12/10/2015 1 Pedagogies into Practice: Practical language development in L2-medium education Tony Corballis, B.Com, Dip.Tesol, MA EAP Teacher and Lecturer, University of London SOAS Consultant and Coach, Corballis Communication Ltd. Reference list Barbe, W.B., Swassing, R.H. & Milone, M.N. 1979. Teaching Through Modality Strengths: Concepts and Practices. Zaner-Blosner. Bazerman, C. 1988. Shaping Written Knowledge: The Genre and Activity of the Experimental Article in Science. University of Wisconsin Press. Becher, T. 1990. ‘Academic tribes and territories. Intellectual enquiry and the cultures of disciplines’, in Higher Education Vol.20, No. 3 (Oct., 1990), pp. 345-347 Biggs, J. 2011. Teaching for Quality Learning at University (4th edition). Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H. & Krathwohl, D. R. 1956. Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. David McKay Company Coward, F.L. & Miller, P.C. 2010. Navigating the Graduate Seminar Discussion: A Qualitative Analysis of International Students’ Experiences. International Journal of Communication 4. De Chazal, E. 2014. English for Academic Purposes. Oxford University Press. Grunig, J.E. & Hunt, T. 1984. Managing Public Relations. Holt, Rinehart and Winston Haggis, T. 2006. ‘Pedagogies for diversity: Retaining critical challenge amidst fears of ‘dumbing down’. Studies in Higher Education 31, no. 5: 521–35 Halliday, M.A.K. 1994. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. 2nd ed. Edward Arnold. Halliday, M.A.K., and R. Hasan. 1985. Language Context and Text: Aspects of Language in a Social-semiotic Perspective. Oxford University Press. Jordan, R.R. 1992. Academic writing course. Nelson. Kolb, D. 1985. Learning Style Inventory: Self Scoring Inventory and Interpretation Booklet. McBer & Company. Krathwohl, D. R. 2002. ‘A revision of Bloom's taxonomy: An overview’. Theory into Practice. Routledge. Krause, K.L. 2001. The university essay writing experience:A pathway for academic integration during transition. Higher Education Research and Development 20, no. 2: 147–68 Lee, G. 2009. Speaking up: Six Korean students’ oral participation in class discussions in US graduate seminars. English for Specific Purposes. 28 (3). 142-156 Lea, M.R., & Street, B. 1998. ‘Student writing in higher education: An academic literaciesapproach’. Studies in Higher Education 23, no. 2: 157–72 Lea, M.R. & Street, B. 2006. ‘The ‘academic literacies’ model: Theory and applications’. Theory into Practice 45, no. 4: 368–77 Prior, P. 1998. Writing/disciplinarity: A sociohistoric account of literate activity in the academy. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Raimes, A. 1991. Out of the woods: Emerging traditions in the teaching of writing. TESOL Quarterly 25, no. 3: 407–30 Scott, D. 2007. Can we start again? The Patterns of NLP Applied to Business Interactions. Management Books 2000 Stubbs, M. 1996. Text and corpus analysis. Oxford: Blackwell. Swales, J.M. 1990. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings.Cambridge University Press Swales, J.M. & Feak, C.B. 2002. English in today’s research world: A writing guide. University of Michigan Press. Tompson, H. B., & Tompson, G. H. 1996. Confronting diversity issues in the classroom with strategies to improve satisfaction and retention of international students. Journal of Education for Business, 72, 53–57 Wingate, U. & Tribble, C. 2012. ‘The best of both worlds? Towards an English for Academic Purposes / Academic Literacies writing pedagogy’, Studies in Higher Education 37:4, 481-495 Zeldin, T. 1998. Conversation: How talk can change our lives. Harvill Press Outline • THE POWER OF CONVERSATION • EVOLUTION OF EAP TOWARDS SOCIAL PRACTICE • DISCOURSE, LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS & LINGUISTIC ABILITY • EXTENSION ON WRITING: CLARITY AND COHESION, ACADEMIC STYLE • SPEAKER DEVELOPMENT: PRACTICAL HABIT FOR INSTRUCTORS • LEARNER TYPOLOGY & SOCIAL PRACTICE • YOUR EXPECTATIONS? SURVEYING THEORETICAL LANDSCAPE: The Power of Conversation The Power of Conversation Dialogue: David Bohm (former physicist, critical theory in Education) Conversation: Theodore Zeldin (social historian) Forum symmetry: Grunig (public communication theory) Up to 2 million years of evolution: tool making; narratives for warning and opportunity Fundamental in all participant-centred teaching-learning activity GENERAL THREADS: • Tend to focus on removing presuppositions: values and beliefs. • Self aware: paradigms that might block (suspension of judgment) • Meaning is active not static – and fleeting/momentary, even surprising • Studies on the benefits of handling miscommunication, inference, exploring verbal/nonverbal meaning (implications for collaborative learning) • Avoid aiming to settle: unconstrained and exploratory – towards shared perception, creatively Example: David Kantor’s four distinct roles for participants: • Move: Initiate action to move in a particular direction, with clarity. • Follow: Support, amplify, or derive a similar direction, from the preceding. • Oppose: Raise objection for possible problems with the current direction. • Bystand: Propose a new viewpoint or reference frame or new direction, that bypasses, transcends, or overcomes a temporary deadlock, expands the thinking of the group: progress. Perspective and reflection. 12/10/2015 2 The Power of Conversation MORE GENERAL THREADS: • Empathetic listening – even into the ‘other’s’ paradigm (What is their ‘truth’?) • Problem-solving proven better in dialogue(or groups) • Informal works best – an art form (tapping both sides to thinking) • Express both thoughts and feelings - becomes a collective experience • From facilitator to engaged participant (towards equality) = productive • Thought being made into a metaphor.. to ‘find its own way’ • Parallels with indigenous communication traditions • Example: The Oxford Muse • FITS WITH PARTICIPANT-CENTRED EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY The Power of Conversation PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE: YOUR IDEAS The power of conversation • When and how best exploited in pedagogies? • Examples: • All task-based activity • All extended pair or group sub-tasks and tasks • Seminar discussions • Leveraging outside class social activity SURVEYINGTHEORETICAL LANDSCAPE: Evolution of EAP towards ‘Social Practice’ Evolution of EAP and ‘Social Practice’ (Prelude: academic expression with writing as core, but seeing speaking as crucial precursor and consolidator of it) Listening Speaking Reading Writing Listening Reading Writing Speaking Speaking Speaking Speaking Speaking Evolution of EAP Today’s EAP? EAP Study Skills (as traditional HE preparation) Functional/genre (cf. Halliday, and e.g. Australian mainstream education) Lecturer expectation and assessment as driver ‘Academic Literacies’ EFL ESP EAP 12/10/2015 3 Creative problem solving, through research Take full responsibility for outcomes Critique assumptions underpinning paradigms Develop own viewpoints, and argue persuasively Evaluate ideas and all sides of arguments Analyse: speculation, hypothetical scenarios Analyse: causes and effects, deduction Apply theories, and balance theory and practice Understand and inter-link: manage and synthesize Know and remember complex information: facts Academic Literacies (Lea & Street 1998) ‘Language transmits culture’ (Stubbs 1996) Earlier social constructionist perspectivesin the USA (Bazerman 1988) Critique: EAP previously somewhat monolithic and homogenous Academic practice is social and context dependent Discipline-specific epistemology (Swales 1990, Parry 1998, Becher 1990) Also, Corpus Linguistics: Corpora available for analysis and evidence of specificity Student identities and diversity: L1/L2 blurring with migration, international schooling Student identities and diversity: more return-to-study, mature age Struggleof ‘beginning students at all levels’ to understand requirements (Haggis 2006, 522; Krause 2001) Discourse communities: academic ‘cultures’ e.g. positivist, interpretivist, criticalist Discourse community tendencies and approaches: deductive, inductive WAC (writing across curriculums) programs, i.e. outside of English etc. Academic Literacies (Lea & Street 1998) ‘Language transmits culture’ (Stubbs 1996) Earlier social constructionist perspectivesin the USA (Bazerman 1988) Critique: EAP previously somewhat monolithic and homogenous Academic practice is social and context dependent Discipline-specific epistemology (Swales 1990, Parry 1998, Becher 1990) Also, Corpus Linguistics: Corpora available for analysis and evidence of specificity Student identities and diversity: L1/L2 blurring with migration, international schooling Student identities and diversity: more return-to-study, mature age Struggleof ‘beginning students at all levels’ to understand requirements (Haggis 2006, 522; Krause 2001) Discourse communities: academic ‘cultures’ e.g. positivist, interpretivist, criticalist Discourse community tendencies and approaches: deductive, inductive WAC (writing across curriculums) programs, i.e. outside of English etc. New Literacy Studies (Street 1984), Critical Discourse Analysis (Fairclough 1992), and Americans: Bazerman (1988) and Berkenkotter and Huckin (1995), ‘Integral, ongoing for all students’ (Mitchell & Evison 2006), ‘firmly embedded in discipline curriculum … as part of the regular subject (Wingate 2010). All taking a critical stance of conventional approaches Seeing writingas a social phenomenon (Lillis 2001) Or as ‘social practice’ dependent on particular context (Lea & Street 1998) To privilege practice above text! Making language ‘visible’ (Lillis 2006) But is this new? Halliday and others: register, genre, social roles, social practice (communicative context + linguistic behaviour = pedagogic solutions) Also: Swales,and Swales & Freak, who built on Halliday; the rhetorical tradition in US College Composition (Jordan 1992); Discourse Studies (Prior 1998); Process Writing (Raimes 1991). So not so new… (Relevant) recommendations and implications: • Texts serve the ‘conversation’, not the other way round • Learner types vary endlessly. So do teacher-student relationships: human! (Multiplicity: individuate!) • Discipline communities (and their expectations) evolve! • Less 'normative' more 'transformative' (how verbal practice can help enable and empower student voice) • Moving formerly-peripheral EAP into its relevant content = raise awareness of discipline’s communicative and social practices Evolution of EAP and ‘Social Practice’ PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE 12/10/2015 4 Tactic • Analyse idea, topic, proposition, issue or object from allocating multiple perspectives (or from time-dependent paradigms, etc.) • Develops criticality, originality, bird’s eye linking of disciplines • Reminds students of voices within a social process • JIGSAW reading: confer and regroup • The controversies over the Muslim veil: • Feminist perspective: non-visibility, power • Pragmatic perspective: its origin, geographic conditions, tribal social relations • Islamist perspective: identity, moral values • Political perspective: power, theocracy, secularism • Youth perspective: fashion and identity assertion Summarise the discourse • Stress, emphasise • Highlight, underline, spotlight, focus on • Define, identify, refer to • Portray, describe, depict, render • Show, demonstrate, reveal, indicate • Find, isolate, distinguish • Observe, comment, remark, acknowledge • State, note, mention, indicate • Sum up, overview, outline, preview • Predict, forecast • Suggest, recommend, propose • Maintain, sustain, claim, allege, assert • Condemn, refute, deny, challenge • Conclude, deduce Tactics: summary • Allocate lexis-rich sources • Preparation: group cooperation and manipulation of information: standardise, peer-teach/correct, rehearse (audio memory) • Re-group: each represents paradigm to new group (information gap) • Or done dually: across the room as debate • Student metacognition: pride in resourceful expertise, pressure of performing on par with group (order strong first). Any hiccups? Good practice? Anything similar? Tactic • Culture of challenge, celebrated as healthy. Never personal • Introducing ‘social practice’ and ‘privileging practice above text’ • ‘Who would disagree with that? Why?’ • ‘What school of thinking does that come from?’ Creative problem solving, through research Take full responsibility for outcomes Critique assumptions underpinning paradigms Develop own viewpoints, and argue persuasively Evaluate ideas and all sides of arguments Analyse: speculation, hypothetical scenarios Analyse: causes and effects, deduction Apply theories, and balance theory and practice Understand and inter-link: manage and synthesize Know and remember complex information: facts Tactic • More informally: polarise suggestions, together as class or in groups • ‘Obama’s Healthcare’: What would • Adam Smith think? • Marx think? • Keynes think? • Hayek think? • Ask and answer across the room: ‘Is she right? Why/why not?’ etc. Inclusion and concept checking • Juxtapose as counter-arguments refuted • Build up discourse verbally - coax towards academic style • Optional extra: re-express deductively and inductively (recycling new lexis too!) 12/10/2015 5 Further tactic In literature reviews: Begin to ‘enter the conversation’ … both: A conversation necessarily has participants and voices. Being assessed on ‘ability to build on work of others’. • Intellectually (The location of your question within the discipline and its wider academic context: meaning, significance, relevance, purpose ) • Rhetorically (From your formativeresearch, the birth of a means to explain and proceed through the topic) • Socially (Establishing‘the right to speak’,why someone should listen to you) Building courage? Other ways? SURVEYINGTHEORETICALLANDSCAPE: Discourse, Language Functions & Linguistic Ability EAP (& ESAP) Develop relevant study skills English language development Recognise and reproduce academic discourse Discourse & Function: Genre Approach (Halliday: Systemic-Functional Linguistics) • COMPARE focus (1970s) on sentences and utterances, pronunciation, grammar & syntax, error correction • WITH explicit teaching (1980/90s onwards) of genres such as recount/narrative, report, argument, instructions, processes, context description, etc. 12/10/2015 6 Academic Discourse: Genre What language features typically define the following: • Descriptive, analytical and argument essays • Reports, problem-solution reports, case studies • Research reports and dissertations - and their parts, e.g. abstracts, methodologies • ESAP formats: legal, scientific, engineering, medical • Reflective writing • (Academic textbook chapters) • (Journal articles) • (Technical/specific journalism) • Seminars, presentations, (lectures) The Functional Sample written functions in university life: Orientation Simplerfunctions Harder functions Higherfunctions Orienting readers to thesis: - Giving context - Raising controversy - Surveying paradigmatic landscape and voices in discourse community Describing Explaining Outlining process Outlining narrative Comparing, contrasting Evaluating, assessing Substantiating with reason Supporting with evidence Identifying paradigmatic underpinnings Justifying approaches and methodologies Expressing research limitations Previewing Signposting transition Analysing cause Analysing effect Analysing by deconstruction Analysing by linking Handling ambiguity Exploring counter-arguments Refuting counter-arguments Summarising, reviewing Linking theory to practice Reporting findings Analysing findings Recognising and challenging assumptions Concluding, deducing Recommending The Functional Sample spoken functions in university life: Mainly Relational Mainly Negotiation Mainly Solicitation Mainly Delivering Establishing and maintaining relationships with peers. Expressing solidarity. Offering assistance. Empathizing. Expressing humour Discussing, arguing or critiquing a proposition in an event such as a seminar: including polite/hedged disagreement Liaising with support staff and administration for living needs: information seeking, complaining Leading seminars: keeping control and steering: prompting, inclusion, ‘bouncing’, interrupting, clarifying, summarising, (dis)agreeing/challenge, asserting position/opinion, speculating, hedging Collaborating on group project or assignment: planning, allocating, expressing contingency and interdependence Negotiating deadlines, submissions and wordcounts, with tutors Conducting research using certain instruments: querying, active listening /responding, etc. Introducing and delivering a presentation, or paper, or a poster presentation. Summarising/concludingwith recommendations Exploring with peers how to approach coursework: suggesting, comparing hypothetical scenarios Giving and responding to advice, feedback, and approaches to a task Updating tutors on progress: reporting Can these be developed? Model event: notice Deconstruct: Analysis [Controlled production] Reconstruct Presentation & reflection Sample target genre shown, social purposes and knowledge constructed are discussed Stages analysed, given functional names, language features spotlighted Guided manipulation of target genre (exercises, shared activity) Students research & produce own sample. Teacher conferencing Presented or shared, Own work’s features are reflected on Early 90’s approach (Jordan) Move from a product approach towardsa processapproach: Focus on ‘journey’, regular informal feedback, peer/teacher collaboration. English is currently used as a means of communication in an increasingly international forum. Moreover, there are a substantial number of communities where English is used ‘intranationally’ (Strevens 1980) even though it is not the mother tongue. These include communities in South Asia and Africa for instance. In such cases, new varieties of English develop largely from the largely institutionalised varieties (Kachru 1983), a phenomenon that does not occur where English is spoken solely for international purposes. This essay deals with one of these emergent varieties Nigerian English - considering it from both a historical and linguistic perspective to demonstrate clearly that it can be considered a standard form of the language. The World Bank’s influence over education initiatives in the developing world has been persistently heightened by its increased involvement in educational research agenda-setting, with its escalation to becoming the most significant external funder. This has contributed to the endorsement and proliferation of the Bank’s view of education as a tool for economic growth. This conceptualisation, focusing on the development of human capital, fails to recognise the most valuable aspects of education. Advocated from the Bank’s position of power, it also serves to silence or marginalise alternative perceptions and voices thus perpetuating an ‘anti-dialogue’ dependency sometimes deemed ‘neo-colonialism’ (Watson, 1996). Despite evolving recommendations over the decades and a recent adjustment in its rhetoric, the World Bank continues to direct, prescribe and impose: educational policies which prioritise Western-centric instruction; vocational inclination, aimed at industrial employment; and a lack of recognition of local values, concerns and initiatives. The case of Liberia will be examined. 12/10/2015 7 The monarchy certainly has no place in modern Britain as it is a categorically undemocratic institution, with the Queen unelected. Despite this fact, it is often argued that the Queen has no real power. However, according Welsh and Bales (2004), Britain could go to war without even consulting the elected parliament (cited in Burns, 2009). Furthermore, while some would argue that the best democracies may be constitutional monarchies (e.g. Jones 1995), the hereditary system is actively upheld by the monarchy and does not ensure individual merit; therefore it clearly goes against the democratic principle. It may not have gone unnoticed that consecutive Australian governments have ostensibly lauded but patronised China, with terms like 'successful trading partner' and 'opportunity' frequently seen to be littering public and media rhetoric (Deans 2009), especially as it appears to have been recognised by their halls of government as not much beyond these exploitative notions. In fact, the ongoing clambering for stronger US positioning by the Abbott government might have succeeded in sending signals to China in the first instance, and Indonesia in the second, that Australia remain the belligerent, non-inclusive, xenophobic, middle-power of the Asia-Pacific (Matthews 2012, p.34). As insulting as this may look, it has also conceivably allowed another negative message to be sent: unless a state overtly sides with the US, Australia will maintain a greater political distance. Notwithstanding the damage inherent in this, and conceding to the caveats against the approach, an alternative and less pessimistic perspective can also be gleaned from these relations, if the following broader context is taken into consideration. … Impact on studies Although this incident caused me discomfort and added pressure in the short term, I realise that it was a very significant event in my studies. As a result of the conversation with my tutor I was forced to reconsider my behaviour in tutorials and became more aware of how others viewed me. I had been used to think that I was 'invisible' in tutorials, but now I realised that not talking actually made me stand out more. Fortunately, the tutor gave me advice on how to gradually develop the confidence I needed, and I also sought help from some of my friends. I even organized to have some informal tutorials with friends to give me a chance to practice. Over the final weeks of the semester I managed to talk at least once in every clinical tutorial, either asking a question or making a comment. I have started trying to talk in other tutorials also, in other subjects. I have set myself the goal of talking at least once every tutorial. This incident was therefore very important, because without it I would still be remaining silent in my tutorials, and would have received negative written comments from my clinical tutor in my portfolio. More importantly, it has helped me to acknowledge and work on an area for improvement which will be beneficial in all aspects of the course. Developing greater confidence at speaking in tutorials may lead to me being more confident in performing clinical examinations on patients. It may also lead to me feeling more in control and experiencing less nerves during my Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE) assessments. Impact on career My tutor was right in stating that a doctor must be able to express opinions clearly and confidently. Good communication skills are essential for doctors, and are important in nearly all aspects of medicine. I feel that I will be more confident in dealing with patients and more effective in taking a patient history, for example. Developing greater confidence in how I communicate can lead to patients having greater trust in me as their doctor. Improving my skills in this area will also make me more effective in discussing cases with colleagues, and in participating in teams when necessary. This incident made me realise that I can talk confidently once I overcome my initial fears. It demonstrated to me that in order to make progress or create positive change you must first acknowledge that a problem exists. This is a lesson which may be useful in better understanding patient behaviour and attitudes. Often the first step to improving a situation, or dealing with a problem, is accepting that some change is necessary; and I may be more able to impart this information to patients having experienced this incident. Overall, this incident has had a positive impact on both my studies and on the development of skills needed in my future career. Methods This study was conducted at Yates Mill Pond, a research area owned by the North Carolina State University,on October 25th, 1996. Our research area was located along the edge of the pond and was approximately 100 m in length and 28 m in width. There was no beaver activityobserved beyond this width. The circumference, the species, status(chewed or not- chewed), and distancefrom the water were recorded for each tree in the study area. Due to the large number of trees sampled, the work was evenly divided among four groups of students working in quadrants. Each group contributed to the overall data collected. A chi-squared test was undertaken to analyze the data with respect to beaver selection of certain tree species. T-tests were conducted to determine (1) if avoided trees were significantly further from the water than selected trees, and (2) if chewed trees were significantlylarger or smaller than not chewed trees. Mean tree distancefrom the water and mean tree circumference were also recorded. Results Overall, beavers showed a preference for certain species of trees, and their preference was based on distancefrom the central place. Measurements taken at the study site show that beavers avoided oaks and musclewood (Fig. 1) and show a significant food preference (x2=447.26,d.f.=9, P<.05). No avoidance or particular preference was observed for the other tree species. The mean distance of 8.42 m away from the water for not-chewed trees was significantlygreater than the mean distance of 6.13 m for chewed trees (t=3.49, d.f.=268,P<.05) (Fig. 2). The tree species that were avoided were not significantly further from the water (t=.4277,d.f.=268,P>.05) than selected trees. For the selected tree species, no significant difference in circumference was found between trees that were not chewed (mean=16.03cm) and chewed (mean=12.80cm) (t=1.52, d.f.