'There is nothing so useful as a good theory. '
KURTLEWIN
THE
PYRAMID
PRINCIPLE
LOGIC IN WRITING
AND THINKING
Barbara Minto
PITMAN PUBLISHING
128 Long Acre, London WC2E 9AN
A Division of Pearson Professional Limited
First published in the USA by Minto International Inc. 1987
First published in the UK in 1991 by Pitman Publishing
This edition published 1995
©Barbara Minto 1987
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available
from the British Library
ISBN O273 61710 9
Al! rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form orby any other
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without
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consent of the publishers.
10 9 8 7
Printed and bound in Great Britain by
Biddles Ltd, Guildford and King's Lynn.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Barbara Minto grew up in Cleveland, Ohio. She began her career on
the staff of Cyrus Eaton, the industrialist who founded the famous Pug>vash
Conferences of nuclear scientists. Working as part of the team that
organized and ran the conferences, she received sound training in tackling
the problems of communicating clearly on technical subjects.
In 1961 she left Mr. Eaton to attend the Harvard Business School, returning
to Cleveland in 1963 to join McKinsey & Company, the international
management consulting firm, as their first female consultant. Her ability to
write was noted, and she was transferred to London in 1966, to concentrate on
developing the writing skills of their growing European staff. Al! reports at that
time were written in English, and it was thought that consultants not writing in
their first language would experience special difficulties.
However, it became apparent to her very quickly that the writing
difficulties in Dusseldorf and Paris were the same as those in New York and
Cleveland. The problem was not so much to get the language right as to get
the thinking clear. This insight led her to concentrate on discovering the
structures of thinking that must underlie clear writing, and eventually to
develop the ideas that make up this book.
She stili lives in London, but has since 1973 run her own firm, Minto
International, Inc. She specializes in teaching The Pyramid Principle to
people whose m<ýor training is in business or the professions, but whose
jobs nevertheless require them to produce complex reports, analyses,
memorandums, or presentations.
She has taught her course to most of the major consulting firms in the
. United States and Europe, as well as to many of the country's largest
corporations. She has also lectured at the Harvard, Stanford, Chicago, and
London business schools, and at the State University ofNewYork.
v
PREFACE
book proposes to tell you how to use The Pyramid Principle
a clear business document. Writing anything clearly consists
steps: first, decide the point you want to make, then put it
words. So long as you know the point, you rarely have a
stating it:
!'ll meet you at 12:30 at Mario's.
can run into trouble when you have to sort through a series
to come to an overall conclusion:
vii
PREFACE
What the author has done here is what most people do when they
write. He has used the writing process as a device to formulate his
thinking. As a device it works quite well, in fact, but the result is a bit
hard on the reader, who is forced to plow through several irrelevant
sentences before he finds the point. How much easier if the note
had read:
Alas, to get from the first example to the second means double work
for both the author and his secretary, and most people feel it is not
really worth the effort for such a short note. No doubt they're right.
But what happens when, instead of the documenťs being one
paragraph long, it is two or three pages? Usually the author feels it
would take too long to revise it, and in any case he's often not sure
just how to go about doing the revision. Much easier, he decides, to
leave it to the reader to sort through the points and pull out the
message for himself.
Until recently few readers actually complained about this attitude
on the part of their correspondents. Most took it for granted that
this was how business writing was supposed to look, since it
resembled what they themselves had learned to produce by careful
copying of their superiors. Indeed, I can recall once telling a
consultant that his 2-hour presentation on a company's new
organization structure was boring. He replied:
Perhaps. But the time wasted is enormous, and continual exposure
to badly written, boring documents can only be soul destroying. As
one commentator sympathetically noted, 'The myth that
viii
PREFACE
..businessmen don't read is nonsense. They read a lot. But what they
read is illiterate.'
· For the average business or professional writer, producing more
literate memos and reports does not mean writing shorter sentences
choosing better words. Rather, it means formally separating the
~inking process from the writing process, so that you can complete
thinking before you begin to write. And thaťs what this book will
you how to do.
Essentially it will tell you that it is the order in which you present
thinking that makes your writing clear or unclear, and that you
;:. ·cause confusion in the reader's mind when you do not impose the
Pl'oper order. lmposing the proper order means creating .a
comprehensive structure that identifies the major ideas and the1r
': :flów, and organizes the minor ideas to support them.
· The key skill, then, is to be able to recognize which are your major
. which your minor ideas, and to work out their relationships
the structure. The demands of logic and the limitations of a
ability to take in information dictate that this structure will
be pyramida! in shape- hence The Pyramid Princíple.
One will both explain this princíple and show you how to use
build a beginning pyramid. Part Two will show you how to use
knowledge of the pyramid rules to look critically at this
find its logícal flaws, and push your thinking creatively so
you end up saying precísely what you mean.
