Jana Musilová, PhD 87562@mail.muni.cz •Organization of the course •Definition of the concept of Central Europe and Central Europe before WWI and during WWI •Introduction •Jana Musilová 87562@mail.muni.cz •Attendance – allowed one unexcused lecture •Midterm test (31. 10. 2019) and final test (12. 12. 2019) 50 – 46 A; 45 – 41 B; 40 – 36 C; 35 – 31 – D; 30 – 25 - E •Reading •What is the definition of “CENTRAL EUROPE“? • *Or • •Where is “CENTRAL EUROPE“? * * * * * * žDemarcation of CE: •Geographical •Historical and political development, CE as a cultural unit •Religion •Political and economical development žA Yearbook of Central European Culture characterizes Central Europe "as an abandoned West or a place where East and West collide“ žGermany's Constant Committee for Geographical Names defines Central Europe both as a distinct cultural area and a political region. George Schöpflin and others argue that Central Europe is defined by being "a part of Western Christianity", while Samuel P. Huntington places the region firmly within Western culture - •Germany, Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein (last 3 – Alpine countries) •Earlier publication – CE includes also Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxemburg and Romania (1935) • x •Slovenia, Croatia (new concept) • •climate, water – shed, mountains * •CE – direct influence of „Germany“ (Holy Roman Empire, The Habsburg Monarchy) •Division of CE – capitalistic bloc x Soviet Bloc * * * •Cultural concept of CE – till 1795 (disitengration of Poland) – The Habsburg Monarchy, Poland, Lithuania, part of Bavaria (this region had many common interests: politics, literature, architecture, fear of Russian Empire, Osman Empire, Swedes and Prussians) •1867 – emergence of Austria - Hungary and CE as a cultural unit: Czech part, Austria, Slovakia, part of Poland part of Ukraine, Hungary, Transylvania, western Romania, Vojvodina, Croatia, Slovenia, South Tyrol and Bavaria * •Mitteleuropa meaning Middle Europe, is one of the German terms for CE The term has acquired diverse cultural, political and historical connotation •The Prussian vision of Mitteleuropa was a pan-Germanist state-centric imperium, an idea that was later adopted in a modified form by National Socialist geopoliticians •Friedrich Naumann’s Mitteleuropa (1915) was a liberal voice in the largely illiberal German discussion on the future of East Central and South East Europe. His reasoning, based on principles of free trade and voluntary cooperation, did not dominate this debate, which, in consequence, centered upon German territorial annexations •Plus other visions of CE eg. Jörg Brechtefeld “…The term Mitteleuropa never has been merely a geographical term; it is also a political one, much as Europe, East and West, are terms that political scientists employ as synonyms for political ideas or concepts. Traditionally, Mitteleuropa has been that part of Europa between East and West. As profane as this may sound, this is probably the most precise definition of Mitteleuropa available…“ * * * •1904 in Berlin Central European Economic Association (economic integration of Germany and Austria–Hungary with eventual extension to Switzerland, Belgium and the Netherlands) •T. G. Masaryk – CE space between Germany and Russia * * *Emmanuel de Martonne (Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Romania) * * •Little Entente * * •As a part of the Eastern Bloc – East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary •E. Schenk (1950) •A. F. A. Mutton (1961) * * • Meyers Encyclopedia (1980) •Central European Initiative - forum of regional cooperation Albania, Austria, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine; founders were Italy, Austria, Hungary and the former Yugolavia *Visegrád Group: http://www.visegradgroup.eu/about •CEFTA •Former parties are Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia. Their CEFTA membership ended when they joined the EU. Croatia is set to join the EU in 2013 •of 1 May 2007, the parties of the CEFTA agreement are: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia and UNMIK (The United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo) on behalf of Kosovo •Operational Program “Central Europe“ Program under the European territorial co-funded by European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) •Czech Republic, Germany, Italy, Hungary, Austria, Poland, Slovenia, Slovakia * •CE – Visegrad group, in a broad sense - Austria, Slovinia, Lithuania and sometimes Estonia + Latvia, + Germany •Hugh Seton-Watson, Ivan Bérend a György Ránki – CE: Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary and Balkans – Eastern Europe •Oskar Halecki – 2 macro regions (west and east), region of 2 CEs – important transition zone between West and East x Friedrich Naumann´s Mitteleuropa – alliance between German Empire and Austria – Hungary * •“…religious