=268, P>.05) (Fig. 3). For this qualitative study, a sample group of 360 employees from 3 state government departments was selected for the study, which took place during the month of November 2009 in Melbourne. The departments were chosen on the basis of their identical staff-tomanager ratios. Only employeeswho had been with the department for more than 2 years were selected. Three test instruments were used in this study: (1) a questionnaire for the employees, (2) an interview for managementand (3) a ‘managementstyle’ test. The employee questionnaire consisted of 3 parts: Part 1 asked for the participant’s personal details including age, job title and employment status (full-time, permanent, casual). Part 2 elicited the participant’s assessment of their manager’sperformanceand behaviour with a set of True/False questions. Part 3 included 5 multiple-choice questions asking how the participant deals with stress in the workplace. The management style test consisted of 10 questions requiring an “agree” or “disagree” response. The interview employed 6 open-ended questions focussing on the manager’s assessment of staff satisfaction and productivity. Employeeswere given the questionnaire to completeand return within a 2-hour period which ensured a 97% response rate. Completed formswere then matched with participant’s departmental recordof absenteeism. The supervisors all completed the managementstyle test, followed by the interview 3. Interviewers in each department recorded the managers’ responses. These were then matched to their management style test results. The data was collated and analysed according to the supervisor/employeegroupings and accordingto the different management styles. For this qualitative study, a sample group of 360 employees from 3 state government departments was selected for the study, which took place during the month of November 2009 in Melbourne. The departments were chosen on the basis of their identical staff-tomanager ratios. Only employeeswho had been with the department for more than 2 years were selected. Three test instruments were used in this study: (1) a questionnaire for the employees, (2) an interview for managementand (3) a ‘managementstyle’ test. The employee questionnaire consisted of 3 parts: Part 1 asked for the participant’s personal details including age, job title and employment status (full-time, permanent, casual). Part 2 elicited the participant’s assessment of their manager’sperformanceand behaviour with a set of True/False questions. Part 3 included 5 multiple-choice questions asking how the participant deals with stress in the workplace. The management style test consisted of 10 questions requiring an “agree” or “disagree” response. The interview employed 6 open-ended questions focussing on the manager’s assessment of staff satisfaction and productivity. Employeeswere given the questionnaire to complete and return within a 2-hour period which ensured a 97% response rate. Completed formswere then matched with participant’s departmental recordof absenteeism. The supervisors all completed the managementstyle test, followed by the interview 3. Interviewers in each department recorded the managers’ responses. These were then matched to their management style test results. The data was collated and analysed according to the supervisor/employee groupings and according to the different management styles. 12/10/2015 8 This research showed that scheduling blocks of shift-work together with education programmes for worker families would reduce the rate of accidents in the workplace and minimise psychologicalharm to the shift-worker. This agrees with the research findings of Ibsen et al. into the advantages of ‘blocking’ shift work (1998) as well as Patel & Gordon’s recommendationson shift-worker family education programmes(1999). The findings support the hypothesis. Shift-workers with eight-week blocks of unsocial shifts, suffered fewer accidents and were absent less than workers in permanent nine to five jobs, when they and their families received social support into shift-work culture, and training into recognising symptomsof the occupationalhazardsof shift work. These workersalso reported higher than average satisfaction with their work than their nine-to-five control group counterparts. One possibleconclusion is that the rate of accidents might be more closely related to the regularity of shift adaptation than solely to the disruption. Perhaps working nights is not inherently distressful but the change in adapting constantlyis. Furthermore, the accident rate may have resulted from undermined work satisfaction and social stress from social isolation. While it appears that addressing these issues may be a small step in the improving of mental and physical occupationalhealth and safety, caution must be exercised in applying these findings to a broader industry context. This is because the sample was restrictedto penal system, supermarket and manufacturing personnel in predominantly Anglo-Saxon environments. It is possible that other industries with more established ‘cultures’ of shift work, such as hospitality and catering, or more diverse ethno-cultural mixes, may produce varying results. Such methodologicalproblems notwithstanding, the implications for industry are clear: education and support programmesin shift ‘culture’ and longer blocks may reduce occupationalstress and accident rates, and should be considered by employers. The approach outlined in this study could be replicated acrossa broader range of industries and more diversely comprised workforcesin order to build a model of preferable shift-work conditions. Polyploidy is a prominent process in plants and significant in the evolutionary history of vertebrates and other eukaryotes. In plants, interdisciplinary approaches combining phylogenetic and molecular genetic perspectives have enhanced our awareness of the myriad genetic interactions made possible by polyploidy. Here, processes and mechanisms of gene and genome evolution in polyploids are reviewed. Genes duplicated by polyploidy may retain their original or similar function, undergo diversification in protein function or regulation, or one copy may become silenced through mutational or epigenetic means. Duplicated genes also might interact through inter-locus recombination, gene conversion, or concerted evolution. Recent experiments appear to have illuminated important processes in polyploids that operate above the organizational level of duplicated genes. These include intergenomic chromosomal exchanges, saltational, non-Mendelian genomic evolution in nascent polyploids, inter-genomic invasion, and cytonuclear stabilization. Notwithstanding many recent insights, much remains to be learned about many aspects of polyploid evolution, including: the role of transposable elements in structural and regulatory gene evolution; processes and significance of epigenetic silencing; underlying controls of chromosome pairing; mechanisms and functional significance of rapid genome changes; cytonuclear accommodation; and coordination of regulatory factors contributed by two, sometimes divergent progenitor genomes. Continued application of molecular genetic approaches to questions of polyploid genome evolution holds promise for producing lasting insight into processes by which novel genotypes are generated and ultimately into how polyploidy facilitates evolution and adaptation. 45 Massage is promoted to enhance sports performance by increasing tissue extensibility,increasing circulation and decreasing pain from previous injury or strenuous competition, despite a lack of evidence of physiological benefit. The goal of this study was to determine the effect of sports massage,superficial heat, and no treatmenton resting muscle stiffnessin 14 college level athletes. The trials included three specific sports massage techniques and a control, and Myotonometer measurements were taken pre and post for each, along with a pre and post treatment questionnaire to assess perceived tightness; a single leg vertical jump testwas also used to assess performance after each; skin temperature was collected each minute for all trials. Datawas analyzed using repeated measures MANOVA with bonferroni correction when appropriate. There were significantdifferences in resting muscle and connective tissue stiffnessin the sports massage group pre to post at forces 1.75 kg, and 2.00 kg ( p=.004,p=.006)and significantinteraction between heat and sports massage at 1.75 kg and 2.00 kg (p=.006,p=.008), yet no significantdifferences for verticaljump testing. The questionnaire found subjects preferring heat and sports massagefor increasing range of motion and looseness but did not feel that either treatmentincreased strength or hamstring power. Resting muscle and connective tissue stiffness significantlydiffered after superficial heat compared to sports massage in treatmentleg. Sports massagesignificantly decreased muscle stiffness compared to superficial heat. Qualitativedata however provide no support for perceived or functional improvements as a result of treatments. Implications for practitioners are in informing the scope in which massage is efficaciouslyemployed. Summary The sinking of R.M.S. Titanic is a well researched and documented event, with explicit detail available on the engineering considerations, the structural considerations, the situational considerations, and the procedural considerations by the participants in the event. All of these, although most notably the engineering and structural considerations, contributed to the mass loss of lives. Events The R.M.S. Titanic sideswiped an iceberg at 11:40 p.m. on April 14, 1912. Estimated to be able to stay afloat for 2 days under the worst scenario, the ship sank in less than 3 hours [Gannon, 1995]. The iceberg created a 300-foot gash in the Titanic's hull above and below the waterline. Tests on Titanic's steel showed that the steel had high sulfur content, which increases the brittleness of steel by disrupting the grain structure [Hill, 1996]. This increase in brittleness contributed to the severity of the hull's damage. Captain E. J. Smith had not slowed the ship's speed that night, although the ship's wireless operators had received several ice warnings. The ship was moving at more than 22 knots. The sea was a "flat calm," a rarity for these waters. Under such conditions, there was no "tell-tale phosphorescent ripple" against the iceberg [Gardiner and Van der Vat, 1995]. Lookouts in the crow'snest on the Titanic did not spot the massive iceberg until only 5 minutes before the collision. That night, the lookouts had misplaced their binoculars. Even before the iceberg was spotted, Quartermaster Hitchens at the helm had begun to turn to port. When the alarm sounded, he turned full to port. His turning caused the Titanic to sideswipe the iceberg, rather than hit it head-on. Experts believe that the ship would not have sunk so quickly had it hit the iceberg head-on [Gardiner and Van der Vat, 1995]. The lower section of the Titanic was divided into sixteen major watertight compartments. Actually, the compartments were watertight only in the horizontal direction--their tops were open. After the collision, six watertight compartments began filling with water. Soon, water spilled over the tops. Retrospective analysis and implications Scientists have concluded that the watertight compartments contributed to the disaster by keeping the flood waters in the bow of the ship [Gannon, 1995]. If there had been no compartments, the incoming water would have spread out, and the Titanic would have likely remained afloat for another six hours. Flares were fired and Titanic's wireless operators sent out an SOS, but the wireless operator of the nearest ship, the California, had gone to bed at 11:30. Controversy exists on whether the California had seen the Titanic's signal flares. If so, why had its captain, Stanley Lord, not responded? Titanic's steel showed high levels of oxygen, which leads to an increased ductile-to-brittle transition temperature. For Titanic's steel, that temperature was determined to be 25 to 35 degrees F [Hill, 1996]. The water temperature that night was below freezing. The wrought iron rivets that fastened the hull plates to the Titanic's main structure also failed because of brittle fracture during the collision with the iceberg. Low water temperatures contributed to this failure [Garzke and others, 1994]. As it filled with water, the bow submerged, raising the stern out of water. When the stern reached an angle of about 45 degrees, the stresses in the ship's midsection (15 tons per square inch) caused the steel to fail and the bow to rip loose and sink [Gannon, 1995]. Contributing to this failure in the midsection was the design of Titanic's huge spiral staircase. The staircase not only weakened the midsection's structure, but served as a means for water to pass up through the ship. The Titanic carried lifeboats for 1,178 people, a number that exceeded regulations of that time. However, the crew, which had never been drilled on the use of the lifeboats, was inexperienced at filling and lowering