COURSE
PACKET
English for Business Studies:
Third Edition
student’s version
English I/4
Milan Boháček
spring 2011
1
Table of Contents:
Introductory information............................................................................................... 2
Unit 14 – Textbook Vocabulary Check........................................................................... 5
Unit 15 – Textbook Vocabulary Check ...........................................................................8
Unit 16 – Textbook Vocabulary Check..........................................................................11
Unit 17 – Textbook Vocabulary Check ..........................................................................14
Unit 18 – Textbook Vocabulary Check..........................................................................17
Unit 19 – Textbook Vocabulary Check..........................................................................19
Unit 21 – Textbook Vocabulary Check......................................................................... 22
Unit 22 – Textbook Vocabulary Check......................................................................... 25
Unit 26 – Textbook Vocabulary Check.........................................................................28
Unit 27 – Textbook Vocabulary Check..........................................................................31
PASSIVE .......................................................................................................................... 34
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES.................................................................................................... 37
REPORTED SPEECH...........................................................................................................41
RELATIVE, CONCESSION & PURPOSE CLAUSES................................................................... 44
PAST MODALS..................................................................................................................49
GERUNDS & INFINITIVES ................................................................................................. 52
2
EENNGGLLIISSHH II//44
spring 2011
Introductory information
teacher: Milan Boháček
floor: 7, office: 707
phone: 3544
e-mail: bohacek@mail.muni.cz, bohacek@econ.muni.cz
office hours: Tuesday 1 – 1.45 p.m.
Wednesday 1.45 – 2.30 p.m.
Course requirements:
minimum 80% attendance (maximum of 2 unexcused absences per
semester);
delivering a powerpoint presentation of a current economic topic
approved of by the teacher in front of the class and in pairs (for details, see
below);
active participation in seminars (systematic preparation for seminars and
fulfillment of assignments);
passing the final four-semester exam (minimum 60% of the total number
of points)
Electronic sources:
IS MU: BPJ_JI4A Jazyk I/4 – Angličtina (interactive syllabus + interactive
syllabi for groups number 1, 10 and17).
web: http://www.econ.muni.cz/katedry/oddeleni-jazyku-na-esf/ or ESF
homepage → Katedry → Oddělení jazyků
Primary sources:
• Ian, MacKenzie. English for Business Studies Student’s Book: A
Course for Business Studies and Economics Students, Third
Edition. 2010. ISBN 978-0-521-74341-9.
• MacGlossary [on-line]. Brno: Ekonomicko-správní fakulta Masarykovy
univerzity, 2010. [cit. 15. září 2010]. Dostupné na WWW: <https://is.muni.cz/
auth/el/1456/jaro2011/BPJ_JI4A/um/MacGlossary.pdf>.
3
Powerpoint presentation:
Your seminar work for this semester involves preparing a powerpoint presentation of a
current economic topic approved of by the teacher, and delivering this presentation in
pairs in class on one of the scheduled dates:
Wednesday, April 20
Wednesday, May 4
When preparing and delivering your presentation, you should follow these guidelines:
• the presentation will be seriously minded, well-prepared and well-delivered,
• presentations will be conducted in pairs; each student will use 50% of the total
speaking time allocated for each presentation, moreover, each student is
expected to pass the speaking floor to his/her colleague at least once,
• topics of presentations will be chosen from the range of current economic issues,
covered by economic magazines, such as The Economist, Financial Times, or from
Czech sources),
• students are supposed to bring the article (or source) they want to present to
the teacher at least one week prior to the presentation date; the teacher
will give his approval to the chosen topic and he will give you further comments if
necessary,
• it will take between 8 – 10 minutes,
• it will be structured:
o introduction of the presenters,
o introduction of the topic,
o information concerning the topic,
o finally thanking for the audience’s attention, offering them to ask questions,
• it will have a form of power-point presentation which you will prepare at home
and bring on a flash disc (a data projector and a laptop without the internet access
will be available),
• it will be delivered in English and it will not be read (tip: you can include points,
dates or items that are difficult to remember directly into your ppt presentation),
• other students will be evaluating the presentation (they will use the evaluation
sheet available in the interactive syllabus in the IS),
• each student will upload his/her presentation to the IS (Odevzdávárny →
Presentations - seminar groups 01, 10 & 17 (Milan Boháček)) no later than on
his/her presentation day,
• please use the guidelines posted in the interactive syllabus in the IS or copied below
in the Tips & Examples section.
4
Tips & Examples (available in the interactive syllabus in the IS):
PRESENTATION SKILLS – GUIDELINES
1. Stating your purpose:
OK, let’s get started. Good morning, everyone. Thanks for coming. I’m….
This morning I’m going to be: talking to you about... / showing you how... / taking a look
at... / reporting on... / telling you about...
…so, I’ll begin by: filling you in on... / making a few observations about... / outlining
company policy... / giving you an overview of... / bringing you up-to-date on...
…and then I’ll go on to: highlight what I see as... / put the situation into some kind of
perspective... / make detailed recommendations regarding... / discuss in more depth sth...
2. Signposting – telling what comes next in a presentation:
make your next point To move on to our next point
change direction To turn to last year’s figures
refer to an earlier point To go back to what I said earlier
repeat the main points To recap on the main figures
give a wider perspective To expand on this a bit more
do a deeper analysis To elaborate on this particular feature
give the basics To summarize the points
depart from your plan To digress from
when
you
want
to
finish your talk
you
say
To conclude
vocab.
digress from – odbočit od
3. Commenting on visuals:
To highlight important information in a visual, you can use the following:
us to look at this part of the graph in more detail.
us to focus our attention on one particularly important feature.
you to think about the significance of this figure here.
to point out one or two interesting details.
I’d
like
to draw your attention to to the upper half of the chart.
4. To conclude:
Thank you for your attention and if you have any questions, I’ll be happy to answer them.
You can also ask the audience to ask questions during your speech by saying: If you have
any questions during my talk, don’t hesitate to interrupt me/feel free to ask.
5. To ask your colleague to carry on:
Now I would like to hand over to Mark. / Jane, over to you. / Thomas, the floor is yours.
And Lucy will tell you more details about... / Let’s ask Bill to explain the ... to us.
Source: Powell, M.: Presenting in English – how to give successful presentation, Thomson
Heinle.2002.
5
Unit 14 – Textbook Vocabulary Check
Fill the gaps in these sentences with the expressions from the box; in some cases you will
have to change the form of the expressions (they have to be used in plural).You should also
translate the selected expressions, add prepositions where indicated (“ ”) and supply
additional words where requested.
cash flow cashpoint CDO
collateral credit card credit crunch
credit rating current account debit card
default deposit depositor
dull hedge fund interest-free
MBS retail bank return
savings account spreadsheet subprime
underlying wealthy worthless
.
1. A (1) ___________________ is a type of investment fund used by people or organizations with
large amounts of money that tries to gain maximum profit for its (2) ___________________ by
using a variety of investment strategies, including some with very high risk.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
2. If you want to withdraw some money from a (1) ___________________, make sure you have
your bank card with you, i.e. either a (2) ___________________ or a (3) ___________________,
and remember your PIN.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Synonymous word (American English): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (3): ___________________
3. Our bank offers you two basic financial products: if you open a (1) ___________________, your
fees will be lower but even the interest from your money will be small; however, if you open a
(2) ___________________, the fees will be higher but even the (3) ___________________ from the
money will be higher.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Synonymous word (American English): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Synonymous word (British English): ___________________
Synonymous word (American English): ___________________
Synonymous word (American English): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (3): ___________________
Synonymous word: ___________________
6
4. The company has problems with ___________________ – they don’t have enough money to pay
their suppliers within 30 days.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
5. The financial crisis was in fact a (1) ___________________ because banks provided loans to their
(2) ___________________ clients, i.e. people who weren’t able to repay the loan.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
6. Don’t buy shares of this company; they are ___________________ because next week the CEO
will announce serious financial problems of the company, which will inevitably lead to
bankruptcy.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
7. All (1) ___________________ provide their clients with a standard set of services: making
(2) ___________________, withdrawals, money transfers, etc.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
8. The two special financial products that require (1) ___________________ in the form of an
(2) ___________________ mortgage or other securities are (3) ___________________ and
(4) ___________________.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (3): ___________________
The full form: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (4): ___________________
The full form: ___________________
9. (1) ___________________ investors generally have higher (2) ___________________ because the
risk of (3) ___________________ is much lower in their case because they have enough money
to repay their debts.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (3): ___________________
10. Many people consider working with (1) ___________________ like Microsoft Excel
uninteresting and (2) ___________________ because it requires repetitive, boring and noncreative
activities.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
11. Citi Bank is now offering ___________________ loans to its best clients; I think you should use it
because you won’t have to pay any extra money when you are repaying the loan.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
7
Fill the gaps in these sentences with the verbs from the box; you will have to use the correct
form of the verbs (the correct tense, active/passive voice). You should also translate the
selected verb, add prepositions where indicated (“ ”) and supply additional words where
requested.
charge convert issue pool
prevent raise repeal rescue
restore write off
.
1. It is widely known that if a company wants (1) ___________________ capital, it usually
(2) ___________________ stocks (which is called equity financing) or bonds (debt financing).
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
2. Deutsche Bank had to ___________________ €1.5bn because of its toxic assets; this money will
never come back and it has led to the share price decrease.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
3. If we want to (1) ___________________ our investment fund ________ going bankrupt and
(2) ___________________ our reputation that was damaged during the financial crisis, we will
have to launch an intensive media campaign and attract many new clients.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
4. In order to (1) ___________________ the banking system in Iceland, the government must
(2) ___________________ the law forcing banks to repay money lost during the economic crisis
to its Dutch and British clients.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
5. All banks raised interest they ___________________ for providing loans and mortgages in
connection with the bad economic situation.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
6. Securitization involves (1) ___________________ financial assets of one type and their
subsequent (2) ___________________ ________ securities that can be afterwards sold to
investors.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
8
Unit 15 – Textbook Vocabulary Check
Fill the gaps in these sentences with the expressions from the box; in some cases you will
have to change the form of the expressions (they have to be used in plural).You should also
translate the selected expressions, add prepositions where indicated (“ ”) and supply
additional words where requested.
analysis appendix assets
break-even point DNA sequencing emerging
entrant genetically modified insurance industry
managerial phenomenal return pricing strategy
promotional material proposition start-up
sustainable venture capitalist worthwhile
.