frontiers between the Roman Catholic West and the Orthodox East…“ •Johnson, Lonnie (1996): Where is Central Europe. In.: Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends. Oxford University Press, pp. 3 – 12. •Tiersky, Ronald (2004). Europe today. Rowman & Littlefield. . *Great powers in the end of the 19th century: • USA - the strongest •Germany (2nd world industrial area), the most powerful state in Europe, strong army, developed economy and culture •France – the bank of the world, 2nd strongest European state, succesful colonial politicis – colonies in Africa and in Asia •Great Britain – the greatest colonial power – its domain included the greatest colony – India,… •Austria-Hungary –cooperation with Germany, its foreign politics focused on the Balkan Peninsula •Russia – economicaly and politicaly the weakest state among the great powers, military-political system, absolute power of the Tsar, no political rights for citizens, social movement, expansion to Asia – conflicts with Japan and Great Britain •Japan – constitutional monarchy, development of industry, expansive politics * * •1879 – the secret agreement was concluded between Germany and Austria-Hungary – against France and Russia; 1882 – Italy joined this pact → Tripple Alliance (later the Central Powers) •1893 – Russia and France made an agreement – they both were isolated and were affraid of strong and aggresive Germany •1904 – so called Entente Cordial concluded between France and Great Britain (affraid of strong Germany); 1907 – Russia + Great Britain → Tripple Entente * •The first conflict in Europe after 40 years •The Balkan nations were fighting against Ottoman Empirw - occupiing them •1912–1913 - 1st Balkan War – so called Balkan League (Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro) x Ottoman Empire – was defeated and its European areas were liberated •But then the former allies started to fight with each other because of dividing of the liberated areas; Bulgaria had greatest war casualties and invested the most but the deliberated areas (Macedonia, Thrakia) got especially Greece and Serbia → Bulgaria was dissatisfied - military conflict - Greece and Serbia → 2nd Balkan War – 1913 •Ottoman Empire and Romania joined Greece and Serbia and they were fighting against Bulgaria which was defeated and lost also the areas which obtained after the 1st Balkan War •But also Serbia was dissatisfied with the results of the wars (Serbia was expecting enlargement of its territory and wanted to raise Adriatic coast but instead of that Albania was formed) •Serbia started to prepair for the new war – wanted tu unify all the southern Slavs – who were living in Austria-Hungary * •Since Crimean War (1853–1856) there was a period without a great war in Europe (only local conflicts) •The tensions persisted on the Balkan Peninsula (1908 – the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary, 1912–1913 the Balkan Wars etc.) •Pacifist movement - peace conferences in Hague (1898 and 1907) - unsuccessful • •2 blocks of powers at the beginning of the war: *- Entente (Allied Powers): Great Britain + France + Russia *- Central Powers: Germany + Austria-Hungary + (later) Bulgaria + Turkey • •Italy – firstly neutral, in May 1915 joined the Entente (London Treaty - April 1915 - promised territorial gains to Italy) •Neutral countries: Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland, Albania; USA – neutral at the beginning of the war, entered the war in April 1917 * •European Powers Europe1914.gif •The pretext for starting the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914 •July 28, 1918 – Austria-Hungary declared the war on Serbia * •Germany – the most agresive, wanted new colonies and wanted to expand to the Middle East (Berlin-Baghdad railroad), also wanted to rule in the Central, Eastern and South-East Europe (with the help of Austria-Hungary), Germany also wanted some areas in France and Belgium •Austria-Hungary – wanted to expand into the Balkan Peninsula and defeat the Kingdom of Serbia, which was independent, Serbia was the enemy for A-H also becauce of Bosnia and Herzegovina •France – wanted to get back Alsace and Loraine from Germany + keep its colonial domains •Russia – wanted Galicia (which was Austro-Hungarian province in those times), Silesia, and some parts of Balkan Peninsula, especially around the straits between Asia and Europe - Bosphorus and Dardanelles •Serbia – wanted to keep its independence and to form the Balkan federation – with Croats, Slovenes and Serbs living in Austria and Hungary •Great Britain – wanted to keep its colonies and exclude Germany from world trade, stop its expansion to the Middle East •USA – wanted to defend democracy in the world and the principle of self-determination of the nations (Woodrow Wilson) * qAugust – December 1914 – offensive operations * q1915–1916 – trench warfare * q1917–1918 – the