them. The first lifeboats into the water were not even half full. In all, only 705 were saved by the lifeboats. Those on Titanic who went into the icy waters when the ship foundered died within minutes - hours before the Carpathia, the first rescue ship on the scene, was able to arrive. What does it mean to speak a language? When someone says I can speak English does that mean the same thing for everyone? It was once said of Britain and the United States that they are two countries divided by a common language. How can two countries be divided by having the same language? In this lecture I am going to talk about some of the things that can make the same language (specifically English, in this case) a source of distinctions and differences. In other words, I am going to talk about the varieties of English. There are two main ways of looking at variety with reference to any given language. The first is how the language changes over time throughout its history, which could be over a period of several hundred years or longer. The second way is how a language varies at any particular point in time, for example the different varieties of English at this particular point in the 21st century. In this talk, I will start by very briefly saying something about the way English has changed throughout its history. Then I will come to my main topic, which is a quick look at some of the varieties of English in existence at the present point in time. Let's start then by looking at variation in English over time. All languages change over time. Even within our own lifetime we will be aware that there are many words in common use today which either did not exist at all five or ten years ago, or which did exist but have taken on new meanings. Examples in English of fairly recent words include words like dot-com to mean a company or business that operates mainly through the Internet. Another new computer related word is cyberstalker, meaning someone who stalks or harasses another person through the Internet. Not all new words are connected with new inventions. For example the verb downsize is a fairly recent new word: it means to reduce in size or scope, to become smaller. So you can speak of a business or a company downsizing, which may be a nice way of saying that it has sacked some of its workers. Going back further in time, if you have ever read or seen the plays of Shakespeare, you will know that his 16th-century English (sometimes called Early Modern English) often has to be studied carefully before it can be fully understood. Some of the words he used have disappeared completely in the late modern English we use today. But even some of the words in his plays that look familiar have to be treated with care, because their meaning has changed. So, for example, the word allow which usually means 'to permit' today, in the 16th century could mean 'to approve'. A more striking example is the word nice. Today, to describe someone as 'nice' is to pay him or her a compliment, but in Shakespeare's day, nice could mean 'foolish'. If we go back even further, say a thousand years, to Old English, we find that is so different from contemporary English that it has to be studied like a foreign language or else translated so that it can be understood. Historians of the English language often divide it into four periods: Old English (8th to the 11th centuries AD), Middle English (12th to the 15th centuries), Early Modern English (16th and 17th centuries) and Late Modern English (18th century to the present). OK, let's come to the second part of this talk, which is concerned with varieties of English as it is used now. I am going to discuss contemporary varieties of English under two headings. First, there are … Area with most entrenched or ‘fossilized’ errors, especially in speaking but also in writing. WHY? Because functionally, they’ve proven to work. (Criticism of a strictly communicative approach only) 12/10/2015 9 Rich and authentic expression of spoken functions • Charts of phrases • Phrases highlighted in scripted dialogues or speeches • Keep the chart fluid: top it up as new ones occur to you • Trio role-plays with a police-person monitoring Paralipsisin orientinga talk to the purpose I’m sure you’re all already aware that … … not to mention the … I’m sure there’s no need to explain that … I imagine some of you have seen / considered … What do these have in common? A major problem with this kind of application is ...... Lack of X has existed as a health issue for many years. To date there has been little agreement on what ...... More recently, literature has emerged with contradictory findings.. One observer has already drawn attention to the paradox in ...... In many Xs a debate is taking place between Ys and Zs concerning ...... The controversy about scientific evidence for X has raged for over a century. Despite its safety and efficacy, X suffers from several major drawbacks: Research has consistently shown that first year students have not attained an adequate understanding of ...... 12/10/2015 Slide 50 Highlighting a problem or controversy in the field of study Adapted from: Manchester University Phrasebank What do these have in common? Data management and analysis was performed using ….. The experiments were carried out over the course of the growing period from ....... Injection solutions were coded by a colleague to reduce experimenter bias. Drugs were administered by injection … The mean score for both trials was subjected to multivariate analysis of variance to determine ...... The subjects were asked to pay close attention to the characters whenever ...... Prompts were used as an aid to question two so that ...... The pilot interviews were conducted informally by the trained interviewer ...... Blood samples were obtained with consent, from 256 male patients ...... Independent tests were carried out on the X and Y scores for the four years from ...... This experiment was repeated under conditions in which the X ratio was improved. A total of 256 samples were taken from 52 holes.12/10/2015 Slide 51 Describing process: typical verbs (note the passive form) What do these have in common? In our investigation there were several sources for error. The main error is ...... Another major source of uncertainty is in the method we used to calculate X.. Further data collection is required to determine exactly how X affects Y. It was not possible to investigate the significant relationships of X and Y further because our sample size was too small. 12/10/2015 Slide 52 Acknowledging problems or limitations in the methodology What do these have in common? The most striking result to emerge from our data is that ...... Interestingly, this correlation is related to ..... The correlation between X and Y is interesting because ...... The more surprising correlation is with the ...... The single most remarkable observation to emerge from the data comparison was ...... One unanticipated finding was that ..... Contrary to expectations, the study failed to find a significant ....... This finding was unexpected and suggests that ...... 12/10/2015 Slide 53 Highlighting significant, interesting or surprising results What do these have in common? Our study produced results which uphold the findings of the previous work … These findings of this study are consistent with those of Smith who found ...... This finding supports previous research into X which links X and Y. Our study confirms that X is associated with ...... This finding corroborates the ideas of Smith and Jones, who suggest that ...... We find it encouraging to compare this figure with that of Jones who found that ..... These findings further support the idea of ..... My findings seem to be consistent with other research which found ...... This also accords with our earlier observations, which showed that ...... There are similarities between the attitudes expressed by X in this study and those described by … 12/10/2015 Slide 54 Reference to previous research: supporting previous research 12/10/2015 10 What do these have in common? These data must be interpreted with caution because ...... These results therefore need to be interpreted with caution. With a small sample size, caution must be applied, as the findings might not ...... These findings cannot be extrapolated to all patients. Finally, a number of important limitations need to be considered. First, ...... A number of caveats need to be noted regarding the present study. The most important limitation lies in the fact that ...... The study was limited by ...... Our study was unable to analyse these variables. My study was not specifically designed to evaluate factors related to ...... The study has only examined ...... 12/10/2015 Slide 55 Advising cautious interpretation: Limitations of the study Academic Discourse: Broadly, what all texts have in common • Drawing between practicaltheoretical • Evidence-based (supported) claims • Criticality: ideas not just explained, but examined & contested. Protocols for being collegial/adversarial, e.g. hedging • Style is dry (neutral and objective) BUT… • Academic voice and referencing and concepts within ‘discussion’ (social process): writers and readers form ‘discourse communities’ Discourse, Language Functions & Linguistic Ability PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE – YOUR IDEAS? Extension on Writing: Clarity And Cohesion, Academic Style Paragraphing Regulation is a theme that has re-entered political discussion, and not without good cause. The stimulus packages and an array of recent interventionist approaches have halted what might have been a deeper recession. Stigler reports that “regulation may be actively sought by an industry or it may be trust upon it” un-solicited (1971). In this case, it is largely the latter. Yet it seems to be evident that governmentintervention in markets, through price control, taxation, subsidies and regulation, makes their operations more efficient. Price control, for example, can be an important tool. Darlenstein & Boxer (2002, in Hall et al. 2007) suggest that markets can be guided through price mechanism. Governments can set a minimum price, and not allow price to fall below the equilibrium level, protecting producers’ incomes. In the case of agriculture in the UK, as consumers become richer, the tendency for them to purchase basic foodstuffs, like bread and potatoes, may decline. This may influence farmers who mightsuffer very low revenues. The government sets up a minimum price as subsidies to protect producers’ benefits, making their earnings stable. In other words, revenue stability can be achieved directly by government intervention (ibid, p.76). Paragraphing Regulation is a theme that has re-entered political discussion, and not without good cause. The stimulus packages and an array of recent interventionist approaches have halted what might have been a deeper recession. Stigler reports that “regulation may be actively sought by an industry or it may be trust upon it” un-solicited (1971). In this case, it is largely the latter. Yet it seems to be evident that government intervention in markets, through price control, taxation, subsidies and regulation, makes their operations more efficient. Price control, for example, can be an important tool. Darlenstein & Boxer (2002, in Hall et al. 2007) suggest that markets can be guided through price mechanism. Governments can set a minimum price, and not allow price to fall below the equilibrium level, protecting producers’ incomes. In the case of agriculturein the UK, as consumers become richer, the tendency for them to purchase basic foodstuffs, like bread and potatoes, may decline. This may influence farmers who might suffer very low revenues. The government sets up a minimum price as subsidies to protect producers’ benefits, making their earnings stable. In other words, revenue stability can be achieved directly by government intervention (ibid, p.76). 