1. The executives have agreed that Jason proved his (1) ___________________ skills successfully:
he organized the designing and distribution of new (2) ___________________ that were very
efficient because people have started to buy our products more and we have experienced a
sales growth.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
2. GHL is both a (1) ___________________ and a new (2) ___________________; it means that this
company was founded a few months ago and it is new in this sector of the economy.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
3. We have asked the consultancy to work out an audit report including a (1) __________________
of our company where we will check the exact structure of our (2) ___________________ such as
inventories, cash or real estate we own.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Plural form: ___________________
Verb made from this noun: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Word with an opposite meaning: ___________________
4. Google has recently made a takeover bid to Yahoo; this (1) ___________________ has been
made formally in writing and the (2) ___________________ of the document included
confidential clauses concerning positions for people from Yahoo’s current top management.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Two synonymous words: ___________________, ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Plural form: ___________________
9
5. Today’s science is very advanced as it was able to develop (1) ___________________ organisms
and focus on (2) ___________________ whose consequence should be easier cure of serious
diseases with genetic materials.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
6. Many rich people have become ___________________ because they could afford to offer their
money to beginning businesspeople in spite of the risk involved.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
Synonymous word: ___________________
7. Sony experienced a (1) ___________________ ________ its invested money in China, India and
other (2) ___________________ markets because the labor costs are very low there and the labor
market is very flexible.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
8. Many financial analysts find it (1) ___________________ to determine a long-term
(2) ___________________ for your products because you need to know the projected
development of your sales and thus profitability.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
9. It is never easy to decide to buy shares of companies from the ___________________ because
they can be hit by unpredictable events and natural disasters that can cause financial troubles
to these companies and the share price can subsequently fall.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
10. The EU is trying to execute a ___________________ policy, which means that it wants the
member states to reduce CO2 emissions and individuals and companies to behave ecologically
and responsibly towards the environment.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
11. Every beginning company is eagerly expecting to reach the ___________________ where the
revenues exceed the costs.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
10
Fill the gaps in these sentences with the verbs from the box; you will have to use the correct
form of the verbs (the correct tense, active/passive voice). You should also translate the
selected verb, add prepositions where indicated (“ ”) and supply additional words where
requested.
appoint drive emphasize invest
list review sabotage vest
.
1. The new President ___________________ next month on the occasion of the state holiday.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
Word with an opposite meaning: ___________________
2. The labor union representatives intended ___________________ the negotiations because of the
unfair and rude behavior of the management towards employees.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
3. The only thing that ___________________ our profit in this crisis period is the sales of low-cost
airline tickets.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
4. The report published by the Internal Audit department (1) ___________________ that it is
necessary (2) ___________________ the marketing strategy because some changes in marketing
are desirable.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
5. Pension funds generally (1) ___________________ their clients’ money only ________
companies that (2) ___________________ ________ the stock market because these are
considered transparent and stable.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
6. Our senior auditor is going to retire soon and I think he really should ___________________ his
expertise ________ the junior auditor so that there is someone reliable here who could do the
job properly.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
11
Unit 16 – Textbook Vocabulary Check
Fill the gaps in these sentences with the expressions from the box; in some cases you will
have to change the form of the expressions (they have to be used in plural).You should also
translate the selected expressions, add prepositions where indicated (“ ”) and supply
additional words where requested.
bondholder brokerage company coupon
creditor debt financing deductible
fixed interest rate listed maturity
mortgage-backed net assets principal
risk-spreading securitizing spread
staggeringly subprime yield
.
1. (1) ___________________ not only invest their clients’ money in securities, but they are also
responsible for (2) ___________________ in order to enhance the safety of investments.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Synonymous word: ___________________
2. Many countries cannot avoid (1) ___________________ of their budget deficit; if they decide to
do it, they generally prefer (2) ___________________ to floating ones.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
3. The transformation of receivables to securities is referred to as (1) ___________________;
companies use this option because securities in the form of bonds are tax (2) ________________.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
4. Michael’s investment firm uses its capital, i.e. its (1) ___________________, to invest in
(2) ___________________ property because they find this investment strategy safe and reliable.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
5. Investors will get their (1) ___________________ back as soon as the loans and bonds are repaid
and they can re-invest them immediately. However, they might be disappointed by the
(2) ___________________, which can be quite low this year because the (3) ___________________
between the bid price and market price is low.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (3): ___________________
12
6. The number of (1) ___________________ lenders has increased (2) ___________________ over
the past two years because of the financial crisis, and most of them won’t be able to repay their
loans at all.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
7. Any firm, (1) ___________________ on the stock exchange, can trade in shares and bonds. If
they hold bonds, they are interested mainly in the yield and the (2) ___________________ date,
i.e. when the security is due.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
An adjective made from this noun: ___________________
Synonymous word from this sentence: ___________________
8. When you buy some bonds, you become a (1) ___________________ and you are entitled to a
yearly (2) ___________________ paid to you by the issuer; in fact, your position is the same as of
a (3) ___________________ of an issuer.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (3): ___________________
Word with an opposite meaning: ___________________
Fill the gaps in these sentences with the verbs from the box; you will have to use the correct
form of the verbs (the correct tense, active/passive voice). You should also translate the
selected verb, add prepositions where indicated (“ ”) and supply additional words where
requested.
default issue matures
overlook pay quote
sell off soar unveil
.
1. Since our firm is still short of money, we plan (1) ___________________ more bonds as soon as
our current debt (2) ___________________ and we will be obliged to repay it.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
2. The price of euro ___________________ on the exchange market has gone up by 2.5% over the
past two days.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
13
3. I don’t know how it is possible that investors (1) ___________________ our strategic plan
(2) ___________________ last week. Nobody even noticed it.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Synonymous word: ___________________
4. Our family has decided to invest in IBM’s shares because they are expected (1) ______________
quite a high return as soon as the IT industry has started (2) ___________________.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Two synonymous words: ___________________, ___________________
5. I think bankruptcy is inevitable in our current situation; we are (1) ___________________
________ our loans and therefore we will (2) ___________________ all our assets to raise some
money to repay them.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
”A bond for which investors did not receive payment” is: ___________________ bond
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
14
Unit 17 – Textbook Vocabulary Check
Fill the gaps in these sentences with the expressions from the box; in some cases you will
have to change the form of the expressions (they have to be used in plural).You should also
translate the selected expressions, add prepositions where indicated (“ ”) and supply
additional words where requested.
bailout bear market blue chip
board of directors common stock equities
flotation hedge fund index fund
listed nominal value preferred stock
real estate
.
1. In a (1) ___________________ investors buy shares, or (2) ___________________, when their
value decreases.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Term with an opposite meaning: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
2. A lot of (1) ___________________, which invest money on behalf of their clients, don’t prefer to
buy (2) ___________________ shares representing low-risk investments.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
3. The (1) ___________________ of shares on a stock exchange is necessary when a company
wants to offer its shares to investors; such shares are usually sold at a (2) ___________________,
i.e. at a price written on each share.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Word with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
4. If you want to receive a fixed dividend every year, invest your capital in (1) ________________;
if you don’t insist on a fixed dividend, buy (2) ___________________.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Word with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Word with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
5. The (1) ___________________ of our company has decided that we will focus our activities on
selling (2) ___________________ to developers.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Word with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
15
6. The financial crisis has made many small banks go bankrupt while some of the big ones used a
government ___________________ to improve their financial position and have survived.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
7. Even investment funds that are (1) ___________________ on the stock market are authorized to
buy and sell securities there; one type of such funds, consisting of some of the shares in a
particular share index, whose value always follows the market, is known as the
(2) ___________________.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Word with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Two words with a synonymous meaning: ___________________, ___________________
Fill the gaps in these sentences with the verbs from the box; you will have to use the correct
form of the verbs (the correct tense, active/passive voice). You should also translate the
selected verb, add prepositions where indicated (“ ”) and supply additional words where
requested.
burst drift factor
multiply outperform prioritize
quote underwrite replicate
trade up yo-yo
.
1. Whether we like it or not, we must (1) ___________________ our key customers because we
depend on them; therefore their portfolios will be managed primarily and we will not
(2) ___________________ our higher costs ________ the fees we charge them.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
2. Dragon Investment Fund wants (1) ___________________ its last year’s financial success and
therefore it has been considering (2) ___________________ its stake in Dragonfly Mutual Fund.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
3. In order (1) ___________________ our biggest rival and acquire a bigger market share, we are
bound to become a publicly traded company; therefore we have asked Devil Bank Ltd.
(2) ___________________ our first issue of shares.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
16
4. Over the past three decades, the price of oil (1) ___________________ several times; however, if
you look at its recent development, it has been (2) ___________________ around $95 per barrel
in the last month.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
A synonymous word: ___________________
5. When the mortgage bubble finally (1) ___________________ in 2008 and a financial crisis broke
out, my employer reacted quickly and started (2) ___________________ ________ government
bonds rather than shares.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
The meaning of this verb + preposition “with” is: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
6. When investing, it is very efficient to focus on those market makers who ___________________
the highest bid price or the lowest offer price.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
7. In 2005 the price of coal ___________________ slightly from €530 per tonne in January to €563
per tonne in December.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
Look at the following verbs and classify them to the following categories:
advance be/get stronger be/get weaker crash
jump plummet plunge recover
revive rocket slip shoot up
verbs meaning “to rise dramatically”:
verbs meaning “to increase slightly”:
verbs meaning “to increase after decreasing”:
verbs meaning “to decrease slightly”:
verbs meaning “to fall dramatically”:
17
Unit 18 – Textbook Vocabulary Check
Fill the gaps in these sentences with the expressions from the box; in some cases you will
have to change the form of the expressions (they have to be used in plural).You should also
translate the selected expressions, add prepositions where indicated (“ ”) and supply
additional words where requested.
call option capital gains tax floating rate
future hedging leaflet
predetermined punt retail investor
spread-betting strike price swap
.