The approach is applícable to any document in which your
p\:trpose is to get your thinking across clearly. Applying it,.however,
··· ··· ·.. · s considerable discipline. Nevertheless, by dehberately
yourself to think first and write later in the manner it
you should be able quite dramatícally (a) to cut down the
normally need to produce a final draft, (b) to increase its
and (c) to decrease its length.
ix
CONTENTS
Preface vii
Part I The Pyramid Principle: Logic in Writing 1
Introduction 3
WHY A PYRAMID STRUCTURE 5
Sorting into Pyramids 6
The Magical Number Seven 7
The Need to State the Logic 9
Ordering from the Top Down 9
Thinking from the Bottom Up 12
xi
CONTENTS CONTENTS
1]
THE SUBSTRUCTURES WITHIN THE PYRAMID 18 lnductive Reasoning 76
HowitWorks 76
The Vertical Relationship 19 How it Differs 79
The Horizontal Relationship 23
The Introductory Flow 24 HOW TO HIGHLIGHT THE STRUCTURE 81
Headings 82
JJ
HOW TO BUILD A PYRAMID STRUCTURE 27
Underlined Points 85
The Top-Down Approach 28 Decima! Numbering 87
The Bottom-Up Approach 34 Indented Display 90
Caveats for Beginners 39
1J
FINE POINTS OF INTRODUCTIONS 41 Part 2 The Pyramid Principle: Logic in Thinking 93
Initial Introductions 41
Introduction 95
Why a Story? 42
How Long Should it Be? 44 QUESTIONING THE ORDER OF A GROUPING 97
Where Do You Start the Situation? 44
Whaťs a Complication? 46 Time Order 100
Why That Order? 47 Incomplete Thinking 100
What About the Key Line? 49 Confused Logic 101
Further Examples 50 False Grouping 102
In Summary 52 Structural Order 102
Some Common Patterns 54 Creating a Structure 103
Directives 55 Describing a Structure 105
Requests for Funds 56 Imposing a Structure 108
'How to' Documents 57 Ranking Order 109
Letters of Proposal 59
Creating Proper Class Groupings 109
Progress Reviews 60
Identifying Improper Class Groupings 113
Transitions Between Groups 61
Referencing Backward 61 QUESTIONING THE PROBLEM-SOLVING PROCESS 121
Summarizing 64
122Concluding 65 The Problem-Solving Process
What is the Problem? 123
JJ
DEDUCTION AND INDUCTION: Where Does it Lie? 124
THE DIFFERENCE 68 Why Does it Exist? 125
70
What Could We Do About it? 125
Deductive Reasoning
What Should We Do About it? 126
HowitWorks 70
When to Use it 72
xii xiii
CONTENTS
Delming the Prob1em 127
PART IPeriod Graph Books 131
Structuring the Analysis of the Problem 136
Five Typical Logic Trees 136
Use of the Logic Tree Concept 142
QUESTIONING THE SUMMARY STATEMENT 147
JJ Stating the Effect of Actions 149
THEMake the Wording Specific 151
Distinguish the Levels ofAction 157
Drawing an Inference from Conclusions 161
PYRAMIDFind the Structural Similarity 162
Visualize the Relationships 164
PRINCIPLEPUTIING IT INTO READABLE WORDS 170
~
Create the Image 172
Copy the Image in Worts 175
LOGIC IN WRITING
Appendix:
Problem Solving
In Structureless Situations 179
References 186
xiv
INTRODUCTION
TO PART I
of the least pleasant aspects of a professional person'sjob is the
to put things in writing. Almost everyone finds it a chore and
he were better at it. And many people are told specifically
they need to improve if they want to progress.
' The reason most people don't improve is that they assume that
more clearly means writing simpler, more direct sentences.
it is true that the sentences in their documents are often
and unwieldy. Moreover, their language is frequently too
or too abstract, and their paragraphs on occasion are
developed.
these are weaknesses of style, and it is notoriously difficult for
who has completed the formal part of his education to
his writing style. Not that it cannot be done; rather, iťs like
to type. It requires a good many repetitive exercises, for
most on-thejob writers in industry and government simply
find the time. As a result, they continue to be told they need
'more clearly.'
, there is a second cause of unclear writing, far more
than the first, and much easier to correct This relates to the
of the document - the order in which the sentences appear
of whether they are well or poorly written. If a person's
·s unclear, it is most likely because the ordering of the ideas
with the capability of the reader's mind to process them.
•a....auJ.uLr is the same for everyone, whether reader or writer,
to accommodate it is a relatively easy task. And
the writer who forces himself to match the structure of his
that of his reader's mind also finds that he has clarified his
sufficiently to write less awkward sentences.
section of the book explains why the structure in a
mind will always be a pyramid, and what the logical
3
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
substructures are that make up that pyramid. It tells you how to use
this knowledge to identify the ideas you need to include in a
particul~r doc~ment, and to structure a clear relationship between
them. Fmally, 1t tells you how to highlight your structure so that the
ideas and their relationships will be easy to see at a glance.
4
I
WHY
A
PYRAMID
STRUCTURE
person who seeks to learn what you think about a particular
··by reading what you have to say about it faces a complex task.
your document is a short one - say only about 2 single-spaced
- it will contain roughly 100 sentences. He must take in each of
them, relate them, and hold them together. He will
find the job easier if they come to him as a pyramid,
at the top and working downward. This conclusion reflects
ndamental findings about the way the mind works. Specifically:
automatically sorts information into distinctive
groupings in order to comprehend it.
of ideas is easier to comprehend if it arrives
into its pyramid.
