Questions for Review
1. In this chapter we looked at two models of the short-run aggregate supply curve. Both
models attempt to explain why, in the short run, output might deviate from its long-run
“natural rate”—the level of output that is consistent with the full employment of labor
and capital. Both models result in an aggregate supply function in which output deviates
from its natural rate Y when the price level deviates from the expected price level:
Y = Y + α(P – EP).
The first model is the sticky-price model. The market imperfection in this model is
that prices in the goods market do not adjust immediately to changes in demand conditions—the
goods market does not clear instantaneously. If the demand for a firm’s
goods falls, some respond by reducing output, not prices.
The second model is the imperfect-information model. This model assumes that
there is imperfect information about prices, in that some suppliers of goods confuse
changes in the price level with changes in relative prices. If a producer observes the
nominal price of the firm’s good rising, the producer attributes some of the rise to an
increase in relative price, even if it is purely a general price increase. As a result, the
producer increases production. In both models, there is a discrepancy between what is
really happening and what firms think is happening. In the sticky-price model, some
firms expect prices to be at one level and they end up at another level. In the imperfectinformation
model, some firms expect the relative price of their output has changed
when it really has not.
2. In this chapter, we argued that in the short run, the supply of output depends on the
natural rate of output and on the difference between the price level and the expected
price level. This relationship is expressed in the aggregate-supply equation:
Y = Y + α(P – EP).
The Phillips curve is an alternative way to express aggregate supply. It provides a simple
way to express the tradeoff between inflation and unemployment implied by the
short-run aggregate supply curve. The Phillips curve posits that inflation π depends on
the expected inflation rate Eπ, on cyclical unemployment u – un
, and on supply shocks v:
π = Eπ – β(u – un
) + v.
Both equations tell us the same information in a different way: both imply a connection
between real economic activity and unexpected changes in prices. In addition,
both the Phillips curve and the short-run aggregate supply curve show that inflation
and unemployment move in opposite directions.
3. Inflation is inertial because of the way people form expectations. It is plausible to
assume that people’s expectations of inflation depend on recently observed inflation.
These expectations then influence the wages and prices that people set. For example, if
prices have been rising quickly, people will expect them to continue to rise quickly.
These expectations will be built into the contracts people set, so that actual wages and
prices will rise quickly. In addition, both the Phillips curve and the short-run aggregate
supply curve show that inflation and unemployment move in opposite directions.
144
C H A P T E R 13 Aggregate Supply and the Short-Run
Tradeoff Between Inflation and
Unemployment
Chapter 13 Aggregate Supply 145
4. Demand-pull inflation results from high aggregate demand: the increase in demand
“pulls” prices and output up. Cost-push inflation comes from adverse supply shocks
that push up the cost of production—for example, the increases in oil prices in the midand
late-1970s.
The Phillips curve tells us that inflation depends on expected inflation, the difference
between unemployment and its natural rate, and a shock v:
π = Eπ – β(u – un
) + v.
The term “ – β(u – un
)” is the demand-pull inflation, since if unemployment is below its
natural rate (u < un
), inflation rises. The supply shock v is the cost-push inflation.
5. The Phillips curve relates the inflation rate to the expected inflation rate and to the
difference between unemployment and its natural rate. So one way to reduce inflation
is to have a recession, raising unemployment above its natural rate. It is possible to
bring inflation down without a recession, however, if we can costlessly reduce expected
inflation.
According to the rational-expectations approach, people optimally use all of the
information available to them in forming their expectations. So to reduce expected
inflation, we require, first, that the plan to reduce inflation be announced before people
form expectations (e.g., before they form wage agreements and price contracts); and
second, that those setting wages and prices believe that the announced plan will be carried
out. If both requirements are met, then expected inflation will fall immediately
and without cost, and this in turn will bring down actual inflation.
6. One way in which a recession might raise the natural rate of unemployment is by
affecting the process of job search, increasing the amount of frictional unemployment.
For example, workers who are unemployed lose valuable job skills. This reduces their
ability to find jobs after the recession ends because they are less desirable to firms.
Also, after a long period of unemployment, individuals may lose some of their desire to
work, and hence search less hard.
Second, a recession may affect the process that determines wages, increasing wait
unemployment. Wage negotiations may give a greater voice to “insiders,” those who
actually have jobs. Those who become unemployed become “outsiders.” If the smaller
group of insiders cares more about high real wages and less about high employment,
then the recession may permanently push real wages above the equilibrium level and
raise the amount of wait unemployment.
This permanent impact of a recession on the natural rate of unemployment is
called hysteresis.