1. If you want to invest in risky financial operations, try ___________________; it enables you to
bet on the direction of price moves of shares.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
2. Exchange-rate (1) ___________________ can be risky nowadays because the currencies have
become very volatile; if I were you, I’d invest in (2) ___________________: make a contract on
buying for example copper now and sell it later at the agreed price.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
3. When I look at the development of bond prices, I would take a (1) ___________________
________ government bonds: they are affordable and even though they don’t have a
(2) ___________________ of interest, I consider them to be a safe investment.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Word with the opposite meaning: ___________________
4. Being a (1) ___________________ with just a few hundreds of dollars to invest, should I invest
in (2) ___________________, which means reserving the right to buy shares at a particular price
within a fixed period or on a particular date?
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Word with the opposite meaning: ___________________
5. Look, I can read in their promotional (1) ___________________ that even if the market falls, they
will buy the shares you hold at a (2) ___________________ price, i.e. a price set a few months
earlier.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Word with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Word with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
18
6. When buying shares, watch carefully the price moves and as soon as it goes low, buy and this
price will be your ___________________.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
Word with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
7. (1) ___________________ is a good way to protect your investment from depreciation; another
benefit is that you don’t have to pay (2) ___________________ until you receive the money for
selling your commodities.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Fill the gaps in these sentences with the verbs from the box; you will have to use the correct
form of the verbs (the correct tense, active/passive voice). You should also translate the
selected verb, add prepositions where indicated (“ ”) and supply additional words where
requested.
gamble hedge obey take out
.
1. If you want to trade on the stock market, you have to ___________________ its rules as well as
laws.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
2. I wanted to try some new ways of investing; hence I ___________________ some bets on shares
of start-ups by my broker and I’ll see what will happen.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
3. Should you wish to ___________________ ________ the rise in stock price, discuss it with an
experienced broker first.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
4. In order ___________________ our investment ________ inflation, we must receive a higher
yield than 3%.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
19
Unit 19 – Textbook Vocabulary Check
Fill the gaps in these sentences with the expressions from the box; in some cases you will
have to change the form of the expressions (they have to be used in plural).You should also
translate the selected expressions, add prepositions where indicated (“ ”) and supply
additional words where requested.
accountancy accounts payable accounts receivable
accrued expense annual general meeting assets
balance sheet credit debit
depreciation entry gross profit
income statement intangible inventory
liabilities par value proceeds
receipt retained earnings share premium
.
1. One of the basic financial statements is a (1) ___________________; it contains a company’s
(2) ___________________, i.e. what it owns, and (3) ___________________, i.e. what it owes; the
(4) ___________________ called (5) “___________________”, which tells us how much money
from a previous fiscal year the company kept, is always situated on the side of this financial
statement that contains debts.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Expression with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (3): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (4): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (5): ___________________
2. One of the possible divisions of company assets is based on whether they have a physical
substance; if they don’t, they are called (1) ___________________ assets. Another important
source of assets are (2) ___________________, i.e. materials or finished products a company has
in its warehouses or factories.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Word with the opposite meaning: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Word with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
3. If your company’s (1) ___________________ exceed its (2) ___________________, you can get
into trouble very easily; the best way to solve this problem is to issue additional shares to raise
further capital.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Expression with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Two expressions with a synonymous meaning: ___________________, ___________________
20
4. The (1) ___________________ that is about to be held next week, will discuss how we are going
to use the income received from (2) ___________________, i.e. the difference between the
(3) ___________________, stated on each share, and the market price.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Expression with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Expression with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (3): ___________________
Expression with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
5. The business of (1) ___________________ is very profitable as you advise big corporations with
their tax issues; one of the matters that concerns them most is (2) ___________________ of their
tangible assets since it is tax-deductible.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Word with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
A person doing this business: ___________________
Day-to-day management of accounts: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Word with a synonymous meaning (used for intangible assets): ___________________
6. Another very important financial statement is the (1) ___________________, giving details of all
a company’s income and expenses for a particular period and shows if it has made a profit,
expressed as (2) ___________________, i.e. before paying the tax.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Three words with a synonymous meaning: ___________________, ___________________,
___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Word with the opposite meaning: ___________________
7. Our firm has several (1) ___________________; they originated last year but we will have to pay
for them this year; if we want to avoid them in the future, we can purchase materials
(2) ________ ___________________, which can also be repaid later.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
8. In double-entry bookkeeping, you mustn’t forget to record a decrease in money that the
company owes on the ___________________ account.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
Word with the opposite meaning: ___________________
9. If you calculate all our (1) ___________________ from selling goods and (2) __________________
from issuing shares and subtract expenses we have had, you’ll find out that we are still profit-
making.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
21
Fill the gaps in these sentences with the verbs from the box; you will have to use the correct
form of the verbs (the correct tense, active/passive voice). You should also translate the
selected verb, add prepositions where indicated (“ ”) and supply additional words where
requested.
charge comprise defer derive
disguise incur invoice owe
.
1. I apologize for ___________________ our payment for the goods we have bought from you, it’s
absolutely our fault; we’ll send it on Monday morning so that the delay is as small as possible.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
2. I’m sorry for the delay but we have (1) ___________________ an unexpected obligation that has
to be settled primarily; you can be sure that we will send you the money we (2) ______________
you immediately.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
3. The dispatched furniture must ___________________ ________ the customer this evening,
otherwise we risk being short of money next month.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
4. Mary is trying to lower her tax liability, and therefore she wants ___________________ her
current excellent financial situation from the authorities.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
5. Take all your expenses, ___________________ them ________ your income and the result is
how much you’ve made or lost.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
6. Our costs are very high because they ___________________ not only wages and social insurance
of employees, but also benefits and perks.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
7. The final price of our products ___________________ primarily ________ manufacturing costs
that depend on the price of labor.
In Czech/Slovak: ___________________
22
Unit 21 – Textbook Vocabulary Check
Fill the gaps in these sentences with the expressions from the box; in some cases you will
have to change the form of the expressions (they have to be used in plural).You should also
translate the selected expressions, add prepositions where indicated (“ ”) and supply
additional words where requested.
acceptance antitrust authority asset-stripping
backward integration breach controlling interest
financier handful horizontal integration
hostile takeover leveraged buyout offence
raid subject subsidiary
takeover bid turnover
.
1. Shareholders of Kangaroo Fund refused to sell the majority of their shares to its biggest rival
because they didn’t want to lose control; however, the competitor undertook a (1) ____________
and tried to buy up as many shares on the stock market as possible. Despite his effort, this
attempt of a (2) ___________________ didn’t succeed because the shareholders learned about it
very soon.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
A person performing this activity: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Expression with the opposite meaning: ___________________
2. This company’s monopolistic practices are (1) ___________________ ________ an investigation
by the (2) ___________________, whose main goal is to ensure and enforce a fair market
environment.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
3. The management has finally won shareholders’ (1) ___________________ for the launch of the
new marketing strategy whose main goal is to triple our (2) ___________________ to $1.5m.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
4. Taking over your competitors who operate in the same line of business is known as
(1) ___________________ whereas (2) ___________________ means buying producers of
materials that you use for your production.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Expression with the opposite meaning: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Expression with the opposite meaning: ___________________
23
5. Having bought the majority of shares of Lioness Corp. I have got the (1) ___________________
in this company, enabling me to conduct its (2) ___________________ because selling individual
profitable parts will earn me more money than selling the company as a whole.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
6. As soon as Mango & Sons launch their (1) ___________________, be prepared to accept it;
nevertheless, you have to find out whether they want to buy just the mother company or even
its (2) ___________________.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
7. Nowadays only a (1) ___________________ of (2) ___________________ or investors focus on
(3) ___________________ because this practice of borrowing capital to buy shares of a target
company is now restricted by laws.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (3): ___________________
Abbreviation of this expression: ___________________
8. A (1) ___________________ of a contract is not only a significant violation of your business
partner’s trust, but it can also become a(n) (2) ___________________.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Word with a synonymous meaning used in this sentence: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Fill the gaps in these sentences with the verbs from the box; you will have to use the correct
form of the verbs (the correct tense, active/passive voice). You should also translate the
selected verb, add prepositions where indicated (“ ”) and supply additional words where
requested.
abuse differ fine intervene
merge sell off take over undervalue
.
1. The oil manufacturers made a cartel, which is illegal; subsequently they (1) _________________
________ this behavior by the government body that was made to (2) ___________________
________ this market segment since the situation proved unbearable.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
24
2. Our company has two options: we can either (1) ___________________ ________ our rival and
form a brand new company, or (2) ___________________ them and make them our subsidiary.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Noun made from this verb: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Verb with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
3. It is illegal (1) ___________________ confidential information for your personal enrichment; an
example of this is spreading internal information about a company’s financial problems, which
results in (2) ___________________ such a company, and a subsequent purchase of its shares at
an extremely low price.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Verb with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Verb with the opposite meaning: ___________________
4. Our situation (1) ___________________ ________ the situation of Bix Corporation; unlike them,
we don’t have to (2) ___________________ all profitable subsidiaries to raise capital necessary
for repaying the debts.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
25
Unit 22 – Textbook Vocabulary Check
Fill the gaps in these sentences with the expressions from the box; in some cases you will
have to change the form of the expressions (they have to be used in plural).You should also
translate the selected expressions, add prepositions where indicated (“ ”) and supply
additional words where requested.
agreeable ailment creative accounting
disposal externality liable
loophole money laundering official
old-age pension permit sickness benefit
spending tax avoidance tax evasion
tax haven unemployment benefit unfettered
.
