 000 žMainly very good educated - top experts from all sectors žAugust 1961 – construction on Berlin Wall – as prevention žanother crisis communist regime after the XX Congress – February 1956 - revealed of the bloodiest sides of Stalinist regime brought in all the countries of the Soviet bloc profound moral and ideological crisis žPoland: assassinated of polish communist leaders in soviet prison (before War) - strengthening opposition (center: catholic church) and weakened Communist regime and hatred from WWII for Soviet War crimes in Poland žJune 1956 – Poznan - Workers' uprising, violent suppression, 50 people died žAll over country: formed Workers' councils žCrises in Communist Party: neo-Stalinist x reformists žConfrontation culminated – October 1956 žLeader of Polish united Workers party after 8 years of prison – Wladyslaw Gomulka žSituation was dramatically žEven N.S. Khrushchev came to Poland, soviet tanks, demonstration in streets, … žChanges: soviet marshal Rokossovskij left Polish army, some Catholic priests were released, relaxation of censorship ž žEconomical changes: small private business, agricultural cooperatives – canceled, 87% of farmland – private again ž1957 - restoration of censorship and artistic and scientific life again under strict control of Communist Party and Workers' councils were closed žW. Gomulka disappointed hopes of his followers, was unable to resist Soviet pressure žOnly: countryside – farmland private and Catholic church remained a privileged position žDemocratization process failed žTension btw neo – Stalinist and reformists since 1953 žAfter J. V. Stalin died – M. Rakosi was able to keep his power, March 1955 M. Rakosi accused Imre Nagy (reformist) of right-wing opportunism žM. Rakosi – oriented to Moscow – help from Moscow against opposition žFear from similar event as happed in Poland – N. S. Khrushchev removed M. Rakosi from his post žHungarian society was not satisfied žPolish Uprising - information about events in Poland led to a wave of discontent ž23rd October 1956 – Budapest - manifestation of solidarity with the Polish workers – more then 200, 000 people came, requirements: Imre Nagy – Prime Minister, departure of Soviet troops from the country and punishment of all who participated in the Stalinist processes and lawlessness žRiots spread, new leader of CP Erno Gero and his speech in Hungarian radio on 23rd October evening – huge impulse for public anger žPeople started to occupy the public buildings žDemonstrations escalated into a popular uprising žHead of new government Imre Nagy žSoviet troops (In response to requests for assistance) entered to Budapest on 24th October 1956 and Soviet tanks occupied militarily significant points ž25th October – peaceful demonstration in front of the Parliament – Soviet army was attacked by machine-gun salute and they responded and more then 60 demonstrators died shooting before Parliament was obviously a provocation from the side of members of the Political police ž from this moment uprising in Budapest – bloody character and anti – soviet as well ž žSimilar situation in other place žReal power in the hands of revolutionary or national councils žGeneral strike – main motto: immediate withdrawal of the Soviet Army žE. Gero we replaced by Janos Kadar žN.S. Khrushchev – only military intervention is the solution ž1st November 1956 neutrality of Hungary and leaving from Warsaw Pact – even better reason for Soviet bloc to intervene – it is not possible in such times of to leave the Pact and weaken the strength (NATO could abuse the situation) ž žAll satellites states gave their agreement to military intervention žSoviets learnt that USA and NATO will not react – confirmed by J. F. Dulles and even D. Eisenhower žFrance and G. Britain – interested in Suez Crises žHungarian uprising was supported just by Radio Free Europe and Austria – possibility to cross the boards for refugees ž4th November 1956 – soviet attack – soviet tanks in Budapest žFights took more then 1 week in Budapest, some place even more ž ž žHungarian resistance was broken, massive exodus to Austria more then 200, 000 žImre Nagy asked UN to help – only formal answer – Hungary stayed ALONE, western democracies confirmed their agreement with Soviet intervention žhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LVdQ9PK9Q5o ž 1960`s – 1970` s žSince 2nd half 1950s new relation btw 2 blocs - political rapprochement, but emergency of objective need of cris. management on international scale – fear of nuclear weapons žNeed of coexistence: both blocs in fact needed each other – economical interests: Soviet Bloc – technical and technologically backwardness x USA: possibility of new market - Eastern Europe ž1962: after Caribbean Crisis – beginning of beginning of the negotiations on the control of nuclear danger ž ž ž žBUT basic objectives of both superpower remained incompatible žUSA: balance bwt 2 blocs x Soviet Union: aim to spread the power ž alternating periods of negotiations, conflict, tension and loosening (end 1989) ž1st phases lasted until end of 1960s : quite successful solution: Indo-China and Austria x lasting issue – Germany – 2nd Berlin Crises 1961 and August 1968 in Czechoslovakia žOne of the most sensitive question – Germany - conflicts of interest žHallstein doctrine (named after Walter Hallstein, was a key doctrine in the foreign policy of the Federal Republic of Germany - West Germany after 1955. It established that the Federal Republic would not establish or maintain diplomatic relations with any state that recognized the German Democratic Republic - GDR, East Germany. Important aspects of the doctrine were abandoned after 1970 when it became difficult to maintain and the Federal government changed its politics) žEconomical miracle žControl of West Berlin – N. S. Khrushchev – neutral or part of GDR – pressure Paris conference 1960 – not successful žJ.F. Kennedy žhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XjHcNhcahv4 žAugust 1961 – Berlin Wall ž ž žhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_vXsdaUmG8s ž1960 – new constitution and new name Czechoslovak Socialistic Republic (ČSSR) and new state symbol - centralization and concentration of totalitarian power ž- leading role of the Communist Party in society žPresident Antonín Novotný – ex fist secretary of CP, 1957 žDrastically decline of Czechoslovak Economy žNeed of Economical reform – the most – radical one in Soviet Bloc – showed that democratization and liberalization of the economy is not possible without changes in policy žLiberalization: 1st phases of liberalization of the political regime ž ž žFirst time criticism of dogmatism and the aim go back to “Young or authentically Marx” žNot only democratization but also democracy: main tension between culture and political power ždemand for creative freedom žArtists - requirement - creative freedom žCzechoslovak film: Miloš Forman, Ivan Passer, Jan Němec, Vojtěch Jasný, Jiří Menzel, Věra Chytilová... žhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WM3lrSc0Tp4 žWriters: Milan Kundera, Ivan Klíma, Ludvík Vaculík, Josef Škvorecký, Bohumil Hrabal, Arnošt Lustig,... ž4th congress of writers 1967 – open criticism of political conditions - cruel punishment – cancel: Literární noviny and movement against liberalism žNeed of the reforms even in the CP – conservative fraction in troubles žcalls for pluralism, autonomous development and ignoring official institutions žconsolidation of the Catholic church žrequirements: demission of the President, economical reform and liberalization of life BUT all changes should be done under the control of CP žHead of CP Alexander Dubček ž= beginning of the democratization of the Czechoslovak society žRequiremets: recall of the President, economical reform, relax tense social situation žNew leader of CP Alexandr Dubček žEnd of censorship žlaw to the Federation žPrague Spring žagainst: bureaucratic-totalitarian model of socialism žIdea of Socialist democracy žRequirement: more democratic, more economical and more social regime žIdea of political pluralism žChurch – freedom of religion,… žAction program – April 1968 - principles of market economy, political freedoms and citizens' rights, did not guarantee political pluralism and creation of democratic regime žAction plan: did not promise - pluralism and creating standard democratic regime žEffort to restore the Czechoslovak Social Democratic Party žSince May 1968 – growing tension – reform in deep crises žJune 27th 1968 - Manifesto “2000 words” – Literární noviny http://www.radio.cz/en/section/curraffrs/the-two-thousand-words-that-started-the-prague-spring žConservative part of CP supported by Soviet Union - preparation of the coup d` etat žAugust 18, 1968 Moscow - adopted a resolution on military intervention žAt night August 20, 1968 – Soviet troops, Hungarian, GDR s, Polish and Bulgarian crossed the boards žCzechoslovak government adopted resolution – occupation is against the will of Czechoslovak citizens, international law ž ž21st August 1968 – troops of 5 states entered žAgainst occupiers - citizens unarmed resistance žMoscow Protocol – was signed – Soviet troops can stay in Czechoslovakia ž žMoscow Protocol - Moscow Protocol demanded normalization = no reformators in CP žNormalization = also period from August 1968 – November 1989 žImportant function – People loyal to the Soviet Union žSlovakia – leader of CP Gustav Husák guarantees at least of some reforms žSoviet leading – back to period before Prague Spring žPeople connected with Prague Spring – out of public life žJan Palach burned himself to protest against the regime in January 1969 žMarch 1969 – Ice Hokey World Championship – Czechoslovakia beat Soviet Union – DEMONSTARTION x Soviet protest žApril 1969 – A . Dubček was replaced by Gustav Husák = strict censorship, no protest; ž„ review“ in CP žAll society = apathy žEmigration žEconomy = since 1968 back to Central planning ž1975 G. Husák – president žConferences in Helsinki – Soviet Block agreed on Respect for Human Rights ž žEx CP members, intelectuals, artists, church - fellowship, which was to monitor respect for human rights „Charta 77“ – Jan Patočka, Václav Havel and Jiří Hájek – memberesr were persecuted ž1978 - Committee for the Defense of the Unjustly Persecuted žDissidents repeatedly jailed žRelease after 1985 – M. S. Gorbachev – As de facto ruler of the USSR, he tried to reform the stagnating Party and the state economy by introducing glasnost ("openness"), perestroika ("restructuring"), demokratizatsiya ("democratizatio n"), and uskoreniye("acceleration" of economic development), which were launched at the 27th Congress of the CPSU in February 1986 ž1975 Conference in Helsinki – Final Act -signed the declaration in an attempt to improve relations between the Communist bloc and the West žSovereign equality, respect for the rights inherent in sovereignty žRefraining from the threat or use of force žInviolability of frontiers žTerritorial integrity of States žPeaceful settlement of disputes žNon-intervention in internal affairs žRespect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief žEqual rights and self-determination of peoples žCo-operation among States žFulfillment in good faith of obligations under international law ž žThe document was seen both as a significant step toward reducing Cold War tensions and as a major diplomatic boost for the Soviet Union at the time, due to its clauses on the inviolability of national frontiers and respect for territorial integrity, which were seen to consolidate the USSR's territorial gains in Eastern Europe following the Second World War ž1976 Soviet Block signed pact of UN – human rights žReflection of Helsinki – “Charta 77”,… ž1988 -89:Vienna meeting – „Human dimension“ – better human rights protection žCongdon, L.: 1956: the Hungarian revolution and war for independence. 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New York, 2010. žStedman, A.: Alternatives to appeasement : Neville Chamberlain and Hitler’s Germany. London 2011. ž