:·suggc~sts that every written document should be deliberately
to form a pyramid of ideas.
following explain what I mean by a pyramid of ideas.
s
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
SORTING INTO PYRAMIDS
That the mind automatically imposes order on
everything around it has long been recognized. Essentially, it tends
to see any sequence of things that occur together as belonging
together, and therefore sets about imposing a logical pattern on
them. The Greeks, for example, demonstrated the tendency by
looking up at the stars and seeing outlines of figures instead of
pinpoints of light.
The mind will group together any series of items that it sees as
having a 'common fate' - because they share similar characteristics
or are near the same place. Take these six dots for example:
•••
•••
When looking casually at them, everyone sees two groups of three
dots each, primarily because some of the distances between the dots
are smaller than others.
The value of seeing things in logical units is, of course, immense.
To demonstrate, read the following pairs of nouns,* which are
normally not related to each other.
LAKE • SUGAR
BOOT • PLATE
GIRL • KANGAROO
PENCIL • GASOLINE
PAlACE • BICYCLE
RAILROAD • ELEPHANT
BOOK • TOOTHPASTE
*Based on a series given in Gestalt Psychology by Wolfgang Kohler (Liveright Publishing: New
York) 1970.
6
WHY A PYRAMID STRUCTURE
try to 'organize' them by picturing a situation in which each
be associated - such as the sugar being dissolved in the
the boot sitting on the plate. Then cover up the list on the
side and try to remember them through reading the list
left-hand side. Most people find that they can recall them all
same organizing phenomenon takes place when you are
listening tci or reading ideas. You assume the ideas that
together, one after the other, belong together, and attempt
a logical pattern on them. The pattern will always be that
because this is the only form that meets your minďs
at the magical number seven
the logic of the relationship.
The Magical Number Seven
There is a limit to the number of ideas you can
rehend at any one time. For example, think of deciding to
your warm, comfortable living room to buy a package of
'I think 1'11 go out and get some cigarettes,' you say to
, 'Is there anything you want while I'm out?'
. I have such a taste for grapes after all those ads on
' she says as you walk toward the doset to get your coat,
maybe you ought to get some more milk.' You take your coat
the doset as she walks into the kitchen.
me look in the cupboard to see if we have enough potatoes
oh yes, I know we're out of eggs. Let me see, yes, we do need
'You put on your coat and walk toward the door.
' she calls out, 'and maybe some oranges.' You open the
'Butter.' You walk down the stairs. 'Apples.' You get into the
And sour cream.' 'Is that all?' 'Yes, dear, thank you.'
reading the passage over, can you remember any of
items your wife asked you to buy? Most men come back
cigarettes and the grapes.
7
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
The m~jo_r problem is that you've run into the magie number
seven. Th1s IS a phrase coined by George A. Miller in his treatise
'The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two.'* What he poin~
out is that the mind cannot hold more than about seven items in its
short-term memory at any one time. Some minds can hold as many
as nine. items, while _others can hold only five (I'm a five myself). A
convement number IS three, but of course the easiest number is one.
What this means is that when the mind sees the number of items
with which it is being presented begin to rise above four or five, it
star~s to grou? them into logical categories so that they can be
retamed. In th1s case, it would probably put the items into categories
that reflect the sections of the supermarket you would need to visit.
To _dem?nstr~te how this helps, read the list below and categorize
each Idea m th1s way as you come to it. You will very likely find that
you remember them all.
GRAPES
MILK
POTATOES
EGGS
CARROTS
ORANGES
BUTTER
APPLES
SOURCREAM
If you try to visualize this process, you will see that you have created
a set of pyramids of logically related items.
*Miller, George A. The Psychology ojCommunication: Sroen Essays (Basic Books: Pa.) 1967.
8
WHY A PYRAMID STRUCTURE
The Need to State the Logic
Now clearly, it is not enough simply to group the
in a logical way without also stating to yourself what the logic
the relationship is. The point in grouping was not just to move
a set of nine items to separate sets of four, two, and three
. That stili comes to nine. What you want to do is move above
nine, to three.
This means that instead of remembering each of the nine items,
remember only the three categories into which they fall. You are
one level of abstraction higher, but because the thought is
a higher level, it suggests the items below it. And, because the
reJlanonsnJIP is not a contrived one as was the case in the exercise
the Iake and the sugar, it is much easier to keep in mind.
·· All mental processes (e.g., thinking, remembering, problem
apparently utilize this grouping and summarizing process,
the information in a person's mind might be thought of as
organized into one giant conglomeration of related pyramids.
think about communicating to that mind, you can see that the
is one of ensuring that what you say will fit somewhere into
existing pyramids.
Now we come to the real problem of communicating. You can
these groupings of items quite clearly. To communicate them
to ensure that the other person 'sees' them in the same way.
as was the case with your wife, you <.;an only present them one
. Surely, the most efficient way to do this would be to present
category first and then the items. That is, to order the ideas from
down.