1. The goods we import from China are all (1) ___________________ ________ import tariffs;
fortunately, the rates on our goods are quite (2) ___________________ so we don’t have to
increase prices.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Expression with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
2. Revenue authorities severely punish all cases of (1) ___________________ because this is an
illegal way of avoiding paying a tax; however, they cannot proceed against companies using
(2) ___________________ because such methods are legal, e.g. transferring a company’s
headquarters to a (3) ___________________ where no taxes are charged.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (3): ___________________
3. The (1) ___________________ of (2) ___________________, which legalizes finances obtained
from illegal transactions, is the basic prerequisite of the reduction of the shadow economy and
increase in transparency of the business environment in this country.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Verb made from this noun: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Person performing this activity: ___________________
4. Should you need an official (1) ___________________ to export weapons to China, contact a
responsible (2) ___________________ at the Ministry of Trade and he will help you.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Word with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
Verb made from this noun: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
26
5. The social state makes sure that nobody is left without help even in difficult life situations;
therefore you can apply for (1) ___________________ if you lose your job and can’t find a new
one or (2) ___________________ if your health condition doesn’t allow you to work or if you
suffer from some (3) ___________________.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (3): ___________________
6. I’d like to know how government (1) ___________________ on (2) ___________________ has
developed over the past twenty years because the number of recipients has increased.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
7. Many companies attempt to reduce their tax liability through (1) ___________________, i.e.
manipulating their account entries and finding (2) ___________________ in laws enabling them
to pay as low taxes as possible.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
8. It is understood that not all negative (1) ___________________ can be (2) ___________________;
if their harmful impact exceeds a certain limit, their producer is bound to be responsible for the
consequences.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Fill the gaps in these sentences with the verbs from the box; you will have to use the correct
form of the verbs (the correct tense, active/passive voice). You should also translate the
selected verb, add prepositions where indicated (“ ”) and supply additional words where
requested.
coerce collect conform engage
impose interfere resort undertake
.
1. Illegal practices of companies that do not (1) ___________________ ________ the regulations
and laws and try to distort the free market (2) ___________________ ________ the
government’s effort to support open and liberal market economy.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
2. If a state wants to (1) ___________________ taxes effectively, i.e. to achieve the highest possible
income, it has to (2) ___________________ to enforce rules that will restrict the possibilities of
tax evasion.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
27
3. People have to (1) ___________________ to pay taxes by law because if the state (2) ___________
voluntary taxes ________ people’s property, nobody would pay them.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Word with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Word with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
4. Businesses that (1) ___________________ ________ money laundering (2) ___________________
________ blackmailing, bribing and even killing people from time to time since they want to
legalize this money.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Verb with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Fill the gaps in the following chart with the expressions from the box and supply their Czech
or Slovak equivalents in the brackets.
capital gains tax capital transfer tax corporate income tax
direct tax excise duty flat tax
income tax indirect tax individual income tax
inheritance tax progressive tax regressive tax
sales tax value-added tax wealth tax
System of taxes
___________________ (______________)
(based on one’s income and property)
___________________ (______________)
(based on one’s consumption)
___________________
(___________________)
___________________
(___________________)
___________________
(___________________)
___________________
(___________________)
___________________
(___________________)
___________________
(___________________)
___________________
(___________________)
___________________ (_______________)
(it has two forms) (it can be designed as)
___________________
(___________________)
___________________
(___________________)
___________________
(___________________)
___________________
(___________________)
___________________
(___________________)
28
Unit 26 – Textbook Vocabulary Check
Fill the gaps in these sentences with the expressions from the box; in some cases you will
have to change the form of the expressions (they have to be used in plural).You should also
translate the selected expressions, add prepositions where indicated (“ ”) and supply
additional words where requested.
clearing convertibility currency
desirability endangered species famine
floating exchange rate fluctuation instantaneously
intervention landmine literacy
parity purchasing power rate of return
refugee tax rate underlying
.
1. As the central bank wants to keep the yen stable, the (1) ___________________ of exchange rate
(2) ___________________ is very small; in other words, the Japanese central bank doesn’t want
the (3) ___________________ to move up or down.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (3): ___________________
2. The level of (1) ___________________ of the (2) ___________________ who have fled from
Rwanda because of violence and (3) ___________________ is in most cases equal to zero, i.e.
they can’t even write their name.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (3): ___________________
3. Analysts think that the (1) ___________________ of the Australian dollar with the U.S. dollar
will become a normal situation in the near future; it will be possible due to (2) ______________,
i.e. rates that are not determined by central banks but they develop according to the demand
and supply.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Expression with the opposite meaning: ___________________
4. Free (1) ___________________ of a currency means that there are no restrictions imposed on
exchanging it; however, such a currency can become a more probable target of speculators’
attack and therefore (2) ___________________ of a central bank are more likely.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
29
5. The financial (1) ___________________ between the two countries was introduced
(2) ___________________ after the crisis broke out so as the economies didn’t have to suffer
from any delays in payment.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
6. The (1) ___________________ of your investment does not depend only on the economic
situation, but also on the (2) ___________________ of local people because the higher it is, the
more money they can spend.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
7. You can join one of the two non-governmental organizations: either SaveAnimals that tries to
protect (1) ___________________ from extinction, or Africa In Need that focuses on clearing
fields from (2) ___________________.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
8. The (1) ___________________ idea of the tax reform is different from what politicians say to the
public: in fact they just want to increase the receipts of the state budget, and therefore the
(2) ___________________ is going to be raised.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Fill the gaps in these sentences with the verbs from the box; you will have to use the correct
form of the verbs (the correct tense, active/passive voice). You should also translate the
selected verb, add prepositions where indicated (“ ”) and supply additional words where
requested.
back bring about counteract dampen down
deepen depreciate destabilize devalue
discourage disrupt facilitate peg
settle yield
.
1. The central bank has decided to (1) ___________________ the volatility of the currency by
(2) ___________________ it ________ the US dollar, i.e. the currency will follow the
development of the dollar.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
30
2. It is vital to actively (1) ___________________ sudden and huge fluctuations of exchange rates;
otherwise, the whole economy could (2) ___________________ and a total collapse would
follow.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
3. Students often confuse the two following economic terms: when a currency’s value is decreased
intentionally and it is not the result of market forces, we speak about (1) ___________________ a
currency; however, if the value falls as a result of the interplay of supply and demand on the
market, we say that a currency has (2) ___________________.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Verb with the opposite meaning: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Verb with the opposite meaning: ___________________
4. If the economic crises (1) ___________________, i.e. the situations becomes even worse, the
whole European common market will (2) ___________________, which will result in investors’
worrying about their investments and the stoppage of investing.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
5. Due to the fact that the currency was (1) ___________________ by massive interventions by the
central bank, it managed (2) ___________________ ________ the rate of 30 pesos per dollar and
didn’t fall any further.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
6. Exchange rate fluctuations that have been (1) ___________________ by speculative attacks
usually (2) ___________________ long-term investors ________ investing their capital because
they are afraid that their capital can lose value because of these changes.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
Verb with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
7. The implementation of the new software has (1) ___________________ the process of tracking
our investments, i.e. we can see almost immediately whether a concrete investment
(2) ___________________ revenue or if it doesn’t make any profit.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
31
Unit 27 – Textbook Vocabulary Check
Fill the gaps in these sentences with the expressions from the box; in some cases you will
have to change the form of the expressions (they have to be used in plural).You should also
translate the selected expressions, add prepositions where indicated (“ ”) and supply
additional words where requested.
absolute advantage comparative advantage deliberately
dumping economies of scale export
generic hawker infant
inferior protectionism quota
shoeshine boy tariff trade barrier
trading partner underdeveloped
.
1. In the production of bicycle helmets we have a(n) (1) ___________________ over rivals because
we are most efficient; on the other hand, in manufacturing motorbike helmets we have a(n)
(2) ___________________ because there are even more efficient producers on the market.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
2. Governments use (1) ___________________ to prevent their (2) ___________________ industries,
which are not strong enough, from competition from abroad.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
3. Unfortunately, many products exported from (1) ___________________ countries such as Haiti
or Sudan are of (2) ___________________ quality and cannot be compared with products made
in countries that have an access to top technologies.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
4. If we want to fill the niche on the medicines market, we should focus on (1) _________________,
i.e. pharmaceuticals that are not protected by licenses any more, and try to find a reliable
(2) ___________________ who will supply us with these goods.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
5. Typical (1) ___________________ that make it difficult to trade internationally include
(2) ___________________, which importers have to pay, and (3) ___________________, i.e. a
quantitative limit on the imported goods.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (3): ___________________
32
6. All China’s (1) ___________________ within the steel industry that are sold to the European
Union are said to use (2) ___________________, i.e. they are sold at a lower price than the
market price.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Verb made from this noun: ___________________
7. Unless you start studying hard, you will end up as a (1) ___________________ or a street
(2) ___________________.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
8. Because of tough competition in the automotive industry, car manufacturers (1) _____________
merge or make joint production facilities because they know that they can achieve
(2) ___________________ and reduce costs in this way.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Fill the gaps in these sentences with the verbs from the box; you will have to use the correct
form of the verbs (the correct tense, active/passive voice). You should also translate the
selected verb, add prepositions where indicated (“ ”) and supply additional words where
requested.
deny expose grant
make a living prohibit restrict
rule specialize subsidize
.
1. Our company has (1) ___________________ a patent for the new tooling machine we have
invented; this patent will protect our know-how and (2) ___________________ others ________
copying it without our permission.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
2. It has (1) ___________________ by local authorities that the number of public commissions that
(2) ___________________ with public money has to (3) ___________________ because of the
financial crisis.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Noun made from this verb: ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (3): ___________________
33
3. In North Korea the government (1) ___________________ its people an access to free market
and private property; the only way of (2) ___________________ is to work for state-owned
enterprises.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
Expression with a synonymous meaning: ___________________
4. Whenever you (1) ___________________ ________ the demand and supply of the free market,
you shouldn’t focus on everything your customers need; instead, you should
(2) ___________________ ________ one specific demand and try to be really good at it.