12/10/2015 11 Paragraphing Regulation is a theme that has re-entered political discussion, and not without good cause. The stimulus packages and an array of recent interventionist approaches have halted what might have been a deeper recession. Stigler reports that “regulation may be actively sought by an industry or it may be trust upon it” un-solicited (1971). In this case, it is largely the latter. Yet it seems to be evident that government intervention in markets, through price control, taxation, subsidies and regulation, makes their operations more efficient. Price control, for example, can be an important tool. Darlenstein & Boxer (2002, in Hall et al. 2007) suggest that markets can be guided through price mechanism. Governments can set a minimum price, and not allow price to fall below the equilibrium level, protecting producers’ incomes. In the case of agriculture in the UK, as consumers become richer, the tendency for them to purchase basic foodstuffs, like bread and potatoes, may decline. This may influence farmers who might suffer very low revenues. The government sets up a minimum price as subsidies to protect producers’ benefits, making their earnings stable. In other words, revenue stability can be achieved directly by government intervention (ibid, p.76). Members of Latin and Arab societies easily feel the Chinese notion of ‘Li’ or power distance²but those in North Western European countries do less so. In being presented with the maxim “one should not bypass hierarchical lines to get one’s job done”, 22 percent of the Swedish agree with this, while in China 66 percent do². Thus different types of communicationemerge that might be employed, known as gongwen,with three relationship sets: superior-subordinate or xiaxing, like a CEO announcing rationalised layoffs;subordinate-superior or shangxing,like a manager reporting to the board of directors; and equal-equal or pingxing, like sales approaches. Although radically re-structured companies like Semco in Brazil would host voices who would strongly argue the reverse³, many hierarchies seem artificialor challengeable in many Western perspectives, but in the Eastern they are more likely considered essential for business and society to function. This brings us to the notion of leadership, patronage and governance, more specifically.A Chinese leader has to be seen to have his or her own good idea that lead to results, but in the West,a leader can quite openly take credit for his or her subordinates’.Of the maxim “a leader should have all the answers to hand”, in Sweden 10 percent believe this, while 74% do so in China². The question that therefore can be raised as to what extent the traditional SOE culture of a need for “leadership appearance over performance” may be still alive and kicking. ²Hofstede, “Cultures and organizations: software of the mind,” 6. ³Fisher, “Ricardo Semler won’t take control,” 1. Members of Latin and Arab societies easily feel the Chinese notion of ‘Li’ or power distance²but those in North Western European countries do less so. In being presented with the maxim “one should not bypass hierarchical lines to get one’s job done”, 22 percent of the Swedish agree with this, while in China 66 percent do². Thus different types of communicationemerge that might be employed, known as gongwen,with three relationship sets: superior-subordinate or xiaxing, like a CEO announcing rationalised layoffs;subordinate-superior or shangxing,like a manager reporting to the board of directors; and equal-equal or pingxing, like sales approaches. Although radically re-structured companies like Semco in Brazil would host voices who would strongly argue the reverse³, many hierarchies seem artificialor challengeable in many Western perspectives, but in the Eastern they are more likely considered essential for business and society to function. This brings us to the notion of leadership, patronage and governance, more specifically.A Chinese leader has to be seen to have his or her own good idea that lead to results, but in the West,a leader can quite openly take credit for his or her subordinates’.Of the maxim “a leader should have all the answers to hand”, in Sweden 10 percent believe this, while 74% do so in China². The question that therefore can be raised as to what extent the traditional SOE culture of a need for “leadership appearance over performance” may be still alive and kicking. ²Hofstede, “Cultures and organizations: software of the mind,” 6. ³Fisher, “Ricardo Semler won’t take control,” 1. Paragraphing Paragraph 1: SurvivingCancer Progress is gradually being made in the fight against cancer. In the early 1900s,few cancer patients had any hope of long-term survival (Martinez 1995,p.43). In the 1930s,less than one in five cancer victims lived more than five years. In the 1950s, the ratio was one in four, and in the 1960s,it was one in three. Currently, four of ten patients who get cancer this year will be living five years from now. The gain from one in four to four in ten represents about 69,000lives saved each year (ibid. p.44). Paragraph 2: SurvivingCancer Progress is gradually being made in the fight against cancer. In the early 1900s,few cancer patients had any hope of long-term survival, according to Martinez (1995, pg.43). Yet because of advances in medical technology, progress has been made so that currently four in ten cancer patients survive (ibid. p.44). It has been proven that smoking is a direct cause of lung cancer. The battle has not yet been won. Cures for some forms of cancer have been discovered. Still, other forms of cancer are still increasing. Heart disease is also increasing, which is not good news. Paragraph 1: Specific to the period, ClassicalLiberalism appeared in the 19th Century, having built on ideas developed in the 18th Century by Adam Smith. According to Lynn (2003),it advocateda particular pattern of government and society and recommended certain limits and principles in the formation of public policy. Yet, Lynn argues that this has to be understood in the context of the Industrial Revolution unfolding at the time, as well as the rapid urbanization (2003,p.34). He believes that the conditions today, in contrast,cannot demand such a simple framework.The thinking at the time was drawn on the psychology of individual liberty, ‘utilitarianism’and ‘natural laws’ along with a belief in progress, all popularized by Adam Smith and relevant to the circumstances and rapid change prevalent. Paragraph 2: Classicalliberalism appeared in the 19th Century, having built on ideas developed in the 18th Century by Adam Smith. According to Lynn (2003),it advocateda particular pattern of government and society and recommended certain limits and principles in the formation of public policy. Lynn informs us of the Industrial Revolution at the time, as well as the rapid urbanization (2003,p.34). The Industrial Revolution was much earlier than Chinese industrialization.This occurred between the 1960s and 1990s when the Chinese involved in agriculture fell by 30% (Jones, 2007, p.12). There are other types of revolution as well. The Cultural Revolution in China was associatedwith a tremendous shift in economic activityas well. The interpretationof Marxismby the government at the time was an interesting one. Paragraphing • Don’t mix styles (indent or skip a line) • One point per paragraph • New point, new paragraph • Nothing irrelevant or unnecessary 12/10/2015 12 Developing an idea • Topic sentence • Supporting sentences • Defining, classifying, expanding, giving examples or detail • Giving reasons or effects • Contrasting, describing, explaining • Refuting counter-arguments • Closing or link sentence An economic system is defined by Dixon (1981) as the system of “production, distribution and consumption of goods and services” (p.12). More abstractly, it is the set of principles and techniques by which problems of economics are addressed, such as the problem of scarcity through allocation of finite productive resources (Cigana 1994). It is composed of both people and institutions, including their relationships to productive resources, such as through owning and exploiting property. Examples of contemporary economic systems include capitalist systems, socialist systems, and mixed economies. Cuba, for instance, is said to be socialist which refers to its domination by a political, bureaucratic class, attached to one single communist party. This party follows Marxist doctrines and claims to represent the proletariat, though in a non-democratic fashion. “Economic systems” is therefore the subject in economics that includes the study of systems such as this. Paragraphing  Long waffly paragraphs annoy lecturers! Keep to a single idea (developed) in each, e.g.  Topic – explanation – origin –outcome  Topic – extension – clarification of detail  Topic – problem – solution  Topic – cause – effect  Topic – Argument  Topic – counter-argument – refuted Any one of these ‘moves’ might be a reference! Getting the balance: 1. Your own words to express your ideas and research 2. Other people’s words/ideas to support your ideas (or be discredited) 3. Using ‘metadiscourse’ i.e. the language we use to refer to our writing “The first of these two proposals is to be unpacked in greater detail…” “The question arises as to how this finding should be dealt with.” “The inference that can be made from this will be …” “It is necessary to illustrate this notion with a case study.” “The problem outlined in the above paragraphs will be …” Asking students: Why reference? • Avoid failing (by plagiarising) • BUT plagiarism is not the only reason! • Show you have read widely & can select appropriate material • Strengthen/support your arguments - essential to analysis and persuasion • Acknowledge work of others, & gives you authority • Allows reader to look it up Reporting verbs Stylistic variety, especially with seminal voices. Be adventurous with reporting: state that argue that refer to it as claim that suggest that pinpoint the issue by define it as… assert that highlight several… mention that emphasise that hold that note that point out that believe reported explained held the view overturned assumptions that challenged the status quo by was of the xxx school of thought … 12/10/2015 13 Referencing style Use stylistic variety: • Seminal thinkers, incorporated into sentence: Smith (2009) advanced the debate by… • Incidental sources, in brackets: There are four factors (Smith, 2009)… Various researchers across a range of academic disciplines have discerned a rise of supra-territoriality in contemporary history without using that precise word. Already at mid-century, for example, the philosopher Martin Heidegger proclaimed the advent of ‘distancelessness’ and an ‘abolition of every possibility of remoteness’ (1950: 165). Forty years later the geographer David Harvey described ‘processes that so revolutionize the objective qualities of space and time that we are forced to alter, sometimes in quite radical ways, how we represent the world to ourselves’ (1989: 240). The sociologist Manuel Castells has distinguished ‘a network society’ in which a new ‘space of flows’ exists alongside the old ‘space of places’ (1989: 348; 1996). In the field of International Relations, John Ruggie has written of a ‘nonterritorial region’ in contemporary world affairs (1993:172). Referencing style A study by Matheson has shown that of 42 projects implemented with a participatory approach, 64% have been successful whereas the rate was only 8% with weak or no participation (1997). Participation is the means and the path for the delivery of the project goals (Cleaver 2001; Cooke & Kothari 2001; UNDP 1998). Referencing style The action that occurs here is visibly an intrusion into someone’s ‘territory of the self’ (Goffman, 1971: 28-61). Pawley (1986: 116), in discussing his concept of ‘lexicalisation’, notes that “it is important to separate those form-meaning pairings that have institutional status in this culture from those that do not, as well as to denote particular kinds and degrees of institutionalisation”. Blocked indented quotations As Hartman et al. (1997, p.759) have indicated: Despite its importancefor policy, the question of air pollution abatementis a question that has not been comprehensivelyaddressed because the requisite data have not been available. As a result, benefit-cost analyses of abatement options have relied on cost estimates from engineeringmodels. It has been indicated that: Despite its importance for policy, the question of air pollution abatement is a question that has not been comprehensively addressed because the requisite data have not been available. As a result, benefit-cost analyses of abatement options have relied on cost estimates from engineering models (Hartman et al. 1997, p.759) . As Hartman et al. (1997, p.759) have indicated: Despite its importance for policy, the question of air pollution abatement is a question that has not been comprehensively addressed because the requisite data have not been available. As a result, benefit-cost analyses of abatement options have relied on cost estimates from engineering models. When to cite: • Ideas distinctive to an author • Not commonly known or accepted • Experts referred to • All quotations (words copied) • All paraphrases (your own words) • If in doubt, be safe 12/10/2015 14 Academic Writing Style • Need to be universally understood • Not ‘better’ • … just an academic ‘lingua franca’… a ‘code’ Academic Writing Style 1. CONCISE (usually!) 2. PRECISE 3. APPEARING NEUTRAL 4. FORMAL 5. SERIOUS Eight steps … to be concise, precise, objective, formal & serious 1. Remove redundancy 2. Convert (some) verbs to nouns 3. De-personalise (the passive voice can help) 4. Choose more precise, Latin-derived words 5. Embrace abstract nouns 6. Use caution and distance yourself 7. Emphasise when necessary Step 1: Being concise “There has been less research in education this year due to the fact that there is a complete lack of public funding for it.” (24 words) “A lack of public funding has meant less educational research this year.” (12 words) Step 1: Removing Redundancy • postpone to a later date => postpone • each individual person => • divided into two equal halves => • absolutely perfect => • an extra added bonus => • reverted back to => • still in use today => Step 2: Verbs  Nouns • produce  production • concede  concession • deteriorate  deterioration . 