Problems and Applications
1. In this question, we examine two special cases of the sticky-price model developed in
this chapter. In the sticky-price model, all firms have a desired price p that depends on
the overall level of prices P as well as the level of aggregate demand Y – Y. We wrote
this as
p = P + a(Y – Y).
There are two types of firms. A proportion (1 – s) of the firms have flexible prices and
set prices using the above equation. The remaining proportion s of the firms have
sticky prices—they announce their prices in advance based on the economic conditions
that they expect in the future. We assume that these firms expect output to be at its
natural rate, so (EY – Y) = 0. Hence, these firms set their prices equal to the expected
price level:
p = EP.
The overall price level is a weighted average of the prices set by the two types of firms:
P = sEP + (1 – s)[P + a(Y – Y)].
Rearranging:
P = EP + [a(1 – s)/s](Y – Y).
a. If no firms have flexible prices, then s = 1. The above equation tells us that
P = EP.
That is, the aggregate price level is fixed at the expected price level: the aggregate
supply curve is horizontal in the short run, as assumed in Chapter 9.
b. If desired relative prices do not depend at all on the level of output, then a = 0 in
the equation for the price level. Once again, we find P = EP: the aggregate supply
curve is horizontal in the short run, as assumed in Chapter 9.
2. The economy has the Phillips curve:
π = π–1 –0.5(u – 0.06).
a. The natural rate of unemployment is the rate at which the inflation rate does not
deviate from the expected inflation rate. Here, the expected inflation rate is just
last period’s actual inflation rate. Setting the inflation rate equal to last period’s
inflation rate, that is, π = π–1, we find that u = 0.06. Thus, the natural rate of
unemployment is 6 percent.
b. In the short run (that is, in a single period) the expected inflation rate is fixed at
the level of inflation in the previous period, π–1. Hence, the short-run relationship
between inflation and unemployment is just the graph of the Phillips curve: it has
a slope of –0.5, and it passes through the point where π = π–1 and u = 0.06. This is
shown in Figure 13–1. In the long run, expected inflation equals actual inflation,
so that π = π–1, and output and unemployment equal their natural rates. The longrun
Phillips curve thus is vertical at an unemployment rate of 6 percent.
146 Answers to Textbook Questions and Problems
LRPC
SRPC
u0.06
Unemployment
π
Inflation
0.5
π−1
π
Figure 13–1
c. To reduce inflation, the Phillips curve tells us that unemployment must be above
its natural rate of 6 percent for some period of time. We can write the Phillips
curve in the form
π – π–1 = 0.5(u – 0.06).
Since we want inflation to fall by 5 percentage points, we want π – π–1 = –0.05.
Plugging this into the left-hand side of the above equation, we find
–0.05 = –0.5(u – 0.06).
We can now solve this for u:
u = 0.16.
Hence, we need 10 percentage points of cyclical unemployment above the natural
rate of 6 percent.
Okun’s law says that a change of 1 percentage point in unemployment translates
into a change of 2 percentage points in GDP. Hence, an increase in unemployment
of 10 percentage points corresponds to a fall in output of 20 percentage
points. The sacrifice ratio is the percentage of a year’s GDP that must be forgone
to reduce inflation by 1 percentage point. Dividing the 20 percentage-point
decrease in GDP by the 5 percentage-point decrease in inflation, we find that the
sacrifice ratio is 20/5 = 4.
d. One scenario is to have very high unemployment for a short period of time. For
example, we could have 16 percent unemployment for a single year. Alternatively,
we could have a small amount of cyclical unemployment spread out over a long
period of time. For example, we could have 8 percent unemployment for 5 years.
Both of these plans would bring the inflation rate down from 10 percent to 5 percent,
although at different speeds.
3. The cost of reducing inflation comes from the cost of changing people’s expectations
about inflation. If expectations can be changed costlessly, then reducing inflation is
also costless. Algebraically, the Phillips curve tells us that
π = Eπ – β(u – un
) + v.
If the government can lower expected inflation Eπ to the desired level of inflation, then
there is no need for unemployment to rise above its natural rate.
According to the rational-expectations approach, people form expectations about
inflation using all of the information that is available to them. This includes information
about current policies in effect. If everyone believes that the government is committed
to reducing inflation, then expected inflation will immediately fall. In terms of the
Phillips curve, Eπ falls immediately with little or no cost to the economy. That is, the
sacrifice ratio will be very small.
On the other hand, if people do not believe that the government will carry out its
intentions, then Eπ remains high. Expectations will not adjust because people are skeptical
that the government will follow through on its plans.