In Czech/Slovak (1): ___________________
In Czech/Slovak (2): ___________________
34
PASSIVE
1. Passive in continuous tenses
The passive voice isn’t used only in simple tenses (to be + past participle) but it can be used
even in continuous tenses (to be + being + past participle):
The children are painting the wall now. → The wall is being painted by the children now.
They were building a house. → A house was being built (by them).
Tom has been washing the dishes. → The dishes have been being washed (by Tom).
We will be playing with the dog. → The dog will be being played with.
2. Phrase have something done
We use “have something done” to say that we arrange for somebody else to do something
for us; the Czech translation is usually NECHAT SI NĚCO (NĚKÝM) UDĚLAT:
Jill repaired the roof. = she repaired it herself
Jill had the roof repaired. = she arranged for somebody else to repair it for her
Be careful with word order. The past participle (repaired) is after the object (the roof):
have + object + past participle
Where did you have your hair cut?
Your hair looks nice. Have you had it cut?
Julia has just had central heating installed in her house.
We are having the house painted at the moment.
I think I should have that coat cleaned soon.
3. Passive with get
Sometimes you can use “get” instead of “be” in the passive; you can use “get” to say that
something happens to somebody or something, especially if this is unplanned or unexpected;
we use “get” mainly in informal spoken English while “be” can be used in all situations:
There was a fight at the party but nobody got hurt. = nobody was hurt
I’m surprised Ann didn’t get offered the job. = ...Ann wasn’t offered the job
“Get” is used only when things happen or change. For example, you cannot use “get” in these
sentences:
Jill is liked by everybody. (not gets liked — this is not a ‘happening’)
He was a mystery man. Nothing was known about him. (not got known)
You can also say “get something done” instead of “have something done” (mainly in informal
spoken English):
When are you going to get the roof repaired? = have the roof repaired
I think you should get your hair cut. = have your hair cut
4. Phrase it is said that
There is a group of so-called reporting verbs that introduce a sentence and EXPRESS A GENERAL
BELIEF, CONVICTION, EXPECTATION OR FACT THAT SOMETHING HAPPENED (or happens or will happen)
IN A CERTAIN WAY:
said thought believed considered
reported known expected alleged
understood and many others...
Cathy works very hard. It is said that she works 16 hours a day. OR She is said to work 16
hours a day.
35
The police are looking for a missing boy. It is believed that the boy is wearing a white pullover
and blue jeans. OR The boy is believed to be wearing a white pullover and blue jeans.
The strike started three weeks ago. It is expected that it will end soon. OR The strike is
expected to end soon.
Those two houses belong to the same family. It is said that there is a secret tunnel between
them. OR There is said to be a secret tunnel between them.
As you can see, there are two ways of using this structure:
a) you either start with “It is said/believed/thought/... that” and continue with a regular
sentence, or
b) you start with the subject of the sentence (e.g. “the boy”), then use the passive of the
reporting verb in the appropriate tense (e.g. “is expected”, “was known”, “will be believed”,
etc.) followed by the infinitive of the main verb (e.g. “to work”, “to be wearing”, etc.) from
the original sentence; note that you must keep the progressive form in the infinitive too.
However, even the main verb can be used in various tenses; therefore if this verb refers to the
present or future (present and future tenses), we use “present infinitive” as in the
examples above whereas if the main verb refers to the past (past, past perfect or present perfect
tenses), we use “past infinitive” (= to + have + past participle):
VERB FROM THE MAIN CLAUSE INFINITIVE FORM
simple: makes / will make → to makePRESENT OR
FUTURE continuous: is making / will be making → to be making
simple: made / had made / has made → to have made
PAST continuous: was making / had been making /
has been making
→ to have been
making
It is said that Tom reads / will read the book. → Tom is said to read the book.
It is said that Tom is / will be reading the book. → Tom is said to be reading the book.
It is said that Tom read / has/had read the book. → Tom is said to have read the book.
It is said that Tom was / had been / has been reading the book.
→ Tom is said to have been reading the book.
1. Write these sentences in another way, beginning in the way shown.
1. They didn’t give me the money. I wasn’t given the money.
2. They asked me some difficult questions at the interview.
I
3. Janet’s colleagues gave her a present when she retired.
Janet
4. Tim and Tom are painting the old house in this street.
The old house
5. The experts were examining the paintings very long last night.
The paintings
6. Nobody told me that George was ill.
I wasn’t
36
7. The supplier will be unloading the truck tomorrow afternoon.
The truck
8. How much will they pay you?
How much will you
9. The students should be using the computers for the final exam.
The computers
2. Rewrite these sentences using “have something done”.
1. George’s nose was broken in a fight.
What happened to George? He had his nose broken in a fight.
2. My friend wants an improved internet connection.
My friend
3. It is expected that reports of all students will be signed by parents.
All students are expected
4. Sarah’s bag was stolen on a train.
What happened to Sarah? She
5. Will the Petersons’ neighbor be arrested if he breaks into their house again?
______ the Petersons
6. Our neighbor was watering our flowers while we were in Argentina.
We
7. My grandmother wants to avoid the reconstruction of her house before she dies.
My grandmother wants to avoid
8. The writer has decided that one of his novels will be published in London.
The writer
3. Write these sentences in another way, beginning as shown. Use the underlined
word(s) in your sentence.
1. It is expected that the strike will end soon. The strike is expected to end soon.
2. It is believed that the thieves got in through the kitchen window.
The thieves
3. It has not been understood that Jim will be participating in the session on Tuesday.
Jim
4. It is reported that many people are homeless after the floods.
Many people
5. It can’t be believed that this house is being built without any problems.
This house
6. It is thought that the prisoner escaped by climbing over a wall.
The prisoner
7. It may not be reported that the marketing department has been delayed by some obstacles.
The marketing department
8. It will be believed that the Prime Minister knew about the last year’s scandal.
The Prime Minister
37
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
1. Conditionals without if
We use if for something that might happen in the future, or something imaginary (i.e. zero or first
conditional). We use when for something that we know will happen (not a conditional clause):
I’ll call you if I get a chance. (I’m not sure if I will phone you)
I’ll call you when I arrive. (I will definitely phone you)
We can use either if or when where the meaning is ‘every time’.
If/When anyone rings my mobile, I get a photograph of the person on the screen.
In informal speech we sometimes use imagine or supposing in place of if (second or third
conditional):
Imagine/Supposing you had a million dollars, how would you invest it?
We can use provided that, providing, on condition that, as long as and so long as for emphasis.
The meaning is ‘if and only if’ (first conditional):
As long as there is new technology, consultants will continue to be in demand.
We can use in case to talk about doing something to avoid a possible problem later. The result
clause usually comes first and often uses going to.
I’m going to give you my mobile number in case you need to contact me.
We use unless to mean If not in zero or first conditionals:
If you don’t meet all the criteria, we won’t hire you. = Unless you meet all the criteria, we...
2. Omitting if
In formal style, it is possible to leave out if in an if-clause; in this case, the word order changes: the
auxiliary verb comes before the subject ⇒ this structure is used in conditional clauses with
auxiliary verbs:
Had I known this news, I would buy the car.
(instead of: If I had known this news, I would buy the car.)
Were you my daughter, I wouldn’t let you go for the festival.
(instead of: If you were my daughter, I wouldn’t let you go for the festival.)
If a conditional clause contains no auxiliary verb, should is used at the beginning of a sentence
instead of an auxiliary:
Should you need my advice, you can reach me in my office.
(instead of: If you need my advice, you can reach me in my office.)
Should you possess a car, you could get to work faster.
(instead of: If you possessed a car, you could get to work faster.)
3. Wish clauses
We use I wish to express regret or dissatisfaction. For the present and future, use I wish followed
by the past simple or continuous (like in the second conditional):
I wish we didn’t have so many meetings.
I wish I wasn’t working next weekend.
For the past, use I wish followed by the past perfect (like in the third conditional):
I wish we had advertised on television.
I wish I hadn’t eaten the oysters.
If the wish is a good one, use I hope followed by the present simple or will (like in the first
conditional):
I hope your presentation goes well. OR I hope the merger will be a success.
38
If the wish is about doing something that is difficult or impossible, use I wish I could.
I wish I could contact him, but he hasn’t got a mobile phone.
We can replace I wish with If only for emphasis. We stress only in speech.
If only I hadn’t eaten the oysters. = I wish I hadn’t eaten the oysters.
If only I could contact him. = I wish I could contact him.
4. Modal verbs in conditionals
The previous examples of the zero or first conditional were with will. But other modal verbs like
can, could, may, might, must and should are common in conditional sentences and have their
normal meanings:
If you deal with the Middle East you must be available to your customers on weekends.
If you don’t carry out a market research, you cannot succeed.’
The previous examples of the second conditional were with would. But other modal verbs like
could, might and should are common in conditional sentences and have their normal meanings:
If the euro were weak in the long term, companies might slow down their productivity.
If you had more time, we could go for dinner tonight.
If you found out when she was born, you should let me know.
5. If I were you
We use If I were in place of If I was in imaginary futures, particularly when we give advice with the
phrase If I were you:
If I were you, I’d wait until tomorrow.
I’d be more careful, if I were you.
6. Summary of conditionals
reálná (uskutečnitelná) podmínka nereálná (neuskutečnitelná) podmínka
budoucnost
podmínková věta:
If I see him, I will let you know.
= first conditional
přací věta:
I hope you will like the concert tomorrow.
podmínková věta:
If I didn’t have free time next week, I
wouldn’t be going out with you.
= second conditional
přací věta:
I wish / If only John came for a visit
tomorrow.
přítomnost
podmínková věta:
If inflation rises, companies increase prices.
= zero conditional
přací věta:
(I hope you have some money on you.)
podmínková věta:
If I were rich, I wouldn’t work as a car
seller.
