Reference words: http://www.rit.edu/ntid/rate/sea/referencewords/ Introduction "Reference words" are one of the rhetorical devices that allow a writer to create cohesion throughout a text. They constitute a large group of mostly "pronouns" and "noun phrases," less frequently other parts of speech. Reference words represent other elements in a text and allow the writer to manipulate these elements in different ways. An examination of reference words will reveal two notable features about them: 1. They cannot stand alone; rather, they need to connect with other words to complete their meanings. 2. They are used when new information is added about the things that they refer to, hence, the name "reference words." 1. Parts of Speech of Reference Words As stated in the introduction, "reference words" are mostly pronouns and noun phrases, less often other parts of speech. The classical example of a reference word is the simple pronoun. Pronouns are limited in that they may refer only to items within the same paragraph in which they appear. Moreover, they contain only a bare minimum of information and, if writers are not careful to place them close enough to their antecedents, their reference will not be clear to readers. A second kind of pronoun reference word is the "reflexive," which ends in -self or -selves. Reflexives are even more limited in that they refer to a word within the same sentence. A "noun phrase" is simply a noun including any modifier such as an "adjective" or an "article." For example, people, the people, and the friendly people are all noun phrases. Unlike pronouns, noun phrase reference words can carry more precise information, making it easier for the reader to follow them. As such, they may jump one or two paragraph boundaries to find their antecedents. Another type of reference words is possessive adjective/pronoun. 2. Direction of Reference Reference words can refer in three directions: upwards, downwards, and outwards. Upward Reference The most common direction of reference is upwards to a previous portion of a text. This is called "anaphoric reference" because ana means "upwards" and phor means "to carry." And reference words that refer back upwards to a previous text are called "anaphoric words." Anaphoric words offer a writer streamlined ways of repeating, manipulating, and expanding previous information in a paragraph. Note that anaphoric words frequently have the definite article the attached to them because a primary function of the definite article is to inform the reader that an item has been mentioned previously in the text. Downward Reference The second most common direction for reference is downward to a subsequent text. This is called "cataphoric reference" because cata means "downward." Reference words that refer downward in a text are called "cataphoric words." Cataphoric words help a reader to predict what is going to happen in a text. They are a favorite stylistic device of novelists because their function is to arouse curiosity of a reader by giving only partial information about something that will be revealed later. Outward Reference The third direction of reference is outside the text, that is, to items that are not described explicitly in the text. This is called "exophoric reference" because exo means "outward." Reference words that refer outside a text are called "exophoric words." Exophoric words indicate assumed shared knowledge between the writer and the reader. Since the writer assumes that the reader knows what the exophoric words refer to, the writer does not bother to explain them in the text. Note that an exophoric reference word may also have the definite article the attached to it because a secondary function of the definite article the is to convey that (a) only one example of this item exists in the time and place being focused on; (b) the reader most likely knows of its existence already. Read through the following paragraph about Germany and examine the reference words. Determine whether they are anaphoric, cataphoric, or exophoric. Then read the explanations below it. Finally on 7 May 1945, Germany surrendered to ^1the Allied Forces and ^2the war in Europe was over. By June of 1945, Great Britain, the United States, France, and the Soviet Union had occupied ^3the whole country. Immediately, ^4they devised ^5a system for controlling Germany: They divided Germany into four sectors-^6three in the west and ^6one in the east. They also divided ^7the capital city into four sectors with Great Britain, the United States, France, and the Soviet Union each administering one sector of ^8the city. ^9All four countries agreed to help rebuild German cities, farms, industries, and transportation systems. ^10They also promised to promote the establishment of a democratic form of government in Germany. 1. The noun phrase the Allied Forces is exophoric; this word refers loosely to certain members of the fifty nations that opposed the Axis countries during World War 2. Note the use of the definite article the, indicating that only one example of this item exists in the time and place being focused on and that the reader most likely knows about it. 2. The noun phrase the war in Europe is anaphoric, referring to World War 2, mentioned in the first paragraph. 3. The noun phrase the whole country is anaphoric, referring upward to the word Germany. Note the anaphoric use of the definite article the, informing the reader that this item has been mentioned previously in the text. 4. The pronoun they is anaphoric, referring upward to the four countries of Great Britain, the United States, France, and the Soviet Union. 5. The noun phrase a system is cataphoric, referring downward to the description of the division of Germany and Berlin into sectors with Great Britain, the United States, France, and the Soviet Union each administering one sector of Germany and one sector of Berlin. 6. The words three and one are anaphoric, referring back upward to the word sectors. 7. The noun phrase the capital city is anaphoric, referring all the way up to the word Berlin in the previous paragraph. 8. The noun phrase the city is anaphoric, referring back up to the capital city, which in turn refers to Berlin in the previous paragraph. 9. The noun phrase All four countries is anaphoric, referring upward to the four countries of Great Britain, the United States, France, and the Soviet Union. 10. The pronoun They is anaphoric, referring back up to All four countries Začátek formuláře 3. Identifying Anaphoric, Cataphoric, and Exophoric Words The underlined reference words in the two paragraphs below are either "anaphoric" (referring upward to previously mentioned words), "cataphoric" (referring downward to subsequent words), or "exophoric" (referring to something outside the text). Identify whether the reference words are anaphoric, cataphoric, or exophoric. Paragraph 1 For many years, East German people devised ^1creative ways to sneak out of East Germany. Some people dug tunnels; ^2others tried crashing through checkpoints with cars, trucks, or busses; ^3still others flew out in small airplanes or balloons. One woman tied herself to the bottom of a car and passed through a checkpoint unnoticed. And one family sewed fake Russian uniforms for ^4themselves; then, they pretended to be Russian soldiers and simply drove through a checkpoint. Some desperate people tried scrambling over a barbed-wire fence or a wall. ^5These people were often shot.Začátek formuláře Paragraph 2 On 21 December 1972, ^6the Basic Treaty was signed by East and West Germany, and relations between ^7the two countries started to improve. During the next two decades, they began to cooperate with ^8each other by sharing cultural and commercial ^9activities such as arts exchange programs and joint business ventures. However, East Germans were still dissatisfied, for ^10their living standard was lower than ^11that of West Germany. ^12Their industries produced inferior goods, and ^13their country was polluted from inferior mining methods and careless industrial waste. Začátek formuláře 4. Action Steps The best action step is to develop your ability to scan a text and recognize reference words and their antecedents. Some frequently encountered reference words are included below, as well. Common pronoun reference words: A. The "personal pronouns" I, me, you, he, him, she, her, we, us, they, them, mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs B. The "demonstrative pronouns" this, that, these, those C. The "relative pronouns" that, which, whose D. The "reciprocal pronouns" each other, one another E. The "reflexive pronouns" myself, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves General noun reference words that could refer to large portions of text: assumption, belief, concept, effect, event, hypotheses, idea, interpretation, matter, notion, opinion, problem, process, result, rule, situation, specialization, theory, this task, viewpoint Words that would refer not directly to an antecedent but to a variant or some kind of restatement of the antecedent: such a, likewise, similarly, just the opposite, so do I, the same kind, a similar one Commonly used exophoric words: this country, this nation, this year, next year, our government, our president, today Konec formuláře