ORDERING FROM THE TOP DOWN
Controlling the sequence in which you present your
is the single most important act necessary to clear writing. The
sequence is always to give the summarizing idea before you
individua! ideas being summarized. I cannot emphasize this
oomuch.
mber that the reader (or listener) can only take the
in one at a time. You know he will assume that those ideas
9
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
that appear together logically belong together. Ifyou do not tell him
in advance what the relationship is, but simply give the ideas one at a
time, he will automatically look for similarities by which he can
group the points being expressed, so that he can explain to himself
the significance of the groupings. - Alas,
people being as diverse in background and understanding as
they are, they rarely put exactly the same interpretation on your
groupings as you do. Indeed, they not infrequently find that they
can't see any relationship at all between the ideas in a set. Even if
they think exactly as you do, you are making their reading more
difficult, since they must supply what is unstated.
Let me demonstrate how confusing any order other than top
down is with an example. Suppose I join you to have a beer in the
pub, and apropos of nothing in particular, say:
Now, I have given you a piece of information, and without realizing
it you will automatically make some assumptions about the reason
for my giving you that information. In other words, you will see this
statement as part of a group of ideas not yet expressed, and prepare
your mind to receive the rest by assuming a probable purpose
behind the statement. This expectancy reduces the strain of
analyzing each succeeding idea for all its attributes; you look only
for the one in common with what has gone before.
Thus, you might think such things as, 'She's talking about how
unconservative Zurich is getting,' or 'She's going to compare Zurich
with other cities,' or even, 'She's hung up on beards and
moustaches.' Regardless of what reaction you have, the point is that
your mind is waiting for further information on one of those same
subjects, whatever it turns out to be. Seeing that blank look on your
face, I then go on to say:
10
WHY A PYRAMID STRUCTURE
what am I getting at? I seem to be comparing not cities as
cities in which we have offices; and instead ofjust beards
I seem to be including all manner of facial hair.
' you're thinking, 'she disapproves of the new style. Or
she's going to compare the styles in various offices. Or ma~be
surprised at the amount tolerated in the cons.ultl~g
.' In any case, you mutter something noncommittal m
thus encouraged I go on to state:
think, 'at last I see what she's getting at. She's trying to
point that Loudou is ahead of all the other cities,' and you
so. Perfectly logical, but it's wrong; thaťs not what I was
:at at all. In fact, what I was getting at was this:
more easily you can comprehend the group of ideas
I mean you to once the framework within which to judge
between them has been given to you? In a manner
s control, the reader is going to look for a structure
the ideas as they come to him. To make sure he finds the
Lt:llu•~u. you must tell him in advance what it is - to make
what to Iook for. Otherwise he is likely either to see
relationship, or worse, none at all, in which case you
your time.
cx<:UHI.Jlc of this latter situation, look at the main points of
paragraphs of an article on equal pay for women:
ll
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
Here you are given five ideas between which the connecting
relationship is unclear, despite the fact that the author has 'started at
the top,' as he sees it. Can you not feel your mind scrabbling about
trying to find a relationship, coming to the conclusion that there is
none, and giving up in disgust? The mental strain is simply too great.
You must recognize that a reader, no matter how intelligent he is,
has only a limited amount of mental energy available to him. Some
of it will be used up just recognizing and interpreting the words, a
further amount seeing the relationships between the ideas, and
whatever is left comprehending their significance.
You can economize his need to spend time on the first two
activities by presenting the ideas so that they can be comprehended
with the least possible mental effort. To sequence them instead so
that the mind has to go backward and forward to make connections
is simply bad manners, and most readers react by refusing to do so.
To summarize, a reader remembers from the top down as a matter
of course. He also comprehends more readily if ideas are presented
from the top down. All of this suggests that the clearest written
documents will be those that consistently present their information
from the top down, in a pyramidal structure.
THINKING FROM THE BOTTOM UP
If you are going to group and summarize all your
information and present it in a top-down manner, it would seem
your document would have to look something like the structure in
Exhibit 1. The boxes stand for the individua! ideas you want to
present, with your thinking having begun at the lowest level by
12
WHY A PYRAMID STRUCTURE
sentences that you grouped logically into paragraphs. You
the paragraphs into sections, and the sections into the
,uv·uu............. represented by a single thought at the top.
think for a moment about what you actually do when you
can see that you develop your major ideas by thinking in
manner. At the very lowest level in the pyramid, you
your sentences, each containing an individual idea,
Let us suppose you bring together six sentences
paragraph. The reason you bring together those. six
and no others will clearly be that you see a logtcal
between them. And that logical relationship will always
they are all needed to express the single idea of the
which is effectively a summary of them. You would not,
bring together five sentences on finance and one on
~ec:aw>e their relevance to each other would be difficult to
a single summary sentence.
this summary sentence moves you up one level of
and allows you to think of the paragraph as containing
rather than six. With this act of efficiency you now group
say, three paragraphs, each containing a single ~o~~ht at
abstraction one step higher than that of the mdlVldual
. The reason you form a section out of these three
and no others is that you see a logical relationship
.them. And the relationship is once again that they are all
express the single idea of the section, which again will be
of the three ideas in the paragraphs below them.
the same thinking holds true in bringing the sections
to form the document. You have three sections grouped
(each of which has been built up from groups of
which in turn have been built up from groups of
because they are all needed to express the single idea of
\Oranau.m, which in tum is a summary of them.
will continue grouping and summarizing until you have
relationships to make, it is clear that every document you
always be structured to support only one single thought summarizes
your final set of groupings. This should be
or point you want to make, and all the ideas grouped
13
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
14
WHY A PYRAMID STRUCTURE
- provided you have built the structure properly - will
exr>lai'n or defend that point in ever greater detail.
you can define in advance whether or not you have
structure properly by checking to see whether your ideas
each other in a way that would permit them to form
groups. Specifically, they must obey three rules:
any level in the pyramid must always be summaries of the
below them.
