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Learning Objectives
* To further understand the concept of wages
* To understand different Theory of wages
* To know the relation between Labour and Wages
Wages
Wages in the widest sense mean any economic compensation
paid by the employer under some contrast to his workers for
the services rendered by them. Wages, therefore, include family
allowance, relief pay, financial support and other benefits.
But, in the narrower Sense wages are the price paid for the
services of labor in the process of production and include only
the performance wages or wages proper. They are composed of
two parts - the basic wage and other allowances.
The basic wage is the remuneration, by way of basic salary and
allowances, which is paid or payable to an employee in terms of
his contract of employment for the work done by him.
Allowances, on the other hand, are paid in addition to the basic
wage to maintain the value of basic wages over a period of
time.
Such allowances include holiday pay, overtime pay, bonus and
social security benefits. These are usually not included in the
definition of wages.
However, in India, different Acts include different items under
wages, though all the Acts include basic wage and dearness
allow come under the term wages. For example, under the
Workmen's Compensation Act, 1923, Section 2 (m), "wages for
leave period, holiday pay, overtime pay, bonus, attendance
bonus, and good conduct bonus" form part of wages.
Under the payment of wages act, 1936 section 2 (VI) "any
award of settlement and production bonus, if paid, constitutes
wages."
But under the Payment of Wages Act, 1948, "retrenchment
compensation, payment in lieu of notice and gratuity payable
on discharge constitute wages."
The following type of remuneration, if paid, do not amount to
wages under any of the Acts:
(i) Bonus or other payments under a profit-sharing scheme
which do not form a part of the contract of employment.
(ii)Value of any house accommodation, supply of light, water,
medical attendance, traveling allowance; or -payment in lieu
thereof or any other concession.
(iii) Any sum paid to defray special expenses entailed by the
nature of the employment of a workman.
(iv) Any contribution to pension, provident fund, or a scheme
of social security and social insurance benefits.
(v) Any other amenity or service excluded from the
computation of wages by a general or special order of an
appropriate governmental authority.
A wage level is an average of the rates paid for the jobs of an
organization, an establishment, a labour market, an industry, a
region or a nation. A wage structure is a hierarchy of jobs to
which wage rates have been attached.
Labor and Wages
The type of job one does and the financial compensation he or
she receives are very important in our society. Job type is linked
to status as is wealth. While the type of job one performs is
arguably more important status wise then wealth, both are
important to Americans.
In the past we used to use other descriptions to classify
workers. The terms blue collar or white collar employees were
used to describe the type of vocation.
Blue Collar - Manual laborers
White Collar - Officer workers
Pink Collar - Jobs associated with women like nursing,
secretarial, etc. This being a rather sexist term, is no longer used.
Today we classify our work roles into three categories called
labor grades. The se labor grades are described below:
Skilled Labor
These are workers who have received specialized training to do
their jobs. They have developed and honed a special skill and
may or may not need to be licensed of certified by the state.
Some examples of skilled labor are: carpenters, plumbers,
electricians, business executives and managers, artisans,
accountants, engineers, police, mechanics, etc. These may be blue
or white collar workers.
Unskilled Labor
These are workers who have received no special training and
have few specific skills. As our society has grown into an
increasingly technological one, the members of this group have
developed more and more skills. A mechanic, for example, used
to be considered unskilled labor.
Today that is no longer the case. Mechanics require a great deal
of skill and training to work with today's modern engines.
Examples of unskilled laborers are construction workers,
sanitation and custodial workers, painters, factory assembly line
workers, etc. These are blue collar workers.
Professionals
Arguably the elite of the labor grades, these are those workers
who need an advanced degree to do their jobs. The three
primary groups of professional are doctors, lawyers and
teachers. These are white collar workers.
LESSON 8:
INTRODUCTION TO THE THEORY
OF WAGES
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These labor grades are often said to be non competing labor
grades because workers rarely move from one grade to another
and do not compete salary wise with each other. There are
reasons why they do not compete with each other.
The cost of education and training may be a significant obstacle.
They might lack the opportunity to make such a move and they
might also have a lack of initiative.
Theory of wages
There are two key theories that explain why salaries are the way
they are in a particular field. These two theories are:
1.Traditional Theory of Wage Determination
In this theory the law of supply and demand dictates salary.
These days programmers are in short supply and are in great
demand thus they will command a higher salary.
Likewise doctors and lawyers whose specialized skills people
need command a high wage. If you looked at the bill my
electrician gave me you would know he is in demand!
2.Theory of Negotiated Wages
Those employees who work in unions where the union
negotiates salary on behalf of all workers fit into this theory.
Since I am a teacher my salary is set by collective bargaining with
my union. I may be the best teacher in the world sought after
by many students and parents but it wouldn't matter.
However, different methods of wage payment are prevalent in
different industries and in various countries. There may be
payment by time or payment by results, including payment at
piece rates.
Wages are fixed mainly as a result of individual bargaining,
collective bargaining or by public or State regulation. How wages
are determined has been the subject of several theories of
wages. The main elements in these theories may be summed up
as follows:
Below is mentioned the theory of Wages:
(1) Subsistence theory
(2) Wages fund theory
(3) The surplus value theory of wages
(4) Residual claimant theory
(5) Marginal productivity theory
(6) The bargaining theory of wages
(7) Behavioural theories
Now let us discuss the theory of Wages in detail:
(1) Subsistence theory
This theory, also known as `Iron Law of Wages," was
propounded by David Ricardo (1772-1823). This theory (1817)
states that: "The laborers are paid to enable them to subsist and
perpetuate the race without increase or diminution."