= second conditional
přací věta:
I wish / If only I was rich.
minulost
X
podmínková věta:
If I had moved to China in 2008, I
would have seen the Olympic games.
= third conditional
přací věta:
I wish / If only I had moved to
China in 2008.
.
39
1. Rewrite the following sentences so that they mean the same as the original ones.
1. You don’t have any money on you so you cannot buy the tickets.
If ___________________________, you ________________________________.
2. Coca-Cola didn’t buy Pepsi in the 1930s and therefore it didn’t become the market leader.
If ___________________________, it ________________________________.
3. You will be given a pay rise as long as you pass the test.
Unless _______________________, you ________________________________.
4. Mike has been living in Spain for 8 years so he is experiencing a different culture.
If ___________________________, he ________________________________.
5. I regret that my sister wasn’t born a year later.
If only ___________________________________________________________.
6. Our firm will go bankrupt or it will be bought by its biggest rival.
Unless __________________________, it ___________________________ rival.
7. It’s a pity that Jane doesn’t have enough money to buy a new car.
I wish ___________________________________________________________.
8. The employees are lazy and that’s why they can’t earn more money.
If ___________________________, they _______________________________.
9. My grandmother studied geology and that’s why she met my grandfather.
If ___________________________, she _______________________________.
10. Everyone will be surprised in case you come to the party.
Should ________________________, everyone ___________________________.
2. Rewrite the sentences as shown; keep the same meaning.
1. I regret that I didn’t start my studies a year later.
I wish
2. Tom and Lucy regret that they were living together for so long.
If only
3. It’s a shame that I cannot be in your position as it would be good for me.
I wish
4. I regret that the new French movie everybody is talking about wasn’t filmed in Slovakia.
If only
5. I regret that we have met Phillip because he is a very annoying person.
I wish
6. I want the new American president to come to Europe to settle all disputes.
If only
40
3. Rewrite the following sentences so that they mean the same as the original ones
(use mixed conditionals).
1. I didn’t finish my studies five years ago and therefore I can’t be working in a multinational
company now.
If ______________________________________________________________,
I _______________________________________________________________.
2. The company isn’t owned by Americans so we couldn’t get the order from the American
government last week.
If ______________________________________________________________,
we ______________________________________________________________.
3. The students didn’t study harder and That’s why they aren’t going for a trip to England next
month.
If ______________________________________________________________,
they _____________________________________________________________.
4. I was developing my language skills in the past year so I am eligible now for the study program
in USA.
If ______________________________________________________________,
I _______________________________________________________________.
5. Mary isn’t as clever as Jill so she was fooled by Jack last night.
If ______________________________________________________________,
she _____________________________________________________________.
41
REPORTED SPEECH
1. Tense changes
When the verb tense changes it ‘moves back’ in time.
Actual words Report (Indirect speech)
‘I work for IBM.’ She said she worked for IBM.
‘I’m working for IBM.’ She said she was working for IBM.
‘I’ve worked for IBM.’ She said she had worked for IBM.
‘I’ve been working for IBM.’ She said she had been working for IBM.
‘I worked for IBM.’ She said she had worked for IBM.
‘I had worked for IBM.’ She said she had worked for IBM.
‘I’m going to work for IBM.’ She said she was going to work for IBM.
‘I can work for IBM.’ She said she could work for IBM.
‘I will work for IBM.’ She said she would work for IBM.
‘I may work for IBM.’ She said she might work for IBM.
There is no change for must, might, could, should, would. Note that there is no change for
the past perfect (had worked).
2. No tense changes
A) We do not need to change tense if the information is still true:
‘The sales team are doing very well at the moment.’
He says/said the team are doing very well.
B) We do not need to change tense if we report something which is always true:
‘There is always a period of uncertainty after a merger.’
He says/said there is always a period of uncertainty after a merger.
3. Changes of people, places, times and pronouns
In reported speech references to people, places, times and things often change, because the point of
view changes:
‘I’ll see you here tomorrow,’ said Sue. ‘I’ve read your report about this project,’ he said.
Sue said she’d see me there the next day. He said he’d read my report about the project.
The examples in the previous paragraph show some of these typical changes:
People: I he/she
you me
my his/her
your my
Place: here there, at the office
Times: now then, at that time
today that day, on Monday
yesterday the day before, the previous day
tomorrow the next day, the following day, on Monday
this afternoon that afternoon
last week the week before, the previous week
next week the week after, the following week
a few days ago a few days before, a few days earlier
Pronouns: this that/the
these those
42
4. Say or tell
We say something and we tell somebody:
Simon said (that) he was confident about the success of the Beta project.
Simon told me the project was going well.
We never use to between tell and the object.
He told me what happened in the meeting. (NOT told to me)
We can use to after say, especially when the actual words are not reported.
What did he say to you?
I think the boss wanted to say something to Susan.
5. It + passive of a reporting verb
We use It + passive of a reporting verb + that to report what people in general feel or believe. This is
a formal use, for example in a scientific report or a written summary of a meeting:
It was announced at the conference that Argentina was losing Pesos $3, 000 million per
annum on grain prices compared with the average in the last ten years. It was pointed out that
international prices had not improved in two years, but this stability had allowed an increase in
production.
Verbs that are often used in this way are:
be agreed, be announced, be believed, be claimed, be confirmed, be considered, be decided, be
estimated, be expected, be feared, be felt, be found, be pointed out, be proposed, be reported, be
rumoured, be said, be shown, be suggested, be thought.
This form of passive can be shortened by using the infinitive structure (remember unit 7 –
the passive). If the reporting verb is in the past tense, even here the tense shift applies:
It is said that Jim is ill. → Jim is said to be ill.
It was said that Mary was ill. → Mary was said to have been ill.
6. Reporting questions
The word order in reported questions is like a normal statement (this is the same rule as for
indirect questions). Tense changes follow those given above:
‘Where is it?’ He asked me where it was. (NOT where was it)
When we report wh-questions (when, what, why, where, how, etc.) we use the question word:
‘When will the goods arrive?’ They asked me when the goods would arrive.
‘Why have your sales gone down?’ I was asked why our sales had gone down.
When we report yes/no questions (Do you, Did you, Are you, etc.) we use if or whether:
‘Do you speak French?’ She asked me if I spoke French.
‘Are you going to pay in cash?’ He asked me whether I was going to pay in cash.
7. Reporting commands and requests
Commands are reported with tell and the infinitive:
‘Take us to the airport.’ She told the driver to take us to the airport.
‘Don’t worry. I’ll deal with it.’ She told me not to worry.
Requests are reported with ask and the infinitive:
‘Would you mind waiting for a moment?’ He asked me to wait.
‘Please don’t wait for me, I’ll come along later.’ He asked us not to wait.
Since commands and requests contain infinitives required by ‘ask’ and ‘tell’, no tense change
occurs here.
43
1. Rewrite the sentences in reported speech.
1. ‘I won’t put it in the sales because it’s selling very well,’ she said.
She said she wouldn’t put it in the sales because it was selling very well.
2. ‘I’ve read the report and I don’t understand section 4,’ he said.
He said
3. ‘When I finish my presentation, I’m going to have a drink,’ he said.
He said that when
4. ‘I’m preparing the figures but I won’t be long,’ she said.
She said
5. ‘I like playing tennis, but I don’t do it very often,’ she said.
She said
6. ‘I’m going to visit our Polish subsidiary, but I’m not sure when,’ she said.
She said
7. ‘Both of us may go shopping tonight if we have some time left.’
They told me
2. Rewrite the sentences in the way shown and shift the tense where necessary.
1. It is thought: Mary will move to London.
Mary is thought to move to London.
2. It was said: The football team doesn’t play well.
The football team
3. It is understood: The new secretary is satisfied with her job.
The new secretary
4. It has been believed: The taxes will decrease this year.
The taxes
5. It was alleged: The economic output is going up this year.
The economic output
6. It was said: We are experiencing an economic boom now.
We
3. Rewrite each sentence in reported speech.
1. ‘Are you on holiday for the whole of August?’ she asked me.
She asked me if/whether I was on holiday for the whole of August.
2. ‘What do the letters ‘URL’ mean?’ I asked him.
I asked him
3. ‘Have you prepared the figures?’ my boss asked me.
My boss asked me
4. ‘When is your birthday?’ I asked Francesca.
I asked Francesca
5. ‘Did you remember to back up the file?’ she asked him.
She asked him
44
RELATIVE, CONCESSION & PURPOSE CLAUSES
1. Summary of relative clauses
1. Defining relative clauses:
• the information provided is necessary and cannot be omitted
• it is never separated with commas
The woman who lives next door is a doctor.
We met some people whose car had broken down.
• the used relative pronoun can be – among others – that
Rick sold the house that his grandfather built.
• if the relative clause has its own subject, the relative pronoun can be left out:
We stayed at the hotel (that/which) Ann recommended to us.
Your brother is the person (who(m)/that) I met yesterday.
• the preposition in the relative clause can be put either after the verb,
I brought you the book (that/which) I told you about.
or before the relative pronoun (BUT it can never be that!)
I brought you the book about which I told you.
I brought you the book about that I told you.
This is the man about whom I told you.
2. Non-defining relative clauses:
• the information provided is supplementary and can be omitted
• it is separated with commas
My brother Jim, who is a doctor, lives in London.
Colin told me about his new job, which he’s enjoying very much.
• that cannot be used as a relative pronoun here
We stayed at the Grand Hotel, which Ann recommended to us.
We stayed at the Grand Hotel, that Ann recommended to us.
• relative pronouns in non-defining clauses cannot be left out
We stayed at the Grand Hotel, which Ann recommended to us.
We stayed at the Grand Hotel, Ann recommended to us.
• the preposition in the relative clause can be put either after the verb,
Mr Gray, who you spoke to yesterday, is our Personnel Manager.
or before the relative pronoun
Mr Gray, to whom you spoke yesterday, is our Personnel Manager.