era of total exhaustion * qMarch 1918 – November 1918 – supremacy of Allied Powers (USA entered the war in April 1917) * •Balkan front (Balkan Peninsula, firstly in Serbia, then in Greece) •Western front (against France) •Eastern front (against Russia) •Italian front • •Also naval war (Pacific Ocean: Japan + Great Britain against Germany, in the Nothern Sea – Great Britain against Germany) •Warfare in the colonies * •A-H army was not succesful in Serbia •September 1915 – Bulgaria entered the war •During October and November 1915: German+ A-H and Bulgarian troops occupied Serbia •Spring 1915 – Allied Powers prepared the operation in Gallipoli against Ottoman Empire, British troops under the command of Winston Churchill, but the operation was not successful •Then in 1916 the Macedonian Front in Greece was opened •Bulgarians were defeated in September 1918 * * •The Germans attacked France according to the so called Schlieffen Plan - designed to attack France quickly through neutral Belgium •Great Britain declared war on Germany because of breaking Belgic neutrality •The German troops were stopped at the first: Battle of Marne in September 1914 – the offensive war changed into the trench warfare •March 1915 – Battle of Ypres – the Germans used chlorine gas – 15 thousands of men were poisoned •From February till September 1916 – bloody battle of Verdun – 600 thousands of casualties •From July till November 1916 the great battle of the Somme - totally 1 million casualties during the whole battle, the new British invention was used – the tanks • •In the east, Russia attacked East Prussia but was defeated by German army at the series of battles colectively known as the Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914 •Already in 1914 – the Czech Company in Russian Army – Legions (originally – the Czechs living in Russia, prisoners of war, volunteers) •Summer 1916 – so called Brusilov offensive •1917 – the Czechoslovak Corps in Russia – from 38,000 to 70,000 •Russians were more succesful against Austria-Hungary in Galicia (today – western Ukraine) •Russia occupied parts of Galicia and Bukovina •July 1917 – so called Kerensky offensive – Battle of Zborov (Galicia) – Czechoslovak Legions won over the Austria-Hungary, the offensive was unsuccesfull for Russians •After the Russian Revolutions the Czechoslovak Legions were fighting against bolsheviks • •Italy entered the war in April 1915 – Allied Powers promised to Italy Istria with Trieste, Dalmacia and Trentino (Austro-Hungarian provinces), so Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary and later also on Germany •But the Italians were not very succesful, their offensives along the Isonzo River were repelled by the Austro-Hungarians •1917 – Battle of Caporetto – Italian troops were defeated by Austro-Hungarian army and the front line was broken through, usage of poison gas •During 1916 the front stabilized at Piave River till 1918 – June 1918 – Battle of Piave River – participation of Czechoslovak Legions •The Austro-Hungarians were defeated in October – the Battle of Vittorio Veneto – participation of Czechoslovak Legions again • •After the Russian revolutions in 1917 Russia concluded separate peace with Germany in Brest Litevski in March 1918 •General exhaustion – of sources, armies, people in real (lack of labour power – participation of women) • •April 1917 – USA declared war on Germany – originally USA persued the politics of non-interventions, but German submarines several times attacked merchant ships and civil ships with American passengers •USA - never formally a member of the Allies but became a self-styled "Associated Power" •American troops came to Europe and after the great offensive of Allied Powers in summer 1918 the Central Powers collapsed very quickly •3rd November 1918 Austria–Hungary sent a flag of truce to ask for an Armistice and the armistice with A-H was signed in Vila Giusti near Padua •11th November 1918 – armistice with Germany signed in railroad carriage near Compiègne •At 11 a.m. on 11th November 1918 a ceasefire came into effect • oCasualties: •10 million of soldiers died •7 million of civilians died • •The map of Europe has changed: •dissolution of four monarchies (Russia, Austria-Hungary, German Empire and Ottoman Empire) •after dissolution of Austria-Hungary: constitution of 5 new states (Austrian Republic, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes) •Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia was established, independent and unified Poland was renewed •http://www.the-map-as-history.com/demos/tome03/index.php • •Economic changes: •Development of industry (iron and steel, textiles, etc.) and technologies(armament industry, automobiles, aircrafts …) •Firstly the in many countries the war prosperity, later economic depresse •Social changes: •Social radicalism – rise of totalitarism, revaschism etc. •Social