The theory was based on the assumption that if the workers
were paid more than subsistence wage, their numbers would
increase as they would procreate more; and this would bring
down the rate of wages.
If the wages fall below the subsistence level, the number of
workers would decrease - as many would die of hunger,
malnutrition, disease, cold, etc. and many would not marry,
when that happened the wage rates would go up.
In economics, the subsistence theory of wages states that wages
in the long run will tend to the minimum value needed to keep
workers alive. The justification for the theory is that when wages
are higher, more workers will be produced, and when wages are
lower, some workers will die, in each case bringing supply back
to a subistence-level equilibrium.
The subsistence theory of wages is generally attributed to David
Ricardo, and plays a large role in Marxist economics. Most
modern economists dismiss the theory, arguing instead that
wages in a market economy are determined by marginal
productivity
2. Wages fund Theory
This theory was developed by Adam Smith (1723-1790). His
basic assumption was that wages are paid out of a predetermined
fund of wealth which lay surplus with wealthy
persons - as a result of savings.
This fund could be utilized for employing laborers for work. If
the fund was large, wages would be high; if it was small, wages
would be reduced to the subsistence level. The demand for
labour and the wages that could be paid them were determined
by the size of the fund.
3.The Surplus value theory of Wages
This theory owes its development to Karl Marx (1818-1883).
According to this theory, the labour was an article of commerce,
which could be purchased on payment of `subsistence. price.'
The price of any product was determined by the labour time
needed for producing it. The labourer was not paid in
proportion to the time spent on work, but much less, and the
surplus went over, to be utilized for paying other expenses.
Marx himself considered his theory of surplus-value his most
important contribution to the progress of economic analysis
(Marx, letter to Engels of 24 August 1867).
It is through this theory that the wide scope of his sociological
and historical thought enables him simultaneously to place the
capitalist mode of production in his historical context, and to
find the root of its inner economic contradictions and its laws
of motion in the specific relations of production on which it is
based.
4.Residual claimant Theory
Francis A. Walker (1840-1897) propounded this theory.
According to him, there were four factors of production/
business activity, viz., land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship.
Wages represent the amount of value created in the production,
which remains after payment has been made for all these factors
of production. In other words, labour is the residual claimant.
5.Marginal productivity Theory
This theory was developed by Phillips Henry Wicksteed
(England) and John Bates Clark (USA). According to this
theory, wages are based upon an entrepreneur's estimate of the
value that will probably be produced by the last or marginal
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worker. In other words, it assumes that wages depend upon
the demand for, and supply of, labour.
Consequently, workers are paid what they are economically
worth. The result is that the employer has a larger share in profit
as has not to pay to the non-marginal workers. As long as each
additional worker contributes more to the total value than the
cost in wages, it pays the employer to continue hiring; where
this becomes uneconomic, the employer may resort to superior
technology.
6.The bargaining theory of wages
John Davidson propounded this theory. Under this theory,
wages are determined by the relative bargaining power of
workers or trade unions and of employers. When a trade union
is involved, basic wages, fringe benefits, job differentials and
individual differences tend to be determined by the relative
strength of the organization and the trade union.
7.Behavioural theories
Many behavioral scientists - notably industrial psychologists and
sociologists like Marsh and Simon, Robert Dubin, Eliot Jacques
have presented their views or wages and salaries, on the basis of
research studies and action programmes conducted by them.
Briefly such theories are:
The Employee's Acceptance of a Wage Level
This type of thinking takes into consideration the factors, which
may induce an employee to stay on with a company. The size
and prestige of the company, the power of the union, the
wages and benefits that the employee receives in proportion to
the contribution made by him - all have their impact.
The Internal Wage Structure
Social norms, traditions, customs prevalent in the organization
and psychological pressures on the management, the prestige
attached to certain jobs in terms of social status, the need to
maintain internal consistency in wages at the higher levels, the
ratio of the maximum and minimum wage differentials, and
the norms of span of control, and demand for specialized
labour all affect the internal wage structure of an organization.
Wage and Salaries and Motivators
Money often is looked upon as means of fulfilling the most
basic needs of man. Food, clothing, shelter, transportation,
insurance, pension plans, education and other physical
maintenance and security factors are made available through the
purchasing power provided by monetary income - wages and
salaries.
Merit increases, bonuses based on performance, and other
forms of monetary recognition for achievement are genuine
motivators. However, basic pay, cost of living increases, and
other wage increases unrelated to an individual's own
productivity typically may fall into maintenance category.
Assignments
1. Explain the importance of the theory of wages.
2. State the difference between blue collar, white collar and pinkcollar
employees.
3. What are the different types of theory of wages? Explain in
detail.
Case Study
Breaking The Bargaining Pattern
Gilson steel is a local fabricating and supply firm. Situated in
open country, far from the large steel making centers. The firm
has been in business many years.
About the third of employees have worked in the organization
for more than ten years.Top management would like to get
away from the current practice in which negotiations on wage
matters and fringes follow the pattern.
The firms president feels that industry ­ wide bargaining tends
to divorce employees from the firm . He thinks they feel that
their employer is a combination of U.S steel and bethlem
steel instead of Gilson . he argues that the local firm which
has prospered , can do better by employees than is possible
in national pattern . he says that the local conditions should
be taken into account . his basic objection to current practice ,
however , is his conviction that it tends to divorce its
employees from local employer. The labour relations manager
has been urged to try negotiating terms at variance with the
national pattern .
Answer the following questions:
* What theory and policy do you read into the presidents
suggestion?
* How will his ideas fit into the existing pattern of public
union policy?
* Can you suggest a promising innovative approach