Thus, according to the rational-expectations approach, the cost of reducing inflation
depends on how resolute and credible the government is. An important issue is
how the government can make its commitment to reducing inflation more credible. One
possibility, for example, is to appoint people who have a reputation as inflation fighters.
A second possibility is to have Congress pass a law requiring the Federal Reserve
to lower inflation. Of course, people might expect the Fed to ignore this law, or expect
Congress to change the law later. A third possibility is to pass a constitutional amendment
limiting monetary growth. People might rationally believe that a constitutional
amendment is relatively difficult to change.
Chapter 13 Aggregate Supply 147
148 Answers to Textbook Questions and Problems
4. a. Beginning in long-run equilibrium, where output is at the natural level, if the
Federal Reserve increases the money supply, this will cause the economy to go
through an expansionary phase. Starting with the IS-LM model in Figure 13-2A,
an increase in the money supply will shift the LM curve to the right, resulting in a
lower interest rate and higher level of output at point B. In the long run, the price
level will rise, real-money balances will decline, and the LM curve will shift back
to its original position. There is no long-run change in the real interest rate or the
level of output. Moving to the AD-AS model in Figure 13-2B, an increase in the
money supply will shift the AD curve to the right, resulting in a higher level of
output and a higher price level at point B. In the long run, expected inflation will
rise, shifting the SRAS curve upward. The economy ends up at point C with output
back at its natural level and the price level at a higher level. Moving to the
Phillips curve graph in Figure 13-2C, the economy starts at point A, where unemployment
is at the natural rate. The increase in the money supply pushes output
above its natural level, and as a result, the unemployment rate falls below its natural
level. This causes a movement along the short-run Phillips curve to point B,
where inflation is higher and unemployment is lower. In the long run, expected
inflation will rise, causing the Phillips curve to shift upward. The economy ends
up at point C with higher inflation and no change in the unemployment rate. The
economy moves through this expansionary cycle because the increase in the
money supply does not immediately cause expected inflation to rise.
Chapter 13 Aggregate Supply 149
IS
Y
A = C
r
A. IS–LM Model
Realinterestrate
Y Y1
B
Output, income
LM1 = LM3
LM2
AD1
Y
A
P
B. AD–AS Model
Pricelevel
Y Y1
B
Output, income
SRAS2
r
r1
LRAS
SRAS1
AD2
P2
P1
C
SRPC1
U
A
π
C. Phillips Curve
Inflationrate
UC
B
Unemployment rate
LRPC
SRPC2
π1
C
Ur
π2
π3
Figure 13–2
b. Beginning in long-run equilibrium with output at its natural level, if the Federal
Reserve increases the money supply and people immediately expect inflation to
rise, then nothing changes except for the price level and the inflation rate. In the
IS-LM model, the increase in the money supply will cause the price level to rise at
the same rate as the money supply such that there is no change in real balances.
The economy stays at point A, as illustrated in Figure 13-3A. Moving to the ADAS
model, the increase in the money supply shifts the AD curve to the right, but
at the same time, the increase in expected inflation shifts the SRAS curve up and
to the left. The economy remains at the natural level of output and the price level
is higher, as illustrated in Figure 13-3B. Moving to the Phillips curve, the immediate
increase in expected inflation shifts the short-run Phillips curve upward, causing
the inflation rate to rise with no change in the unemployment rate, as illustrated
in Figure 13-3C. When the money supply increases and the public immediately
expects higher inflation, the economy does not move through an expansionary
cycle.
150 Answers to Textbook Questions and Problems
Chapter 13 Aggregate Supply 151
IS
Y
A
r
Realinterestrate
Y
Output, income
LM
r
SRPC1
U
A
π
Inflationrate
B
Unemployment rate
LRPC
SRPC2
π1
Ur
π2
IS
Y
A
P
Pricelevel
Y
Output, income
LRAS
P1
P2
B
SRAS2
SRAS1
A. IS–LM Model
B. AD–AS Model
C. Phillips Curve
Figure 13–3
5. In this question we consider several implications of rational expectations—the assumption
that people optimally use all of the information available to them in forming their
expectations—for the model of sticky prices that we considered in this chapter. This
model implies an aggregate supply curve in which output varies from its natural rate
only if the price level varies from its expected level:
Y = Y + α(P – EP).
Based on this model, monetary policy can affect real GDP only by affecting (P – EP)—
that is, causing an unexpected change in the price level.
a. Only unanticipated changes in the money supply can affect real GDP. Since people
take into account all of the information available to them, they already take
into account the effects of anticipated changes in money when they form their
expectations of the price level EP. For example, if people expect the money supply
to increase by 10 percent and it actually does increase by 10 percent, then there is
no effect on output since there is no price surprise—(P – EP) = 0. On the other
hand, suppose the Fed increases the money supply more than expected, so that
prices increase by 15 percent when people expect them to increase by only 10 percent.