"'""'l-'•a•.u why these rules 'must always' apply:
at any level in the pyramid must always be summaries oj the ideas
below them. The first rule reflects the fact that the major
you carry out in thinking and writing is that of abstracting
a new idea out of the ideas grouped below. As we saw
the point of a paragraph is a summary of its sentences, just
point of a section is a summary of the points of its
etc. However, if you are going to be able to draw a
out of the grouped sentences or paragraphs, these
must have been properly formed in the first place.
· where rules 2 and 3 come in.
in each grouping must always be the same kind oj idea. If what
to do is raise your thinking only one level of abstraction
a grouping of ideas, then the ideas in the grouping must be
the same. For example, you can logically categorize
. and pears one level up as fruits; you can similarly think of
and chairs as furniture. But what if you wanted to group
apples and chairs? You cannot do so at the very next level
since that is already taken by fruit and furniture.
would have to move to a much higher level and call
or 'inanimate objects,' either of which is far too
indicate the logic of the grouping.
you want to state the idea directly implied by the
the grouping, so the ideas in the grouping must all fall
same logical category. Thus, if the first idea in a grouping
15
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
is a reason for doing something, the other ideas in the same
grouping must also be reasons for doing the same thing. If the
first idea is a step in a process, the rest of the ideas in the
grouping must also be steps in the same process. If the first idea is
a problem in the company, the others in the grouping must be
related problems, and so on.
A shortcut in checking your groupings is to be sure that you
can clearly label the ideas with a plural noun. Thus, you will find
that all the ideas in the grouping will turn out to be things like
recommendations, or reasons, or problems, or changes to be
made. There is no limitation on the kinds of ideas that may be
grouped, but·the ideas in each grouping must be of the same
kind, able to be described by one plural noun. How you make
sure you get like kinds of ideas grouped together each time is
explained more fully in Part Two, Chapters 7, 8, and 9.
3 ldeas in each grouping must always be logically ordered. That is, there
must be a specific reason why the second idea comes second, and
cannot come first or third. How you determine proper order is
explained in detail in Chapter 7, Questioning the Order oj the fdeas.
Essentially it says that there are only four possible logical ways in
which to order a set ofideas:
• Deductively (major premise, minor premise, conclusion)
• Chronologically (first, second, third)
• Structurally (Boston, NewYork, Washington)
• Comparatively (first most important, second most important, etc.)
The order you choose reflects the analytical process you used to
form the grouping. If it was formed by reasoning deductively, the
ideas go in argument order; if by working out cause-and-effect
relationships, in time order; if by commenting on an existing
structure, the order dictated by the structure; and if by
categorizing, order of importance. Since these four activities
reasoning deductively, working out cause-and-effect relationships,
dividing a whole into its parts, and categorizing - are the only
analytical activities the mind can perform, these are the only
orders it can impose.
16
WHY A PYRAMID STRUCTURE
then, the key to clear writing is to slot your ideas into this
form and test them against the rules before you begin to
of the rules is broken, it is an indication that there is a
ur thinking, or that the ideas have not been fully
,or that they are not related in a way that will make their
clear to the reader. You can then work on refining
they do obey the rules, thus eliminating the need for vast
rewriting later on.
17
2
THE
SUBSTRUCTURES
WITHIN
THE
PYRAMID
As Chapter 1 explained, a clear piece of writing establis~es a rigid
set of relationships between its ideas, so that they wtll form a
comprehensive pyramida! structure (see Exhibit 1!. It then presents .
the ideas to the reader, starting at the top and workmg down each leg. •
Because of the specificity of the pyramid rules, if you know what
your ideas are before you begin to write, you can relat~vely easily
them into a proper pyramid. Most people when they stt down to
however, have only a hazy notion of their ideas (if that). Nor "u,Julu
they expect much more. No one can know precisely ':hat. he
until he has been forced to symbolize it - either by saymg 1t out loud
orby writing it down - and even then the first staten:ent of the idea is
likely to be less precise than he can eventually make 1t.
Consequently, you cannot hope just to sit down and
arranging your ideas into a pyramid. You have to discover them
18
THE SUBSTRUCTURES WITHIN THE PYRAMID
the pyramid dictates a rigid set of substructures that can serve to
the discovery process. These are:
vertical relationship between points and subpoints
horizontal relationship within a set of subpoints
· narrative flow of the introduction
explain the exact nature of these relationships and then, in
3, tell you how to use them to discover, sort, and arrange your
that they will be clear, first to yourself and then to your reader.