status of women has changed(sufrage) •Many veterans – problems with reintegration v * * •The meeting of the Allied victors following the end of World War I – the aim was to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers following the armistices of 1918 •It took place in Paris in 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities. They met, discussed various options and developed a series of treaties ("Paris Peace Treaties") for the post-war world •The winning powers – France, Great Britain, USA, Italy, Japan •Other figthing states – Belgium, British dominiums, Poland, Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Greece, Portugal and other non-european states •Defeated states – Germany, Austria - Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria •Russia was not invited to the Paris Peace Conference (bolshevik revolution and civil war in Russia) •The Big Four – *David Lloyd Geroge (GB), *Vittorio Orlando (It), George Clemencau (Fr), Woodrow Wilson (US) – from left to right 781px-Big_four.jpg *The following treaties were prepared at the Paris Peace Conference: •The Treaty of Versailles, 1919, 28 June 1919, (with the German Empire in Weimar Republic form) •The Treaty of Saint-Germain, 10 September 1919, (with Austria) •The Treaty of Neuilly, 27 November 1919, (with Bulgaria) •The Treaty of Trianon, 4 June 1920, (with Hungary) •The Treaty of Sèvres, 10 August 1920; subsequently revised by the Treaty of Lausanne, 24 June 1923, (with Ottoman Empire) •After the Treaty of Versailles, treaties with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire were signed. The negotiation of the latter treaty with the Ottoman Empire was followed by strife, and a final peace treaty between the Allied Powers and the country that would shortly become the Republic of Turkey was not signed until 24 July 1923, at Lausanne. Legally, the formal peace treaties were not complete until the last, the Treaty of Lausanne, was signed. Under its terms, the Allied forces left Constantinople on 23 August 1923. •https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74-HkCRozls •https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1IFePaNENQ • * * •Paris Peace Conference imposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers officially ending the war. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles dealt with Germany and, building on Wilson's 14th point, brought into being the League of Nations on 28 June 1919. • • * * •https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lbdhxLVlrhI •The Czech Lands were constituent part of Habsburg monarchy – no effort to destroy the monarchy till 1917/1918 •Only a small conspiracy group – The Maffia – cooperation with South Slavs •Emigrants – Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, Edvard Beneš and Milan Rastislav Štefánik – 1915 – founded The Czechoslovak National Council in Paris •Army in abroad – Legions (France, Italy, Russia) – during 1918 de facto recognized as the allied army •T. G. Masaryk travelled around Europe (Geneve, Paris, London), to Russia (summer 1917) and to the USA – looking for the support for the idea of independent Czechoslovak state •January 1918 – The Fourteen Points of the US President Woodrow Wilson – the self-determination of the nations •10th Point: The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safeguarded and assured, should be accorded the freest opportunity to autonomous development. •http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/President_Wilson%27s_Fourteen_Points •January 1918 – Czech politians in A-H – demand of independence •July 1918 – The Czechoslovak National Comitee in Prague – Karel Kramář •October 1918 – the Emperor Charles I (1916–1918) offered the federalisation of Habsburg Monarchy but its nations refused it * *Czech and Slovak volunteers formed the Czechoslovak Legions in Russia, France and Italy, where they fought against the Central Powers and later in Russia * *Culmination of a struggle for ethnic identity and self-determination that had simmered within the multi-national empire *Bohemia was the most industrialized part of Austria and Slovakia was the most industrialized part of Hungary – however at very different levels of development *Beginning of 20th century – idea "Czecho-Slovak" entity began to be advocated by some Czech and Slovak leaders *T.G. Masaryk created the Czechoslovak National Council together with Edvard Beneš and Milan Štefánik *When secret talks between the Allies and Austrian emperor Charles I.collapsed, the Allies recognized the Czechoslovak National Council would be the kernel of the future Czechoslovak government * *Was drafted in Washington, D.C. and published by Czechoslovakia's Paris-based Provisional Government on 18 October 1918 *The creation of the document, officially the Declaration of Independence of the Czechoslovak Nation by Its Provisional