Defining Non-defining
Important information
Separated with commas
that can be used
Pronoun can be omitted
if it isn’t the subject
if it is the subject
It is possible to make
shortened sentences from
them (with -ing / -ed)
45
that which who(m) whose
Used in a defining clause
Used in a non-defining
clause
Used after a preposition
whom
who
Can be omitted in a
defining relative clause if
it is not a subject
2. Concession clauses
We usually use the following conjunctions in concession clauses:
although (though) even though despite in spite of
After although (though) and even though we use a subject + verb:
Although it rained a lot, we enjoyed our holiday.
I didn’t get the job although I had all the necessary qualifications.
Mary came to the meeting even though her child is ill.
However, after in spite of or despite, we use a noun, a pronoun (this/that/what etc.) or -ing:
In spite of the rain, we enjoyed our holiday.
I didn’t get the job in spite of having all the necessary qualifications.
She wasn’t well, but in spite of this she went to work.
In spite of what I said yesterday, I still love you.
Despite is the same as in spite of. Note that we say ‘in spite of’, but despite (without ‘of’):
She wasn’t well, but despite this she went to work. (not ‘despite of this’)
You can say ‘in spite of the fact (that)...’ and ‘despite the fact (that)...’ but you can never use
a regular sentence (verb) after these two conjunctions:
in spite of the fact (that)
I didn’t get the job
despite the fact (that)
I had all the necessary qualifications.
NOT I didn’t get the job in spite of (that) I had all the necessary qualifications.
(here ‘that’ is a conjunction and not a pronoun!)
NOT I didn’t get the job despite (that) I had all the necessary qualifications.
3. Purpose clauses
When we want to say why somebody does something (= the purpose of an action), we use
purpose cluases. We can choose from the following conjunctions or connectors:
so as + to + infinitive
to + infinitive in order to + infinitive
so as + clause
so that + clause
The table shows that some of the connectors are followed by an infinitive and some of them have
to be followed by a whole sentence. The rules that govern their use is as follows:
A) when the subjects of both the clauses are the same, we use infinitives; however, if they are
different, we have to use another clause with its own subject (i.e. the subject that is different
from the original one):
46
Jim came home (in order / so as) to rest for a while.
The company has acquired its rival (in order / so as) to become the market leader.
I gave her my address so that / so as she could contact me.
He wore glasses and a false beard so that / so as nobody would recognize him.
I went to the supermarket with my mother so that / so as she could buy some fruit.
B) when the purpose clause contains a modal verb, it is impossible to use the infinitive; a whole
clause has to be used instead (although if you use the “long form”, you can use the infinitive):
She’s learning English so that she can study in Canada. (NOT She’s learning English to can...)
We moved to London so that we could visit our friends more often. (NOT ...to could...)
We moved to London to be able to visit our friends more often.
C) when the purpose clause is negative, it is not possible to use only “not to”; in this case we have
to use “in order not to”, “so as not to” or a whole clause (we have to use it if the subjects
are not the same):
I hurried so that / so as I wouldn’t be late.
= I hurried in order not to be late.
= I hurried so as not to be late.
You should leave early so that / so as you won’t (or don’t) miss the bus.
= You should leave early in order not to miss the bus.
= You should leave early so as not to miss the bus.
Mary will help Jim with his homework so that / so as he doesn’t fail the test.
NOT Mary will help Jim with his homework in order / so as not to fail the test.
(different subjects of the two clauses!)
Be careful! In negative purpose clauses it is not possible to use only “not to”; however, it is
possible to use it with the following verbs that require to be followed by an object and
another verb in the infinitive (see unit 6 of your textbook, page 160):
advise allow ask cause enable expect
help invite lead permit persuade remind
teach tell train trust urge use warn
Purpose clauses: We hurried in order / so as not to be late. (NOT We hurried not to be late.)
We hurried so that / so as we wouldn’t be late.
Verb + object + infinitive: Jim has advised them not to use that bathroom.
We’ll have to urge the students not to delay the exam.
The staff must be trained not to get hurt. ...
1. Combine each pair of sentences by including the word given in brackets.
1. Last year we introduced a new line. It’s aimed at the youth market. (that)
The new line that we introduced last year is aimed at the youth market.
2. I’d like you to meet a colleague. He could be a useful contact for you. (who)
I’d like you to meet a colleague ________________________________________.
3. A candidate’s CV is on your desk. She deserves an interview. (whose)
The candidate ____________________________________ deserves an interview.
4. A visitor is coming next week. She’s from our Paris office. (who)
The visitor ____________________________________ is from our Paris office.
5. Tom took me to a restaurant. It was called ‘Noodle Heaven’. (that)
The restaurant __________________________________ was called ‘Noodle Heaven’.
6. I heard a man’s presentation. He was an investment banker. (whose)
The man ____________________________________ was an investment banker.
47
7. Here is a mobile phone. I was telling you about it. (that)
Here is the mobile phone ____________________________________.
8. Over there is a site. They’re going to build a new factory. (where)
The site ____________________________________ is over there.
2. Join the two sentences in the way shown to make relative clauses.
1. These are my books. All of them were bought in England.
These are my books, all of which were bought in England.
2. My boss has two secretaries. Only one of them can speak English.
My boss has two secretaries,
3. We had to cut down the trees. Some of them were too old and could fall.
We had to cut down the trees,
4. Joe has two nephews. Neither of them knows how to drive a car.
Joe has two nephews,
5. My family owns two houses in Nottingham. They are both for sale.
My family owns two houses in Nottingham,
3. Make one sentence from two. Use the word(s) in brackets in your sentences.
1. I couldn’t sleep. I was tired. (despite)
I couldn’t sleep despite being tired.
2. They have very little money. They are happy. (in spite of)
In spite of
3. My foot was injured. I managed to walk to the nearest village. (although)
4. I enjoyed the film. The story was silly. (in spite of)
5. We live in the same street. We hardly ever see each other. (despite)
6. I got very wet in the rain. I had an umbrella. (even though)
4. Join each pair of the sentences and use purpose clauses.
1. I hurried. I didn’t want to be late.
I
2. We wore warm clothes. We didn’t want to get cold.
We wore
3. The man spoke very slowly. He wanted me to understand what he said.
The man
4. I whispered. I didn’t want anybody else to hear our conversation.
_____________________ nobody
5. Please arrive early. We want to be able to start the meeting on time.
Please
48
6. She locked the door. She didn’t want to be disturbed.
She
7. I slowed down. I wanted the car behind to be able to overtake.
I
8. Jim tried to do his best. He wanted to pass the exam.
Jim
5. Fill each gap with “not to” or “in order not to”.
1. Mary has studied all day _____________ fail the exam.
2. The coach has urged the team _____________ forget about their team spirit.
3. I think we should ask the managers _____________ overload us with too much work.
4. My boss asked me to study Italian _____________ be fired during downsizing.
5. The children finished all their duties in time _____________ miss their favorite film on TV.
6. I’ve decided to help you _____________ fail the exam.
7. You have been taught _____________ underestimate the risk of bad investment.
8. Sue left from work early _____________ meet her superior.
49
PAST MODALS
1. Modals and past infinitives
MUST
+ HAVE ...-ED
this form indicates that the speaker is convinced that something
happened (in the past) in a certain way although it needn’t be true:
I must have left the bag in the shop.
→ I think I left it there but maybe it’s wrong.
CAN’T / COULDN’T
+ HAVE ...-ED
this form indicates that the speaker is convinced that something didn’t
happen (in the past) in a certain way although it needn’t be true:
I can’t/couldn’t have left the bag in the shop.
→ I think I didn’t leave it there but maybe it’s wrong.
COULD
+ HAVE ...-ED
this form indicates that the speaker had an opportunity to do
something (in the past) but he/she didn’t use it:
Why did you stay in a hotel? You could have stayed with us.
→ You had the opportunity to stay with us but you didn’t use it.
SHOULD / OUGHT TO
+ HAVE ...-ED
this form indicates that someone advised the speaker to do something
(in the past) but the speaker didn’t do it:
I think you should (OR ought to) have left an hour earlier.
→ I think it would have been good if you had left an hour earlier
but you didn’t.
MAY / MIGHT
+ HAVE ...-ED
the form indicates that there was a 50% chance (or probability) that
something happened in a certain way, but the speaker doesn’t know if
it really happened in the way mentioned:
Tim was in a bad mood last night. He may/might have been ill.
→ There is a chance that Tim was ill but I’m not sure about it.
NEEDN’T
+ HAVE ...-ED
the form indicates that it was not necessary for the speaker to do
something but since he/she didn’t know that he/she didn’t have to do
it, he/she did it:
I thought it was going to rain so I took an umbrella with me. But it
didn’t rain so I needn’t have taken it.
→ It wasn’t necessary for me to take the umbrella but because I
didn’t know it, I took it.
Additional notes:
MUST HAVE ...-ED HAD TO
As mentioned above, “must have ...-ed” means that the speaker is convinced that something
happened (in the past) in a certain way although it needn’t be true:
I must have lost my keys. = I can’t find them so I think I lost them although it needn’t be true.
However, “had to” refers to an obligation or necessity that had to be fulfilled; it doesn’t describe the
speaker’s personal feelings or attitudes; in other words, someone was obliged to do something:
I had to leave at five in order to catch the bus. = I had no other choice if I wanted to catch the bus.
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COULD
This verb can be found in three grammatical contexts:
a) in conditional clauses with the meaning of “would be able to”, i.e. MOHL BY in Czech:
We could go to the cinema if we came home from work in time.
If I were ten years younger, I could apply for this job.
b) past tense of “can”, which means the same as “was/were able to”, i.e. there was an opportunity to
do something, no matter if this opportunity was used or not, i.e. MOHL (JSEM/JSI) in Czech:
Tom couldn’t come to the meeting because his flight was delayed.
They could spend so much money since they had won a lottery.
c) could (not) + have ...-ed – see above for the meaning:
Why did you go by bus? You could have taken my car.
I don’t believe I failed the exam. I couldn’t have had so many bad answers.