THE VERTICAL RELATIONSHIP
Some of the most obvious facts in the world take
work their way into people's minds. A good example is what
when you read. Normal prose is written one-dimensionally,
it presents one sentence after another, more or less vertically
page. But that vertical follow-on obscures the fact that the
at various levels of abstraction. Any idea below the main
always have both a vertical and a horizontal relationship to
ideas in the document.
relationship serves marvelously to help capture the
attention. It permits you to set up a question/answer
that will pull him with great interest through your
Why can we be so sure the reader will be interested?
will be forced to respond Iogically to your ideas.
put intoeach box in the pyramid structure is an idea. I
idea as a statement that raises a question in the reader's
you are telling him something he does not know.
do not generally read to find out what they already
fair to state that your primary purpose in writing any
always be to tell people what they do not know.)
a statement to a reader that tells him something he does
automatically raise a logical question in his mind - for
Why? or How? or Why do you say that? The writer is now
to answer that question horizontally on the line below. In his
19
•
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
answer, however, he will stili be telling the reader things he does not
know, so he will raise further questions that must again be answered
on the line below.
The writer will continue to write, raising and answering questions,
until he reaches a point at which he judges the reader will have no
more logical questions. (The reader will not necessarily agree with
the writer's reasoning when he's reached this point, but he will have
followed it clearly, which is the best any writer can hope for.) The
writer is now free to leave the first leg of the pyramid and go back up
to the Key Line to answer the original question raised by the point
in the top box.
The way to ensure total reader attention, therefore, is to refrain
from raising any questions in the reader's mind before you are ready .
to answer them. Or from answering questions before you have raised
them. For example, any time a document presents a section
captioned 'Our Assumptions' before it gives the major points, you
can be sure the writer is answering questions the reader could not .
possibly have had an opportunity to raise. Consequently, the
information will have to be repeated (ar reread) at the
point in the dialogue.
The pyramid structure almost magically forces you to
information only as the reader needs it. Let me take you through
couple of examples. Exhibit 2, the first one, is a humorous one,
from an article by G. K Chesterton. It will give you an idea of
the question/answer technique works to hold the reader's ..,.t.",.,,.;-,,.
without burdening you with the need to think about the
of the content.
Chesterton says that pigs should be kept as pets, the reader
Why? Chesterton says, 'For two reasons: First, they are
beautiful, and second, they could be bred to fascinating variations.'
20
THE SUBSTRUCTURES WITHIN THE PYRAMID
2 The pyramid structure establishes a question/answer dialogue
point, while you clearly do not agree with Chesterton's
you can at least see what it is. It is clear to you why he says
says, and there are no more questions in your mind.
he can move on to the next leg of his argument- that
............Tll because they are typically English.
21
THE
PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
Again, you may have a certain prejudice against the sentiment, but it
is clear to you why he says what he says. And it is clear because the
grouping of ideas sticks to doing its jo~ of answerin~ ~e question
raised by the point above. The last sectwn, about vanatwns, enters
the mind equally clearly.
You can see this same technique at work in a piece of business
writing (Exhibit 3). Here we have the structure of a 20-page
All documents should reflect the question/answer dialogue
22
THE SUBSTRUCTURES WITHIN THE PYRAMID
"'"u'·'"' recommending the purchase of a British Leyland
(several years ago, obviously). It is a good buy for three
and underneath each reason is the answer to the further
raised in the reader's mind by making this point. The
is so clearly stated that the reader is in a position to
whether he disagrees with the writer's reasoning, and to
~ ~''F.''-... questions concerning it.
, then, a great value of the pyramid structure is that it
visual recognition of this vertical relationship on you as you
your thinking. Any point you make must raise a question
reader's mind, which you must answer horizontally on the
THE HORIZONTAL RELATIONSHIP
In deciding what to say on the line below, not only
points you include answer the question raised by the point
must also answer it logically. That is, they must present a
or deductive argument, one or the other, but not
once. These are the only two types of logical relationships
in a grouping.
grouping presents an argument in successive steps.
the first idea makes a statement about a situation that exists
today. The second idea comments on the subject or the
of that statement, and the third idea states the implication
two situations existing in the world at the same time. Thus,
· would have the following form:
Socrates is mortal.
up a level of abstraction from a deductive grouping, you
the argument, with your summary resting heavily on the
'Because Socrates is a man he is mortal.'
23
•
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
An inducůve grouping, by contrast, will take a set of ideas that are
related simply by virtue of the fact that you can describe them all
the same plural noun (reasons for, reasons against, steps, problems,
etc.). The form ofthis argument would be:
• French tanks are at the Polish border.
e German tanks are at the Polish border.
e Russian tanks are at the Polish border.
To move upward here, you draw an inference based on your
assessment of what is the same about the points - i.e., they are all
warlike movements against Paland. Thus, your inference would be
something like 'Paland is about to be invaded by tanks.'
In wriůng, if your answer is deducůve you know you must have an
argument in which the second point comments on the subject
predicate of the first, and the third point draws a 'therefore' from
previous two. If it is inducůve, you know the ideas in the "l'"uuull'
must be logically alike and can be designated by a plural noun.
Given this knowledge, you can see that any one idea in
pyramid implies all the others. Consequently, you could start
build your pyramid anywhere, with a single idea, .adding the
ideas as they were demanded - either up or do'Wn or sideways.
there is one more thing you need to know before you venture off
build a pyramid of your own. And that is the question to which
document must give the answer. You determine that by tracing
narraůve flow of the introducůon.