12/10/2015 15 Step 2: Verbs  Nouns 1. They will consider the issue at next week’s meeting. Consideration will be given to the issue at next week’s meeting. 2. They eventually permitted the site to be used for the festival. 3. They will not announce the findings until next week. 4. They will produce the new car in a purpose-built factory. Step 2: Verbs  Nouns British Muslims have launched an ‘Islam is Peace’ campaign. It was accompanied by a communications effort worth £300,000. British Muslims have launched an ‘Islam is Peace’ campaign, which was accompanied by a communications effort worth £300,000. A £300,000 communications effort accompanied the launch of British Muslims’ ‘Islam is Peace’ Campaign. Your turn If the community is vaccinated, we will save hundreds of lives. The next generation will also experience a greater quality of life. Community vaccination’s resultant saving of hundreds of lives will ensure longer-term greater quality of life. Step 2: Verbs  Nouns • Many futile attempts have been made to teach animals to speak how humans speak. • Many futile attempts have been made to teach animals to speak in human fashion. • It is essential to discuss how much cultural and biological evolution can be explained by similar principles. • Many factors must be considered in explaining how fast the population has grown in the developing countries. • There are advantages and declines in productivity and both are related to how much the population density is increasing. • Menzel (1973) showed that non-speaking chimpanzees can convey where food is to one another. • These star charts were provided to enable the deceased to tell what time it is and what day it is. • How big this group is varies in different centres. • On the surface, why women and domestic architecture were associated were obvious. Through the first half of the twentieth century Labour held firm to the idea that the land systemin Britain needed reforming. This article’s objective is to present the Labour party’s thinking on the land question. It will examine the changing nature of land-relatedpolicies brought forward by Labour during the inter-warperiod and indicate the different, and indeed contradictory, policy positions adopted by the party. It presents an outline of Labour’s political economy of the land question and shows how, in the inter-war years, changes the party’s view of agriculture led to the development of land policies based on control of land use rather than on nationalization.This, it will be argued, provides the vital background to understanding the decision of the Attlee governments not to nationalize land. Through the first half of the twentieth century Labour held firm to the idea that the land systemin Britain needed reforming. This article will attempt to present what the Labour party thought on the land question.It will examine how Labour’s policies regarding land changed between1918 and 1939 and indicate the different, and indeed contradictory, policy positions adopted by the party. It presents what Labour’s politicaleconomy of the land questionwas like and shows how, in the inter-war years, changes in the way the party viewed agriculture led to developingland policies based on controllingthe use of land insteadof nationalizingit. This, it will be argued, provides the vital background to understanding why the Attlee governments decidednot to nationalize land. 12/10/2015 16 Step 4: De-personalising • I believe that the entire work could have been executed that year. • The entire work could be executed that year. • If you consider the consequences, you would never elect such an option. • If the consequences are considered, such an option would never be elected. Comparing Clever programmers and design teams developed this e-learning template for software application and business process training content. We have included software applications and back office process training for you. Our brilliant new multi-media expert, Bertie, delivers high-end animations, graphics and interactions to provide interactive training. You will be using complex simulations of application environments and business procedures. This e-learning template has been developed for software application and business process training content. Software applications and back office process training are included. High-end animations, graphics and interactions are delivered to provide interactive training. Complex simulations of application environments and business procedures are used. Step 4: Choosing precise terms What’s wrong with this: A lot of people think that the weather is getting worse. I think that they are quite right. Research tells us that we now get storms etc all the time. Origins of English Anglo-Saxon-derived words and phrasal verbs - less formal and more familiar, friendly versus Latin-derived verbs and words via French - ‘higher’ and more formal/polite/distancing - give authority Examples go after pursue, seek go on continue, persevere, persist, make construct, develop, create, generate do perform, undertake, act, execute luckily fortunately, auspiciously, favourably need require, necessitate want desire, aspire to, to be inclined towards make up with reconcile, accommodate, yield to good thing advantage, benefit, asset get better improve, advance, enhance, progress good enough satisfactory, adequate Step 4: Choosing precise terms Being articulate: 1. Habits – automatically interconnecting higher and lower synonyms 2. Habits – automatically associating meaning Forming ‘networks’ of meaning 3. Resources to help you www.thesaurus.com www.lexchecker.org and www.find-the-word.com 12/10/2015 17 Step 5: Referring & abstract nouns China is the world’s largest manufacturing power. Its output of televisions and smartphones surpassed America’s in 2011. Such an achievement now accounts for a fifth of global manufacturing. Its factories have made so much, so cheaply that they have curbed inflation in many of its trading partners. However, this era of “cheap China” may be drawing to a close. Such costs are soaring, starting in the coastal provinces where factories have historically clustered. In these regions, increases in land prices, environmental and safety regulations and taxes all play a part. Greater than any of these, however, is labour. On March 5th 2011, Standard Chartered, an investment bank, released a survey of over 200 Hong Kong-based manufacturers operating in the Pearl River Delta. It found that the aforementioned factor had risen as a 10% wage-rise in the previous year. Foxconn, a Taiwanese contract manufacturer that makes Apple’s iPads, in Shenzhen, put theirs up by 16-25% in June 2011³. It is necessary to define Situational Theory and to explain Situational Theory. Situational Theory is an approach whereby the management style depends on the situation. The management style could vary from a directive management style with a less mature employee, to a guidance management style with a more mature employee, and so on. Management styles will be outlined here and compared to other leadership models. There are other leadership models which have been developed since Situational Theory. In summary then, the situation of the maturity of the employee affects the management style so that the leader can take the best management style course of action for the leader according to the situation. It is necessary to define Situational Theory and to explain Situational Theory. Situational This theory is an approach whereby the management style depends on the situation. The management style could vary from a directive management one with a less mature employee to a guidance management style one with a more mature person and so on. These management styles will be outlined here and compared to other leadership models. There are other leadership such models which have been developed since Situational Theory. In summary then, the employee maturity affects the management style so that the leader can take the best management style course of action for themselves according to this situation. The malnutrition in the rural population will not be addressed by the local government as the local government has not articulated that they acknowledge the malnutrition in the rural population. The malnutrition in the rural population will not be addressed by the local government as this authority has not articulated that they acknowledge the problem. Step 5: Referring & abstract nouns Tangible? Useful? Why? • Approach, procedure, process, methodology • Shortcoming, problem, issue, challenge, difficulty • Dilemma, paradox, contradiction, irony, incongruity • Development, trend, change, advance, progress • Distinction, difference, comparison, contrast • Assumption, premise, basis, foundation, paradigm • Description, outline, preview, overview, specification • Recommendation, suggestion, proposal, opportunity 12/10/2015 18 More examples A question that needs to be asked is whether ... A serious weakness with this argument, however, is that ... One of the limitations is that it does not explain why... One criticism of much of the literature on X is that ... The key problem with this explanation is that .... The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between … However, there is an inconsistency with this argument. Smith's argument relies heavily on qualitative analysis of ... It seems that Jones' understanding of this framework may be questionable. One major criticism of Smith's work is that .... Many writers have challenged Jones' claim on the grounds that ... Step 6: Use caution What is wrong with the following? To express love, females touch and care for others while males do so by providing for others. Women focus on the journey in life but men think only about the destinations. The Chinese are hard working people. Germans are methodical and systematic. should would may might can / could must will have to be ought to can seems to tends to appears that certain absolute possible definite impossible extreme excessive intensely unlikely uncertain most highest least always often sometimes usually frequently normally generally as a rule on the whole occasionally rarely seldom hardly ever never probably , possibly perhaps, maybe absolutely likely clearly roughly certainly surely extremely totally completely definitely undoubtedly presumably conceivably all / every / each / no / none / any most / a majority (of) / the (vast) majority a great proportion of / a large number many / much some / a number (of) / several a minority (of) a few / a little / few / little no doubt certainty possibility probability likelihood Generally speaking, In a manner of speaking, On the whole, Put simply, In general terms… Your turn: identify caution • There is experimental work to show that a week or ten days may not be long enough and a fortnight to three weeks is probably the best theoretical period. • Conceivably, different forms, changing at different rates and showing contrasting combinations of characteristics, were present in different areas. • One possibility is that it is likely to be weaker than that produced by pre-exposure and thus is more likely to be susceptible to the effect of the long interval. • It appears to establish three categories: the first contains wordings generally agreed to be acceptable, the second wordings which appear to have been at some time problematic but are now acceptable, and the third wordings which remain inadmissible. Step 7: Distance yourself Which are more ‘distant’? • It might be argued that the event was conspired. • It has been argued that the event was conspired. • It could be argued that the event was conspired. • It can be argued that the event was conspired. 12/10/2015 19 Step 7: Distance yourself Which are more ‘distant’? • It is clear that … • It is evident that … • There is strong evidence to suggest that … • There is a strong case that .. • The allegation is that … • It might be suggested that … • It might be claimed that .. • Jones (1999) has claimed that .. • Critics of this view may allege that… How distanced? • There is, perhaps, some evidence that … • There is undoubtedly some truth in the idea that.. • In spite of the fact that … • It seems that … / It appears that … • It has often been observed that Step 7: Distance yourself Choosing reporting verbs: Which are more ‘suspicious’ and have a distancing effect? • Allege, claim, suggest, deny, proclaim • State, declare, observe, note, report, describe Inversion for emphasis • The member presented some valuable new information and did so in a very clear and coherent manner. • Not only has the member presented some valuable new information, he has also done so in a very clear and coherent manner. • The functional strategies were particularly prominent. • Particularly prominent were the functional strategies … Step 8: Emphasising Inversion for emphasis • The rebels do not provide any evidence for this claim. • In no case, do the rebels provide any evidence for this claim. • They perished with dignity and courage on that day. • What dignity and courage did they perish with, on that day! • We consider it a virtue and also a prerequisite. • Not only do we consider it a virtue, we also consider it a prerequisite. Step 8: Emphasising Complete the following expressions: • Particularly important (+ be+ noun phrase) • Especially interesting….. • Much less expected….. • Rather more significant…. • Especially noteworthy….. • Of greater concern…. 