Since the alternative form of “can/could” is “be able to”, it can be used with a past infinitive as well:
could (not) have –ed = would (not) have been able to
We could have started studying German but we decided not to.
We would have been able to start studying German but we decided not to.
MAY/MIGHT COULD
Sometimes “could” has a similar meaning to “may” and “might”:
The phone’s ringing. It could be Tim. (= it may/might be Tim)
You could have left your bag in the shop. (= you may/might have left it...)
But “couldn’t” (negative) is different from “may not” and “might not”. Compare:
She was too far away, so she couldn’t have seen you. (= it is not possible that she saw you)
A: I wonder why she didn’t say hello.
B: She might not have seen you. (= perhaps she didn’t see you; perhaps she did)
DIDN’T NEED TO NEEDN’T HAVE ...-ED
I didn’t need to... = it was not necessary for me to... and I knew this at the time; it’s the
same as “I didn’t have to”:
I didn’t need to get up early, so I didn’t.
I didn’t need to get up early, but it was a lovely morning, so I did.
‘I needn’t have ...-ed’ = I did something but now I know that it was not necessary:
I got up very early because I had to get ready to go away. But in fact it didn’t take me long to
get ready. So, I needn’t have got up so early. I could have stayed in bed longer.
1. Read the situations and make sentences from the words in brackets. In each case use a
modal verb too (in some cases the modal verb is negative).
1. I can’t find George anywhere. I wonder where he is.
(he / go / shopping) He may have gone shopping.
(he / play / tennis) He might be playing tennis.
2. Why did you stay at home last night?
(you / not / stay / at home)
(you / go / cinema)
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3. Why didn’t you come earlier? There are no front seats left now.
(you / come earlier / to get front seats)
(you / not / get / any front seats now)
4. I think Tim didn’t hear the phone otherwise he would have answered it.
(he / not / hear / the phone)
(he / be / in the garden)
5. It wasn’t necessary for you to come to the meeting.
(you / come / to the meeting)
(you / stay / at home)
6. I can’t find my wallet! I’m sure I left it at school.
(I / leave / it / at school)
(I / worry / as I know where it is)
7. It would have been better if the opera house had been finished a month earlier.
(the opera house / finish / a month earlier)
(it / not / take / so long to build it)
8. It is possible that Jack has left for Brazil so perhaps he isn’t in his office.
(Jack / leave / for Brazil)
(he / not / be sitting / in his office)
2. Complete the sentences with either “didn’t need to” + present infinitive or “needn’t”
+ past infinitive of the verb in the brackets.
1. Tom _____________________ (buy) two tickets because Susan has just decided not to go.
2. Jack _____________________ (kill) Josh because he would have died in a car accident
anyway.
3. Our company _____________________ (take over) our biggest rival because we had found
out that they were planning to leave the Czech market.
4. The students _____________________ (read) the book for two hours to get ready for a test
because the teacher fell ill and the test was cancelled.
5. Our members knew they _____________________ (take) the foreign-language test but
most of them took it anyway.
6. The CEO _____________________ (fly) to Nicaragua because no deal was made there.
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GERUNDS & INFINITIVES
1. Verbs of perception
This is a special group of verbs: they aren’t usually used in the continuous form, i.e. the ing form
(see grammar for unit 1), and they are followed by an object plus either a gerund or a bare
infinitive (without to), influencing the meaning of the verb; these verbs include:
see hear smell taste
feel listen to notice watch
• If we see or hear only part of the action, or it continues, we use the ing form.
• If we see or hear the whole action from beginning to end, we use the bare infinitive
without to:
I saw her giving her presentation. = I saw part of the presentation
I saw her give her presentation. = I saw the whole presentation
I heard the machine making a strange noise. = I heard the noise and it continued
I heard the machine make a strange noise. = I heard the noise and it stopped
I’ve listened to him playing the violin. = I’ve listened to part of his performance
I’ve listened to him play the violin. = I’ve listened to the whole performance
2. Bare infinitive with make and let
A bare infinitive, i.e. an infinitive without “to”, is not used only with verbs of perception; there are
other verbs that require this type of infinitive – such as “make” and “let”:
I made them check everything very carefully. (NOT I made them to check…)
They let us have all these free samples. (NOT They let us to have…)
Be careful: However, if the verb “make” is used in the passive (“be made”), it is followed by
an infinitive with to:
I was made to check everything very carefully. (NOT I was made check…)
3. Passive forms in gerund and infinitive
Gerunds or infinitives that follow other verbs are usually in the active voice:
She has avoided doing her homework.
Luke will refuse to participate in the contest next week.
However, even such gerunds or infinitives can be in the passive voice form; the forms are as
follows:
ACTIVE PASSIVE
GERUND
verb + ing
avoid seeing
verb + being + past participle
avoid being seen
INFINITIVE
verb + infinitive with to
refuse to make
verb + to be + past participle
refuse to be made
If the share price falls any more we risk being taken over by a larger company.
I think I deserve to be given a pay rise.
Lucy has chosen to be trained by Mark since she has considered being sent to the contest.
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4. Gerund or infinitive: change in meaning
Some verbs can be followed by ing or to + infinitive and the meaning of the verb changes:
REMEMBER & FORGET
We use “remember/forget doing” for memories of the past (the action happens before the
remembering). However, we use “remember/forget to do” for actions someone is/was
supposed to do (the remembering happens before the action):
I definitely remember posting the letter = PAMATUJI SI, ŽE JSEM NĚCO UDĚLAL
I must remember to post the letter = NESMÍM ZAPOMENOUT NĚCO UDĚLAT
I’ll never forget flying into Taipei airport. = NEZAPOMENU, JAK SE NĚCO STALO
Sorry, I forgot to turn off the lights. = ZAPOMNĚL JSEM NĚCO UDĚLAT
REGRET
We use “regret doing” when we are sorry about something that happened in the past while we
use “regret to inform/to tell” when we are giving bad news:
I regret saying no to the job in Paris. = LITUJI, ŽE JSEM NĚCO UDĚLAL
I regret to inform you that we are unable to ... = S LÍTOSTÍ VÁM OZNAMUJI, ŽE...
STOP
We use “stop doing” when we end an action while we use “stop to do” when we give the reason
for stopping:
We stopped buying from that supplier. = PŘESTAT NĚCO DĚLAT
I stopped to buy something for my wife. = PŘESTAT S NĚJAKOU ČINNOSTÍ, ABY SE NĚCO
JINÉHO (NE)STALO
MEAN
We use “mean doing” when one thing results in or involves another. We use “mean to do” to
express an intention:
Globalization means being active in every major market. = ZNAMENAT NĚCO
I meant to phone you, but I forgot. = MÍT V ÚMYSLU NĚCO UDĚLAT
GO ON
We use “go on doing” when we continue doing something. We use “go on to do” when we move
on to do something else:
We went on trading even though we were nearly bankrupt. = POKRAČOVAT V TOMTÉŽ
After leaving IBM he went on to start his own company. = POKRAČOVAT DÁLE NĚČÍM JINÝM
1. Fill the gap with the correct form of the verb in brackets.
1. I think I’ll ask Jim _________ (stop) _________ (buy) that perfume because I can’t stand it.
2. Cleaning your room means _________ (put) all your toys into the box, Tom.
3. I’ve been listening to Sarah _________ (play) the guitar for an hour and then I had to leave.
4. Unfortunately our company was made _________ (pay) damages to the customer.
5. After five years in IT I think I’ll go on _________ (start) my own business in
telecommunications.
6. I felt the ball _________ (hit) my head and then I passed out.
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7. Sorry, I regret _________ (send) the email to your wife. I didn’t mean it.
8. The whole room was watching the team _________ (play) at the championship.
9. The teacher won’t let you _________ (sign up) for his class for the second time.
10. Read the first part, answer the question and go on _________ (read) the text again.
11. Nobody has noticed him _________ (paint) the wall although it took him so long.
12. All of us saw her _________ (leave) the room but nobody remembers when it was.
13. I’ve almost forgotten _________ (visit) the concert last year but I clearly remember _______
(talk) to the singer.
14. Did you hear Tom _________ (shoot) the gun last night? I did.
15. Our plan is _________ (make) our suppliers _________ (cut) their prices through
negotiations.
16. I didn’t forget _________ (finish) _________ (write) the letter, don’t worry. I mean _____
(send) it tomorrow.
17. Madam, I regret _________ (tell) you that your son has failed the entrance exam.
18. After an hour of singing the singer stopped _________ (refresh) herself and then went on
_________ (sing).
19. My brother will let us both _________ (use) his computer, I’m sure.
2. Complete the sentences using the verb in brackets. In some cases you have to use a
preposition after the first verb.
1. a Fred failed _____________ the problem. (solve)
b Amy succeeded _____________ the problem. (solve)
2. a I’m thinking _____________ away next week. (go)
b I’m hoping _____________ away next week. (go)
c I’m looking forward _____________ away next week. (go)
d I’d like _____________ away next week. (go)
3. a Mary wanted _____________ me a drink. (buy)
b Mary promised _____________ me a drink. (buy)
c Mary insisted _____________ me a drink. (buy)
d Mary wouldn’t dream _____________ me a drink. (buy)
4. a The team focused _____________ the report for the meeting. (prepare)
b The team complained _____________ the report for the meeting. (prepare)
c The team wasn’t interested _____________ the report for the meeting. (prepare)
5. a Luke is looking forward _____________ for a business trip to Spain. (go)
b Luke has objected _____________ for a business trip to Spain. (go)
c Luke will have to get used _____________ for a business trip to Spain. (go)
6. a The sales team will concentrate _____________ the quarterly requirements. (meet)
b Even the sales team will participate _____________ the quarterly requirements. (meet)
c The sales team will attempt _____________ the quarterly requirements. (meet)
7. a My mother used _____________ a month in Austria when she was a child. (spend)
b My mother proposed _____________ a month in Austria. (spend)
c My mother says it isn’t worth _____________ a month in Austria. (spend)