Government *In the autumn1918 – Austria – Hungary was collapsing *One of W. Wilson´s Fourteen Points demanded that the nationalities of the empire have the "freest opportunity to autonomous development *14 October 1918 - Foreign Minister Baron István Burián von Rajecz asked for an armistice based on the Fourteen Points - in an apparent attempt to demonstrate good faith - Emperor Charles I issued a proclamation two days later *The Imperial Austria was to be transformed into a federal union composed of four parts—German, Czech, South Slav and Ukrainian (Galicia would be allowed to secede) * *Czecho-Slovak provisional government joined the Allies *Provisional government had begun drafting a Declaration of Independence on 13 October and completed its task on 16 October *The document was drafted by Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and American sculptor Gutzon Borglum *On 17 October T.G. Masaryk presented it to the U.S. government and the president W. Wilson *It was published in Paris 18 October 1918 with authorship attributed to T. G. Masaryk *With defeat in the war imminent after the Italian offensive in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto on 24 October, Czech politicians peacefully took over command in Prague on 28 October 1918 *On 30 October - Slovaks followed with the Martin Declaration and the Austria - Hungary was dissolved the next day *https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qSXBPUd_qyk *Document declares a Czechoslovak Republic with freedom of religion, speech, the press and the right of assembly and petition, separation of church from the state, universal suffrage, and equal rights for women *Declaration calls for a parliamentary political system with respect for rights of national minorities shall use equal rights *Social, economic, and land reform is announced along with the cancellation of aristocratic privileges *Declaration uses the term "Czechoslovak nation“, which deviates from formulations - Cleveland and Pittsburgh Agreements, which defined two separate Czech and Slovak nations * •First Czechoslovak republic was proclaimed on 28th October 28 1918 in Prague •https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lSpuM0I5Uao •https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OogLgyNMJuY •Consisted of: Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia •The first Prime Minister – Karel Kramář •1920 – constitution - plural parliament democracy •1920 – Tomas Garrigue Masaryk (1850–1937) was elected the first President (reelected in 1925 and 1929, served till 1935), he was a philosopher and politician, very influential personality, his wife was American – Charlotte Garrigue, their son Jan Masaryk served later as Czechoslovak Foreign Minister •Most important and most influential political party - Republican Party of Agricultural and Smallholder People - Peasant party, they ussually had a Prime Minister – Antonín Švehla in 1920s, Jan Malypetr and Milan Hodža in 1930s •The first Czechoslovak Republic consisted of: Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia (Sub-Carpathian Rus) 800px-Czechoslovakia01.png *The constitutional status of Subcarpathia was formulated at the Paris Peace Conference - Saint-Germain Treaty of 10 September 1919 *However, the region was, for most of this period controlled by the newly formed independent Hungarian Democratic Republic, with a short period of West Ukrainian control * 8 November 1918 first National Council was held in western Ruthenia, first of many councils, it simply stated the desire of its members to separate from the newly formed Hungarian state but did not specify a particular alternative — only that it must involve the right to self-determination *Rusyn immigrants in United States had convened and called for complete independence * *Failing that, they would try to unite with Galicia and Bukovyna; and failing that, they would demand autonomy, though they did not specify under which state *American government - only viable option was unification with Czechoslovakia *Gregory Zatkovich signed "Philadelphia Agreement" T. G. Masaryk, guaranteeing Rusyn autonomy upon unification with Czechoslovakia – 10/1918 *Referendum was held among American Rusyn parishes on November 1918 – majority for * * *4/1919 Czechoslovak control was established *In a series of battles local militias ere defeated of the newly formed Hungarian Soviet Republic, whose proclaimed aim was to "unite the Hungarian, Rusyn and Jewish toilers against the exploiters of the same nationalities *Communist sympathizers accused the Czechoslovaks and Romanians of atrocities *5/1919 Central National Council convened in US (Zatkovich) and voted unanimously to accept the admission of Carpathian Ruthenia to Czechoslovakia * *Ruthenia – 5/1919 - general meeting of representatives from all the previous councils was held, declared - Central