THE INTRODUCTORY FLOW
We saw earlier that the pyramid structure permits
to carry on a question/answer dialogue with your reader.
quesůon/answer dialogue cannot be counted on to engage his
unless the statement that starts it off is relevant to him. The only
you can be confident of its relevance is to make sure that it
answers a quesůon you have identified as already exisůng in his mind.
I said earlier that you write primarily to tell people what
don't know. But a reader wants to find out what he doesn't
24
THE SUBSTRUCTURES WITHIN THE PYRAMID
e needs to do so. If he has no need, he will have no
and vice versa.
make sure your document is of interest by directing it
a quesůon that already exists in the reader's mind,
exist if he thought for a minute about what is going on
The introducůon identifies that question by tracing the
origin.
historý will be in the form of a narrative of events, it
the classic narrative pattern of development. That is, it
by establishing for the reader the time and place of a
In that Situaůon something will have occurred (known as
that caused him to raise (or would cause him to
Question to which your document will give him the Answer.
pattern of story-telling - Situation, Complication,
·Answer - permits you to make sure that you and the reader
in the same place' before you take him by the hand and
uu •uu~!rJ your thinking. lt also gives you a clear focus for the
top of your document, and thus a means ofjudging that
the right message in the most direct way.
here is an introduction of the kind normally seen in
more easily you comprehend its purpose and
it is forced to fit the narrative mold:
25
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
In summary, the introduction tells the reader, in story form, what
already knows or could reasonably be expected to know about
subject you are discussing, and thus reminds him of the question
has to which he can expect the document to give him an
The story sets forth the Situation within which a Complicati
developed that raised the Question to which your document
now give the Answer. Once you state the Answer (the main point
the top ofyour pyramid), it will raise a new question in the rP<>rl~·r'o
mind that you will answer on the line below.
What does the existence of these three substructures - i.e., the
question/answer dialogue, the horizontal deductive or inductive
and the narrative introductory structure - do for you in helping
discover the ideas you need to build a pyramid? Knowing the
relationship, you can determine the kind of ideas you need in
grouping (i.e., those that will answer the question). Knowing
horizontal relationship, you canjudge that the ideas you bring L'-'J'i,'-'U'"
are of a like kind (i.e., proper parts of an inductive or deduc
argument). And-most important-knowing the reader's question
ensure that all the ideas you do bring together are relevant (i.e.,
only because they help to answer that question).
Naturally, you want to go about applying these insights in
orderly way, and thaťs what Chapter 3 will tell you how to do.
26
3
HOW
TO
BUILD
A
PYRAMID
STRUCTURE
blem you generally face as you sit down to write is that you
what you want to write about, but not specifically what
say or how you want to say it. This sense of uncertainty is
tul<:l.lll:eu by knowing that the ideas you eventually put down,
they be, must end up forming a pyramid.
there is a good deal that you do know about your
that you can build on. To begin with, you know that
a sentence at the top of the pyramid that will have a
a predicate. You also know that the subject of that
will be the subject of your document.
you know that the sentence will serve as the answer to
n that already exists in the reader's mind. And that
27
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
question will have arisen because of a situation (with which the
reader is familiar) within which a complication developed (with
which he is also familiar) that raised the question that caused you to
need to write in the first place. You may even know roughly some of
the points you want to make.
That is quite a bit to know. You can use this knowledge in building
your pyramid either by starting at the top and working down, or by
starting at the bottom and working up. The first way is generally
easier than the second, and so should be tried first.
THE TOP-DOWN APPROACH
It is generally easier to start at the top and work
down because you begin by thinking about the things that it
easiest for you to be sure of- your subject and the reader's
knowledge of it, which you will remind him ofin the introduction.
You don't want simply to sit down and begin writing the ť\nPn,~ncr
paragraph of the introduction, however. Instead, you want to use
structure of the introductory flow to pull the right points out of
head, one at a time. To do so, I suggest you follow the
shown in Exhibit 4 and described below.
1 Draw a box. This represents the box at the top ofyour pyramid.
Write down in it the subject you are discussing.
2 Decide the Question. Visualize your reader. To whom are you
and what question do you want to have answered in his
about the Subject when you have finished writing?
3 Write down the Answer, ifyou know it.
4 Identify the Situation. Next you want to prove that you have
clearest statement of the Question and the Answer that you
28
formulate at this stage. To do that, you take the Subject, move
to the Situation, and make the first noncontroversial "L<lL<:;.uJ<aJ
about it you can make. What is the first thing you can say about
to the reader that you know he will agree is true - either
he knows it, or because it is historically true and easily ~.-uc<..lw.L•lcr
HOW TO BUILD A PYRAMID STRUCTURE
4 The elements of the structure check each other
Complication. Now you say to yourself, 'So What?' This
you to think of what happened in that Situation to
Question. Something went wrong, perhaps, some
, or some logical discrepancy became apparent.
rtn••nl'•rt in the situation to trigger the question?