Since P > EP, output rises. But it is only the unanticipated part of money
growth that increases output.
b. The Fed often tries to stabilize the economy by offsetting shocks to output and
unemployment. For example, it might increase the money supply during recessions
in an attempt to stimulate the economy, and it might reduce the money
supply during booms in an attempt to slow it down. The Fed can only do this by
surprising people about the price level: during a recession, they want prices to be
higher than expected, and during booms, they want prices to be lower than expected.
If people have rational expectations, however, they will expect the Fed to
respond this way. So if the economy is in a boom, people expect the Fed to reduce
the money supply; in a recession, people expect the Fed to increase the money
supply. In either case, it is impossible for the Fed to cause (P – EP) to vary systematically
from zero. Since people take into account the systematic, anticipated
movements in money, the effect on output of systematic, active policy is exactly
the same as a policy of keeping the money supply constant, assuming the Fed
chooses the level of the money supply at the same time people set prices so everyone
has the same information.
c. If the Fed sets the money supply after people set wages and prices, then the Fed
can use monetary policy systematically to stabilize output. The assumption of
rational expectations means that people use all of the information available to
them in forming expectations about the price level. This includes information
about the state of the economy and information about how the Fed will respond to
this state. This does not mean that people know what the state of the economy
will be, nor do they know exactly how the Fed will act: they simply make their
best guess.
As time passes, the Fed learns information about the economy that was
unknown to those setting wages and prices. At this point, since contracts have
already set these wages and prices, people are stuck with their expectations EP.
The Fed can then use monetary policy to affect the actual price level P, and hence
can affect output systematically.
6. In this model, the natural rate of unemployment is an average of the unemployment
rates in the past two years. Hence, if a recession raises the unemployment rate in some
year, then the natural rate of unemployment rises as well. This means that the model
exhibits hysteresis: short-term cyclical unemployment affects the long-term natural
rate of unemployment.
a. The natural rate of unemployment might depend on recent unemployment for at
least two reasons, suggested by the theory of hysteresis. First, recent unemployment
rates might affect the level of frictional unemployment. Unemployed work-
152 Answers to Textbook Questions and Problems
ers lose job skills and find it harder to get jobs; also, unemployed workers might
lose some of their desire to work, and hence search less hard for a job. Second,
recent unemployment rates might affect the level of structural unemployment. If
labor negotiations give a greater voice to “insiders” than “outsiders,” then the
insiders might push for high wages at the expense of jobs. This will be especially
true in industries in which negotiations take place between firms and unions.
b. If the Fed seeks to reduce inflation permanently by 1 percentage point, then the
Phillips curve tells us that in the first period we require
π1 – π0 = –1 = –0.5(u1 – un
1),
or
(u1 – un
1) = 2.
That is, we require an unemployment rate 2 percentage points above the original
natural rate u . Next period, however, the natural rate will rise as a result of the
cyclical unemployment. The new natural rate u will be
u = 0.5[u1 + u0]
= 0.5[(un
1 + 2) + un
1]
= un
1 + 1.
Hence, the natural rate of unemployment rises by 1 percentage point. If the Fed
wants to keep inflation at its new level, then unemployment in period 2 must
equal the new natural rate u . Hence,
u2 = un
1 + 1.
In every subsequent period, it remains true that the unemployment rate must
equal the natural rate. This natural rate never returns to its original level: we can
show this by deriving the sequence of unemployment rates:
u3 = (1/2)u2 + (1/2)u1 = u + 1.5
u4 = (1/2)u3 + (1/2)u2 = u + 1.25
u5 = (1/2)u4 + (1/2)u3 = u + 1.375.
Unemployment always remains above its original natural rate. In fact, we can
show that it is always at least 1 percent above its original natural rate. Thus, to
reduce inflation by 1 percentage point, unemployment rises above its original level
by 2 percentage points in the first year, and by 1 or more percentage points in
every year after that.
c. Because unemployment is always higher than it started, output is always lower
than it would have been. Hence, the sacrifice ratio is infinite.
d. Without hysteresis, we found that there was a short-run tradeoff but no long-run
tradeoff between inflation and unemployment. With hysteresis, we find that there
is a long-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment: to reduce inflation,
unemployment must rise permanently.
7. a. The natural level of output is determined by the production function, Y = F(K, L).
If a tax cut raises work effort, it increases L and, thus, increases the natural rate
of output.
b. The tax cut shifts the aggregate demand curve outward for the normal reason that
disposable income and, hence, consumption rise. It shifts the long-run aggregate
supply curve outward because the natural rate of output rises.