Russian National Council *Central Russian National Council completely endorse the decision of the American Uhro-Rusin Council to unite with the Czech-Slovak nation on the basis of full national autonomy *Czechoslovakia pledged to "set up an autonomous unit in the Ruthenians south of the Carpathians and to endow it with the highest degree of autonomy compatible with the unity of the Czechoslovak state„ *It was supposed to be a local parliament with legislative power on issues of language, teaching, religion and local government. In the future, all matters of Subcarpathia had to be resolved by the Czechoslovak state •Foreign policy – headed by Minister Edvard Beneš from 1918 to 1935 – one of the most important European diplomats during the interwar period, in 1936 he was elected second President of Czechoslovakia •1921 – Little Entente was formed – an alliance of Czechoslovakia, Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and Romania – against Hungary and its revanchism and against restoration of Habsburgs, Little Entente was supported by France (1924 – Czechoslovak-French Agreement); Little Entente was an idea of Czechoslovak Foreign Minister Edvard Beneš •Since 1925 – economic growth, cultural development x great depression since 1930 •Since 1933 – Czechoslovakia was threatened by Nazi Germany → Border fortification * •Czechoslovakia + Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes + Romania Little_Entente.png •National minorities – more than 3 million of ethnic Germans were living in Czech lands, they were called Sudeten Germans •German minority living in Sudetenland demanded autonomy from the Czech government, claiming they were suppressed and repressed by the Czech government https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cS5GglsNKyo •In 1935 Parliamentary elections, the newly founded Sudeten German Party under leadership of Konrad Henlein, financed with Nazi money, won an upset victory, securing over 2/3 of the Sudeten German vote, which worsened the diplomatic relations between the Germans and the Czechs •Since 1937 – isolation of Czechoslovakia in internatioanl polititics •Policy of appeasement – Great Powers did not want to risk world peace for Czechoslovakia, → 1938 - this policy resulted in Munich Agreement •https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SetNFqcayeA •https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8fpkiuevxbQ • * *Sudetenland – areas inhabited by Germans in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia •Readings: •TUMA, Oldrich – JINDRA, Jiri (eds.): Czechoslovakia and Romania in the Versailles System. Prague 2006. •LUKES, Igor: Czechoslovakia Between Stalin and Hitler: The Diplomacy of Edvard Beneš in the 1930s. New York1996. •LUKES, Igor – GOLSTEIN, Erich (eds.): The Munich Crisis, 1938: Prelude to WWII. London 1999. * * * * * •Strong revolutionary wave •Bavaria – Bavarian Soviet Republic was proclaimed in October, defeated in April 1919 •1919 – first elections (winner Social Democratic Party) •1919 – 1933 – Weimar Republic, parliamentary republic, federation of 16 states •First President – Friedrich Ebert (Social Democratic Party) •Serious problems – economical crisis, reparations, restrictions of the area, lost of the colonies, restrictions of army, navy and air force •March 1920 – right wing monarchistic Kapp Putsch •1923 – the new government – Prime Minister (Chancellor) Gustav Stresemann – stabilization of Golden mark, succesful foreign policy •1923 – suppression of Hitler-Ludendorff Putsch in Munich, Adolf Hitler was arrested and wrote his programme book Mein Kampf, his political party NSDAP was banned •1925 – second President became Paul von Hindenburg * •Since 1929 – Great Depression – in Germany very serious effects (1932 – unemployment was 44,5 %), the growth of extreme nationalism and revanchism •1932 – NSDAP won the elections, 1933 – Adolf Hitler became a Chancellor •1934 – Adolf Hitler became a Führer – the head of the state •1935 – Nüremberg laws – anti-Semitism, the Jews excluded from political, economical and public life, had to wear a yellow star •1935 – Germany introduced general military service •1936 – Germany occupied de-militarized zone in Rheinland *→ Both were breaching of Versailles Peace Treaty and of Rhineland Pact but only formal prostest of great powers •1936 – pact with Italy – Berlin - Rome Axis •1936 – Anti-Comimmntern Pact – with Japan •November 9–10, 1938: Crystal Night – pogrom against Jews * •Readings: •KAES, Anton – JAY, Martin – DIMENDBERG, Edward, (eds.): The Weimar Republic sourcebook. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994. •http://books.google.cz/books?id=J4A1gt4-VCsC&printsec=frontcover&hl=cs&source=gbs_ViewAPI&redir_es c=y#v=onepage&q&f=false * * * •1919–1934: Republic of Austria, first Chacellor Ignaz Siepel, Austria's government was dominated by the Christian Social Party •Country was unstable, economical consequences of the war •Many paramilitary forces had been formed during the early 1920s - the clash between right-wing and left-wing paramilitary forces is known as July Revolt of 1927 •1932 – authoritarian regime of Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, austrofascism, E. Dollfuss was assassinated by Nazi agent who attempted coup d'état in 1934 – July Putch •New Chancellor – Kurt Schuschnigg – effort to keep Austria´s independence •1938 – Anschluss: 11th March – German troops crossed Austrian frontiers and Austria was occupied by Germany * * * *Kingdom of Hungary was the most politically stable part of the Habsburg Monarchy *Impacted Habsburg Monarchy's war plans *Main concerns of the government in Budapest were - territorial integrity of Hungary •The official proclamation of Democratic Republic on November 16 1918, Mihály Károlyi was named as the republic's Prime Minister •Area of Hungary was of only one third of pre-war Hungary – dissatisfaction, attpemts to restore the Great Hungary •Rapid rise of power of Hungarian Communist Party: Hungarian Soviet Republic was proclaimed on 21st March 1919 – attpemt to restore the Great Hungary, the head of this republic was Béla Kun, Hungarian communists wanted to connect with Soviet Russia •Czechoslovakia and Romania were threatened by Hungarian demands → their armies attacked Hungary and the Hungarian Soviet Republic was defeated •New Government – fascist party of Admiral Miklós Horthy •1920 – monarchy was restored in Hungary – Miklós Horthy regent •1921–1931 – Prime Minister was István Bethlen (till 1931) * •Former Emperor of A-H, Charles IV, unsuccessfully attempted to retake Hungary's throne in March 1921 •Hungary's signing of the Treaty of Trianon on 4th June 1920, ratified the country's dismemberment, limited the size of its armed forces, and required reparations payments •1920s – the white terror - led to the imprisonment, torture, and execution without trial of communists, socialists, Jews, leftist intellectuals, sympathizers with the Károlyi and Kun regimes, and others who threatened the traditional Hungarian political order that the officers sought to reestablish •1932–1936: Prime Minister was Guyla Gömbös - the radical right's ascendancy in Hungarian politics •1939 – Arrow Cross Party (Hungarian Equivalent of Nazi Party) won the elections •1940 – Hungary joined Tripartite Pact (Germany, Italy and Japan) * *Kingdom of Poland 1916 - 1918 *1916 attempting to increase Polish support for the Central Powers - German and Austrian emperors declared new state - Kingdom of Poland *Kingdom of Poland - client state under military, economical and political control (Germany) *Heavy fighting - Eastern Front took place on the territory of the former Polish state *1917 important events changed the character of WWI – result possible rebirth of Poland *Woodrow Wilson - thirteenth of his Fourteen Points adopted the resurrection of Poland as one of the main aims of World War I *Allies broke the resistance of the Central Powers by autumn 1918 (Habsburg monarchy was disintegrated and German imperial government collapsed) *November 1918 Jozef Piłsudski was released from internment in Germany by the revolutionaries and returned to Warsaw *Regency Council of the Kingdom of Poland ceded all responsibilities to him and Jozef Piłsudski took control over the newly created state as its provisional Chief of State *All local governments - pledged allegiance to the central government in Warsaw *Independent Poland, which had been absent from the map of Europe for 123 years, was reborn •Republic of Poland reestablished in 1918 •Several regional conflicts: 1918 – 1919 – Polish – Ukrainian War and border conflicts with Czechoslovakia - Juanuary 1919 – Seven day war broke out → new demarcation line – the western part of the disputed territory was given to Czechoslovakia while Poland received the eastern part •1919 – 1921: Polish-Soviet War – Poland attacked Russia – they wanted to use Russian civil war to ensure their eastern borders, but later Soviet counteroffensive – they wanted to establish Soviet Republic in Poland; August 1920 – the battle of Warsaw - the Soviet troops were defeated → Peace Treaty of Riga – Poland got parts of Belarus and Ukraine •1922 – annexation of Vilnius Region from Lithuania •May 1926 – Coup d´État – Marshall Jozef Piłsudski, he became most influential politician in Poland and became its de facto a dictator till his death in 1935 •1932 – Non-agression pact with Soviet Union •October 1938: annexation of Zaolzie, Górna Orawa, Jaworzyna from Czechoslovakia •31st March1939: military guarantees from United Kingdom and France •23rd August 1939: non-aggression pact between Soviet Union and Germany: Ribbentrop-Molotow Pact with a secret military alliance protocol targeting Poland •1st September – 6th October 1939: Invasion of Poland *