12/10/2015 20 Step 8: Emphasising Complete the following from your own subject area: • Had the authors….. • Were this situation… • Seldom does the … • Such was the impact… • Never has such a theory…. • Should the result be positive… • Only by interpreting…. • Rarely did [Foucault]…. Speaker Development: Practical Habits For Instructors The L2 Context: Globish in HE Formal pathways “Jumping in at the deep end” Secondary EducationESAP EAP Academia ELT Training within industry Industry practice EFL Performance in a second-language medium Performance anxiety Performance anxiety: • Encouraging to face fears, exposure (often simply part of maturing) • Natural, DNA-programmed • Reassurance through ‘realities’ and positive framing Time: 3 weeks to 3 years Feelingsandyourinterpretationofthem 12/10/2015 21 Time: 3 weeks to 3 years Feelingsandyourinterpretationofthem Excitement Euphoria Confusion Experience Annoyances Frustrations Hostility Depression Giving in Sarcasm Humour Insight Belonging Comfort Distrust Alienation Adventure Effort Mastery Satisfaction Adaptability Competence Focus on audience’s needs and understanding Focus on content Focus on self Performance anxiety • Too much inward focus? • Or entrenched ‘performance anxiety’? • 20% - 80% Performance anxiety False ‘belief constructs’ over cause-effect (conditions and symptoms) Perceived ‘triggers’: • Size of audience / multiple eye contact • Being broadcast publicly • Not knowing your topic / intimidation by experts in audience • Technology failing last minute • Reading not speaking OR speaking not reading • Premeditation, or waiting in line to speak (‘creeping death’) Performance anxiety: the truth • Lecturing: instinctive and natural, like chatting (Best lecturers: ‘conversational’ in style) • Force yourself outside ‘comfort zone’ - it grows to accommodate • Will always be difficulties: few people notice, fewer care • Perceived thresholds and triggers: false beliefs Performance anxiety: CBT approach • Breathe: mindfulness of surroundings • In mindful state: less possible to produce the ‘cocktail’* • Mother nature developed the ‘cocktail’ for good use • With cognitive-behavioural link (false beliefs): performance anxiety • Break link = perform best (deconstruct beliefs and displace through positive experience) • Obsessive thoughts • Positive framing: e.g. ‘nervous’  ‘excited’, challenge, opportunity, life well-lived • Self trust • Side step intrusive thoughts: free up your working memory • Detach from outcomes, momentarily * ‘Cocktail’ comprises adrenalin, cortisol, norepinephrine, testosterone and other hormones 12/10/2015 22 Performance in a second-language medium Engaging audiences Engaging audience • (Not) reading / memorising / parroting a script • Pausing and speed (comfortable chunking – to come) • Vocal variety: volume, pitch, tone …. or flat? • Use of body, movement, dynamic, gesture • Smile and energy, mood • Visuals supporting not competing • Clarity and sequencing • Authoritative, expert, comfortable, happy, serious • Involving people (directly or indirectly)Consider how Czechs might compare? Gravitas • Serious but happy and comfortable • Smiles flashed regularly • Tapped energy • Balance between playing ‘authority’ vs ‘friend’ • Academic culture, authoritative, kudos, credibility • Colleague, peer, community, society, belonging, friend Engaging audience: involving people • Direct questions: • Requests for perspective or experience • Concept checks • Rhetorical questions • Appeals to imagination, or reflection • Balance between abstraction and reality • Referencing within realm of audience experience • Instructions, and being personal • BUT: sensitivity losing face, invading space, cultural considerations Why is this MORE importantfor L2-mediumstudents than L1-mediumstudents? Performance in a second-language medium Voice and accent 12/10/2015 23 Phonological analysis: audio mimicry Voice modulation: chunking technique Media model role-play Adoption of a persona to ‘anchor’ to Subconscious Conscious Basic: solo Advanced: with remediator Czech influence on English • Simplified 5 vowel phonemes (5 vs. 20 in English… also English spelling not logical!) • Hard to differentiate between /æ/, /e/ and /ʌ/ • More equal stress on all syllables • Stressing on the first syllable • Not using weak forms (an, can, etc.) or linking/elision • Less intonation patterns (flatter) Czech Influence on English • Neither /ð/ or /θ/ in Czech: often replaced with /d/ or /dz/ for /ð/, and /f/ or /s/ for /θ/ • No /w/ in Czech. Often replaced with /v/ or use /w/ in place of /v/ • Some small variation with /r/ • Some confusion /ŋ/, /g/, /k/ end of words (thing/think) • Voiceless /s/ and voiced /z/ indistinct • Not aspirating /p/, /t/ and /k/ at word start, or over-aspirating mid-word Phonological analysis: audio mimicry Voice modulation: chunking technique Media model role-play Adoption of a persona to ‘anchor’ to Subconscious Conscious Basic: solo Advanced: with remediator A two-by-five minutes a day habit incorporating: • (Syntax development) • (Lexis development) • Voice development: modulation, confidence, authority, (accent and pronunciation) 12/10/2015 24 Sample chunking Each time we gather to inaugurate a president, we bear witness to the enduring strength of our Constitution. We affirm the promise of our democracy. We recall that what binds this nation together is not the colours of our skin or the tenets of our faith or the origins of our names. What makes us exceptional – what makes us American – is our allegiance to an idea, articulated in a declaration made more than two centuries ago: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal … - Obama Inauguration Speech Sample chunking Each time we gather to inaugurate a president, we bear witness to the enduring strength of our Constitution. We affirm the promise of our democracy. We recall that what binds this nation together is not the colours of our skin or the tenets of our faith or the origins of our names. What makes us exceptional – what makes us American – is our allegiance to an idea, articulated in a declaration made more than two centuries ago: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal … - Obama Inauguration Speech Modulation Technique • Chunk any text: • Syntactically (grammatical units) • Phonologically, separated by tonal boundaries (in a single breath!) • Semantically (thought units) • Depends on attention span, audience, density of content, velocity • Repeat: ‘chunk’ aloud • On completion, summarise aloud without looking • Ensure cognitive engagement with content • (Chunking applied, as free practice) • Advanced chunking: highlight primary & secondary stress points • Practice with a remediator, with yes/no indications Chunking technique Be an active listener as when you hear what others have to say, you'll speak more directly to their concerns. If you focus closely on engaging with them, you will naturally empathise and assume aspects of their speech in your own. Also great for lexical and grammatical enriching! Useful to add ‘landscape’to your speech. Reduce Czech flat/staccato effect! Givesconfidence (more cognitive power through timing),authority and impact Audio mimicry Voice modulation technique Media model role- play Adoption of a persona Subconscious Conscious Stage two: with trainer remediation Plus findingyour “natural voice” (central pitch) Plus learningto project 12/10/2015 25 Finding your natural voice (versus your habitual voice) • Sitting with erect posture, or standing (cf. Alexander Technique) • Breathing deeply until in effortless rhythm (relax stomach) • Fingers in solar plexus: Hum! • Rhythmic pressing on solar plexus (interrupts hum, encourages settling on natural pitch) • Gradually insert words into the hum • Result: your natural voice • Hum “Happy Birthday to You” – is the pitch the same? • Freer, less constrained, less effort? • Less audible initially until proper breathing adopted (we often constrain to raise pitch to be audible) Phonological analysis: audio mimicry Voice modulation: chunking technique Media model role-play Adoption of a personato ‘anchor’ to Subconscious Conscious Basic: solo Advanced: with remediator Performance in a second-language medium The actual content Speaking for the ear, not the eye We need to revitalize our economy after the recent global financial shocks. But growth that ignores environmental responsibility is not, ultimately, sustainable. That is why … we are investing heavily. We are investing in a range of policies. Like the decarbonisation of road transport through advanced technologies. We are pushing for stringent measures to control emissions. Including emissions from aviation and shipping. We need to revitalize our economy after the global financial shocks of recent times but growth that ignores environmental responsibility is ultimately not sustainable which is why we are investing heavily in such policies as the decarbonisation of road transport through advanced technologies and pushing for stringent measures to control emissions from aviation and shipping. Speaking for the ear, not the eye: advice • Contemporary oratory: low-key, casual and conversational • Contemporary oratory: calm, reassuring • Natural words and phrases: flow as conversation • Creates psychological ‘community’ among listeners and speaker • Avoid speaking over their heads (convoluted, pompous, verbose) • Avoid talking down to them (patronising, condescending) Writing for the ear, not the eye: instruct Instructing and appealing to reflection Let me take you to a scene where … Take a moment to think about… Imagine the tremendous benefits for the climate, if this were to be invested wisely. Just think about the new opportunities it could open for energyefficient technology. 12/10/2015 26 Speaking for the ear, not the eye: personalise • Personalise: I, me, my, you, we, us, our … • Be gender-inclusive (he/she) • Simple sentences, more active than passive • Exclusively active voice: musical, choppy and juvenile • Exclusively passive voice: graceful, dignified, starchy, dry, dense, heavy Passive for politeness and distancing • Our staff can present the proposal on Tuesday. • The proposal can be presented on Tuesday. • Have you considered these options? • Have these options been considered? • Will Malcolm Turnbill address aboriginal health? • Will aboriginal health be addressed? Speaking for the ear, not the eye: politeness • Kevin Rudd restored the relationship we enjoy today. • The relationship we enjoy today was restored by Kevin Rudd. • Buddhist philosophers created a unique culture that has influenced societies in every continent. • A unique culture has been created by Buddhist philosophers, influencing societies in every continent. • Societies in every continent have been influenced by the unique culture created by Buddhist philosophers. Speaking for the ear, not the eye: juxtaposition Rhetorical Devices Repetition in parallel, and often in threes • The inherent vice of capitalism is the unequal sharing of blessing; the inherent virtue of socialism is the equal sharing of miseries. - Churchill • I came, I saw, I conquered. - Julius Caesar Rhetorical Devices Tonight will be a stomach-churning moment for Mr. Bush, and he must be puzzling over how he got snarled in this nightmare, with Old Europe making him beg, North Korea making him wince, the deficit making him cringe, the lost manufacturing jobs making him gulp; with the hawks caving in to the U.N. and to old Saddam Baath army members who want to rebuild a security force; with Representative David Obey demanding the unilateral heads of Rumsfeld and Wolfowitz, so that "Uncle Sam doesn't become Uncle Sucker“, with the F.B.I. warning that more Islamic terrorists who know how to fly planes may be burrowing into our neighbourhoods. - Maureen Dowd, commentator referring to a speech by President George W. Bush September 7, 2003. Rhetorical Devices Rhetorical questions • Who would you rather ran the province? • Should a mother of vulnerable infants really trust this operator? • Why don’t we perhaps take a look at the causes here? • When is the right time build such a relationship? • Were they wise enough to grasp this opportunity? 