The effect of the tax cut on the short-run aggregate supply (SRAS) curve
depends on which model you use. The labor supply curve shifts outward because
workers are willing to supply more labor at any given real wage while the labor
demand curve is unchanged. In the sticky-price model the quantity of labor is
demand-determined, so the SRAS curve does not move. By contrast, the imperChapter
13 Aggregate Supply 153
fect-information model assumes that the labor market is always in equilibrium, so
the greater supply of labor leads to higher employment immediately: the SRAS
shifts out.
c. If you are using the sticky-price model, the short-run analysis is the same as the conventional
model without the labor-supply effect. That is, output and prices both rise
because aggregate demand rises while short-run aggregate supply is unchanged. If
you use the imperfect-information model, short-run aggregate supply shifts outward,
so that the tax cut is more expansionary and less inflationary than the conventional
model. Figure 13–4 shows the effects in both models. Point A is the original equilibrium,
point SW is the new equilibrium in the sticky-price model, and point II is the
new equilibrium in the imperfect-information model.
d. In the normal model, where the tax cut does not lead to a shift of labor supply that
increases the natural level of output, the long-run price level will be higher as a
result of the tax cut and output will return to the same natural level. The tax cut
led to a rightward shift of the aggregate demand curve in the short run. In the
long run, the short-run aggregate supply curve will shift up and to the left as the
expected price level rises. In the alternative model, where the tax cut leads to an
increase in the natural level of output, the long-run results depend on whether the
horizontal shift in the aggregate demand curve is larger, smaller, or the same as
the horizontal shift in the long-run aggregate supply curve. If the two shift horizontally
by the same amount, then the price level is unaffected in the long run. If
the shift in aggregate demand is greater than the shift in the long-run aggregate
supply curve, then the price level will be higher in the long run.
8. In this quote, Alan Blinder argues that in low-inflation countries like the United
States, the benefits of reducing inflation are small whereas the costs are large. That is,
menu costs, shoeleather costs, and tax distortions simply do not add up to much, so
eliminating inflation offers only small benefits. By contrast, the costs in terms of unemployment
and lost output that are associated with lowering inflation are easily quantifiable
and very large.
The basic policy implication of these beliefs about the relative benefits and costs of
reducing inflation is that policymakers should not tighten policy in order to lower inflation
rates that are already relatively low. The statement leaves two other issues
ambiguous. First, should policymakers concern themselves with rising inflation?
Second, should policymakers concern themselves with making inflation more predictable
around the level it has inherited? Blinder may feel that these issues should
have little weight relative to output stabilization.
154 Answers to Textbook Questions and Problems
LRAS1 LRAS2
SRAS1
SRASImp. Info
AD2
AD1
Y
A
SW
II
P
, SRASSP
Figure 13–4
9. From the BLS web site (www.bls.gov), there are various ways to get the CPI data. For
the years 2004–2008, I obtained the following for “all urban consumers”:
Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Overall CPI 3.8 2.8 3.2 3.4 2.7
CPI excluding food and energy 2.3 2.3 2.5 2.2 1.8
The overall CPI was clearly more volatile than the CPI excluding food and energy. The
difference reflects shocks to the price of food and energy—especially energy prices,
which are highly variable.
When energy prices, say, go down, the total CPI will rise less than the CPI excluding
food and energy. This represents a supply shock, which shifts the aggregate supply
curve and Phillips curve downward.
More Problems and Applications to Chapter 13
1. a. The classical large open economy model (from the Appendix to Chapter 5) is
similar to special case 2 in the text, except that it allows the interest rate to
deviate from the world interest rate. That is, this is the special case where
EP = P, L(i,Y) = (1/V)Y, and CF = CF(r-r*), with a non-infinitely elastic international
capital flow. Because capital flows do not respond overwhelmingly
to any differences between the domestic and world interest rates, these rates
can, in fact, vary in this case.
b. The Keynesian cross model of Chapter 10 is the special case where (i) the
economy is closed, so that CF(r-r*) = 0 ; (ii) I(r) = I, so that investment is
given exogenously; and (iii) α is infinite, so that the short-run aggregate-supply
curve is horizontal. In this special case, output depends solely on the
demand for goods and services.
c. The IS-LM model for the large open economy (from the appendix to Chapter
12) is the special case where α is infinite and CF = CF(r-r*) is not infinitely
elastic. In this case, the short-run aggregate supply curve is horizontal, and
capital flows do not respond too much to differences between the domestic
and world interest rates.
Chapter 13 Aggregate Supply 155