12/10/2015 27 Rhetorical Devices Using relative clauses to approach idea dramatically • The one that matters the most is … • There are some who want us to believe that …. But we …. • What we need to occur right now is … • It is scholarly works like this which are known for … • And that is exactly why there happens to be … Inversion for emphasis • The author presented some valuable new information and did so in a very clear and coherent manner. • Not only has the author presented some valuable new information, he has also done so in a very clear and coherent manner. • The functional strategies were particularly prominent. • Particularly prominent were the functional strategies … Rhetorical Devices Inversion for emphasis • The rebels did not provide any evidence for this claim. • In no case, did the rebels provide any evidence for this claim. • They perished with dignity and courage on that day. • What dignity and courage did they perish with, on that day! • Society considers it a virtue and also a prerequisite. • Not only does society consider it a virtue, it also considers it a prerequisite. Rhetorical Devices Rhetorical Devices Hinting the obvious • I’m sure that you are all aware of the events yesterday at 1:15 pm … • There’s no need to tell you who I am referring to. Hinting by denying, or stating the opposite • I will not go into the allegations that the leader of the militia was drunk. • I’m sure the representative of the paramilitary would not be lying. Rhetorical Devices Antithesis, and using conjunctions • They said: “Give me liberty, or give me death”. • Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country. • It was the best of times; it was the worst of times. • If puritanism was not the godfather to capitalism, then it was the godson. • The conditions were rife, for the foundations had been laid, and our leaders were ready, but our opponents were not. Rhetorical Devices Imagery and metaphors: • Enlivens • Generous to listeners (encourages interpretation) • Efficient and economical: max meaning, min words • Expressive for ideas without easy words • Tactical: analogy, useful for persuasion 12/10/2015 28 Vocabulary building: literal-metaphorical Literal Metaphorical someone wanting force or violence for solutions hawk someone wanting negotiation for solutions dove someone acting opportunisticallywithout caring vulture implying terrific energy, fast-growing tiger (economy) white Anglo-Saxon protestant WASP a unexciting and older business with reliable revenue cash cow in market economies, the customer is correct, regardless the customer is king exemplar behaviour is better than simply making promises actions speak louder than words the more we postpone, the more costlyit shall be time is money an intricatelycomplicatedbut carefullybalanced solution a well-calibratedsolution dramaticallyfluctuating data roller-coaster Personal habits: vocabulary building Daily: developing associations through synonymising Lower register More literal Higher register More metaphorical Rhetorical Devices Aristotle’s Three Appeals (Not appropriate for academia?) Structural moves: anecdote and illustration Practice, illustration, story Idea, theory, abstraction 166 Consider different speeches: where do they use anecdote? Where do they use real-life illustrations? Powerful rhetorical moves • Widening circles of identification • Anchoring to an image or person (personification) • ‘Journalistic hooks’ Idea, theory, abstraction Practice, illustration, story Inductive or deductive Appeal to Imagination Idea or argument To PowerPoint or not to PowerPoint? To support you, not replace you (audience shouldn’t read your message) • Notes, phrases, bullets • Maps • Photographic images • Video clips PPT should enhance only. If not, don’t use it. Personal habits: Lexis building Daily: developing associations through synonymising Lower register More literal Higher register More metaphorical 12/10/2015 29 Lexis building: synonymising by register Higherregisterword choice Lower registerword choice Nevertheless,nonetheless Yet, still Initially,subsequently, ultimately,finally First of all, next, then, later, in the end Increasingly, gradually, incrementally Bit by bit, in stages,slowly Consequentially, consequence, as a result, resultant In the end, upshot, outcome, bring about, lead to Moreover, furthermore, in addition Also, what’s more, besides, similarly,in line with Procedure, process, methodology, method Way, means, approach Specification,description, detail Outline, preview, overview, roadmap, plan Recommendation, proposal, opportunity Suggestion, pitch, way forward Distinction,contrast,disparity,incongruence What’s different, not in common, distinct Fortunately,auspiciously, favourably With luck, chance, favour shined on us Desire, aspire to, to have an inclination towards Want, long for, to lean towards Advance, enhance, progress Improve, get better, get ahead In conclusion, in summary,to conclude In brief, in a nutshell, to wind up Lexis building: autonomous learning • Daily habits? What suits you? A course for groups wishing to form a language enriching club: • www.corballis.com/pages/eloquentenglish/ebook1.pdf • www.corballis.com/pages/eloquentenglish/ebook2.pdf • Free for staff at Masaryk SURVEYINGTHEORETICAL LANDSCAPE: Learner Typology for ‘Social Practice’ Learner Typology • “Faculties believe that the behaviors most responsible for impeding international students’ academic success are: (a) their lack of participation in classroom discussions, (b) their lack of participation in debate with classmates or instructors, and (c) their failure to ask for clarification of issues . . . that are unclear” (Tompson & Tompson, 1996). • But expectations on participation vary wildly according to: • Cultural factors: expectations • Personal learning styles • Personal teamwork styles Learner Typology: Learning Styles • Auditory (cf. Audio-Lingual method) • Visual • Tactile • Kinaesthetic (cf. Total Physical Response method) (Barbe, Swassing & Milone, 1979, but also extended by Neuro-Linguistic Programming practice, cf. Scott 2006) • Simplistic. Preference only, and a mix • Shifts throughout life, prior learning influence • Cultural aspect (cf. Arab/Spanish with Chinese/Korean) • Part of a bigger mix: group/individual, setting, etc. • Also ‘Multiple Intelligences’ (Gardner 1983) Learner Typology Perceptual Quality: Concept • Concrete: registering information through 5 senses, the obvious ‘here and now’ rather than hidden meanings, or linking concepts • Abstract: visualizing, conceiving ideas, getting the un-seen. Intuition, imagination, lateral/beyond. ‘It is not always what it seems’ (Gregorc, 1984) • Also Reflective Observation vs. Active Experimentation (Kolb 1985) • We all have both: degree of comfort 12/10/2015 30 Re-focus on Learners Perceptual Quality: Ordering • Sequential: organize information in linear, step-by-step manner; logical train of thought, traditional approach to information, planning and following plans, avoiding impulse. • Random: organize information by chunks, in no particular order; skip steps in procedure eg. start in middle/end; impulsive, spur of the moment (Gregorc, 1984) • Both present in everyone: degree of comfort. Other tools to gauge ‘style’ • Commercial tools including: • Myers Briggs • Margerison-McCann Global vs. Analytic Thinking Styles Analytic • Linear, steps • Sees trees not forests • Happy amid details • Decisions: logic, facts, common sense • Prefers organized environment • One thing at a time • Information presented step-by-step • Speaks with fewer gestures • Quiet, well-lit, formal environments • Complete task before starting another • Words and numbers • Directions • Underliningor highlighting Global • Decisions incl emotions/intuition • Less formal/structured • More flexible environment • Spontaneous and likes spontaneity • Doing several things at once • Information ok with humour/emotion • Speaks with more gestures • General idea first, and detail later • Distractions okay, frequent breaks • Personally interestingchallenges • Learns well through group learning • Prefers written or tactile involvement • Respondsto pictures/diagrams/maps Mariana Committed, academically ambitious. Pre-prepares, questions, wants experiential and intellectual growth Participation is to fit to knowledge she is actively constructing. Active, engaging and relating. Paul Ambitious for lucrative career. Does not prepare, accepts but doesn’t challenge or ask. Participation is only to increase chance of essay and exam success. Passive. Memorising as tactic. e.g. needs a problem-solving based lecturing style. To encourage cognitive activity that Mariana does instinctively. Academic Orientation (Biggs, 2011) From: Biggs, 2011 Academic Orientation Paul • what other people value • ego enhancement • what the outcome produces • process of doing it: fun Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation Social Motivation Achievement Motivation Past alumni always report being inspired by lecturers who have passion! Moving success-failure within student’s “locus of control” Meaningful worthwhile activities:real-life problems Manipulate motivation: value to the learner, learner expects success 12/10/2015 31 Learner Typology for ‘Social Practice’ PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE Tactic: • Leaders present their approach for teaching a discipline-specific concept or skill to their group • Observers to monitor. Would the approach exhibit: • Adaptability to learner typology • Balance of perceptual preferences (deductive, inductive?) • Bird’s eye perspective predominant, or analytic? Roadmap maintained? • Dual level: for the more and less academic orientations? How? Tactic: • Sharing good practice • What extent do you • Manifest a teaching-learning climate grounded in success? How? • Adapt to learner typology? • Balance perceptual preferences or global/analytic preferences? • Work dually for academic and less academic orientations? Findings from a SOAS PD day, March 2015 • Delivery and paralinguistic aspects: • Enthusiasm, energy, highlighting – bang the board (etc) to wake up or shock audiences, occasionally! • Unidirectional vs interactive lectures? (Attention-span aware. Getting the balance: breaking up the dynamic but not allowing time-wasting. To what extent to respond to blank/sullen faces, and how?) Findings from a SOAS PD day, March 2015 • Encouraging fit into ‘arch of knowledge’ / global thinking Motivation / empowerment • ‘Lecture in 1 minute’ (outlining as summary at outset – for ‘bird’s eye’ perspective) • Remind them what they know (for fit to prior knowledge, at start) - builds confidence • ‘Concept envelopes’ (students choose one and define without stating) - student predictive capacity • Various approaches to: ‘Empower through verbalizing first’ Findings from a SOAS PD day, March 2015 • Encouraging leaner independence / metacognition • Include lecture study skills (pre-reading/predicting, note-taking engagement, etc.) • Student self-assessment forms for each lecture/seminar (OR – at least – space given for reflective time after lectures, on own level of engagement. Choices: written/verbal/private/public) • Mnemonics for association – helps weaker students to engage and enjoy and learn? 12/10/2015 32 Findings from a SOAS PD day, March 2015 • Inductive approaches to engage / structuring • Anecdotes? Unsuitable academically? But it works! Memorable – useful – lead to ideas • Real world – make students see themselves in that position • Cohesion and ‘accumulation’ through a well linked, scaffolded lecture • Avoid obsessing, overt planning for different types, but maintain flexibility and recognise uniqueness Supporting the weak and extending the strong. Strategies: • Support in pairs • Pair/team matching and composition • Teasing out plenary-style, building on prior knowledge, tactical placing of participants (for respect, as a ‘human’ resource) • Different class roles • Examples to extend: presentations, research tasks, role of expert, role of peer teacher (also consolidates skills & knowledge) • Examples to support: reading aloud, drilling, assigning simpler or shorter reading passages, comprehension rather than subtext/critical tasks • Making the weaker student an expert through access to source on wall (forced internalisation and repetition of chunks to relay) Student Typology and ‘Social Practice’ PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE: YOUR IDEAS Outline • THE POWER OF CONVERSATION • EVOLUTION OF EAP TOWARDS SOCIAL PRACTICE • DISCOURSE, LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS & LINGUISTIC ABILITY • EXTENSION ON WRITING: CLARITY AND COHESION, ACADEMIC STYLE • SPEAKER DEVELOPMENT: PRACTICAL HABIT FOR INSTRUCTORS • LEARNER TYPOLOGY & SOCIAL PRACTICE • YOUR REFLECTIONS? Pedagogies into Practice: Practical language development in L2-medium education Tony Corballis, B.Com, Dip.Tesol, MA EAP teacher and lecturer, University of London SOAS Consultant and Coach, Corballis Communication Ltd. Contact: tc20@soas.ac.uk, tony@corballis.com