29
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
6 Recheck the Question and Answer. The statement of the Complication
should immediately raise the Question you have already written
down. If it does not, then change it to the one it does raise. Or
perhaps you have the wrong Complication, or the wrong
Question, and must think again.
The purpose of the entire exercise is to make sure you know what
Question it is you are trying to answer. Once you have the Question,
everything else falls into place relatively easily.
Let me demonstrate how your thinking would develop by using
the technique to rewrite the memorandum shown in Exhibit 5. It
comes from the Accounting Department of a large beverage
company in the United States.
When the company's drivers deliver the product to a customer,
they send back to the Accounting Department a delivery ticket with
a set of code numbers, the date, and the amount of the delivery..
These delivery tickets are the basis of the billing system, which works
something like this:
One of the company's customers, a hamburger emporium we'll
Big Chief, gets an awful lot of deliveries. For its own "'r''"""'
purposes, it would like to keep daily track of how the bill
mounting up. It wants to know if it can't keep the delivery
along with each delivery, record them on a computer tape, '-a.•-'-u•a.uc.
the total, and then send the tape and its check once a month to
headquarters office of the beverage company. In other words, it
proposing a system that would work like this:
30
HOW TO BUILD A PYRAMID STRUCTURE
Original Big Chief memorandum
of the Accounting Department has been asked if the
d be feasible, and has answered in his present
by saying essentially, 'Here's how the new system
31
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
would work,' without actually answering the question. Had you
been he, and used the technique in Exhibit 4, here's what would
have happened:
1 You would have drawn a box and said to yourself, 'What Subject am
I discussing?' (BC request for change, Exhibit 6.)
2 What Question am I answering in the reader's mind about the
Subject?' (Is it a good idea?)
3 Whaťs the Answer? (Yes.)
4 Now let me check that that is really the Question and really the
Answer by thinking through the introduction. To do that I take
the Subject and move up to the Situation. The first sentence of the
Situation must be a statement about the Subject. What is the first
noncontroversial thing I can think of to say about the Subject
-something I know the reader will not question, but will accept as
fact? (They have requested a change in the procedure.) When you
go to write the introduction out, you will of course in this
paragraph explain the nature of the change, but for the purposes
of working out your thinking you need only get clear the essence
of the point of the paragraph.
Exhibit 6 New Big Chief Structure
32
HOW TO BUILD A PYRAMID STRUCTURE
I look at the Situation and say about it, 'So what?' This
lead me directly to a statement of the Complication. (You've
me whether it makes sense. )
The Question, (2), as you've stated it should now be the
next thing that would pop into the reader's mind (Does it
sense?). Since thaťs roughly what you've stated as your
)ue:sti•on. you can see that both it and the Answer match, so you
proved that the point you are making is valid for the reader.
the statement that the change does make sense, you can
move down to determine what New Question would be raised
the reader's mind by your stating it to him. (Why?)
answer to any Why? question is always 'Reasons', so you know
the points you need across the Key Line must all be reasons.
might your reasons be?
It will give us the information we need.
will increase our cash flow.
determining that in fact these points are the right points
in logical order, you can move down and spell out what you
to say to support each one. In the case of so short a
however, you can probably get away with assuming
are easily available in your mind and will come to you as you
each section to write it.
can see, the technique has forced the writer to draw from his
the information that will be relevant to the reader's
But in doing so, it has helped push his thinking to deal
the question, rather than only partially as in the original
And of course, if he follows the top-down order of
ting the ideas in writing, the entire message will be
easy for the reader to absorb.
33
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
THE BOTTOM-UP APPROACH
There may be frequent occasions when you find
that your thinking is not fully enough developed to work out the top
part of the pyramid. Perhaps you can't decide precisely what your
Subject is, or the Question isn't clear to you, or you can't sort out
what the reader does and doesn't know for sure. In such cases,
simply move down to the Key Line level.
Ifyou can think ofany Key Line points, fine; but often you won't
be able to. Do not despair. You can work out the ideas from the
bottom up by following a 3-step process.
1 List all the points you think you want to make.
2 Work out the relationships between them.
3 Draw conclusions.
Again, let me demonstrate how this technique would work by using
a document that needs rewriting (Exhibit 7). This is a memorandum
written by a young consultant to his engagement manager after 2
weeks of working on his first assignment. The client was a printing
company in England.
I know nothing about the situation or the subject other than what
is stated in the memorandum. We therefore have to treat the
document as a closed universe, withholding judgment on whether
what he says is true or right. We just want to make what it says clear.
The points he makes are listed in Exhibit 8. The next step is to work
out their relationships to each other.
Go first to the recommendations, since it is always easier to
determine the validity of action ideas than of situation ideas (see
Chapter 9). What is the relationship between simplifying the process
and changing the methods? None; they both say the same thing, so .
there is nothing to be gained by analyzing these.
We move on to the problems, and in looking at them a moment,
it becomes apparent that there are some cause-and-effec
relationships implied here, which you want to lay out as visually as
possible (Exhibit 8-Step 2). This analysis reveals two separate lines
of reasoning, with the possibility that some points that should
made have been omitted.
34
HOW TO BUILD A PYRAMID STRUCTURE
7 Original TTW memorandum
35
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
Exhibit 8 TTW analysis
Now you're ready to draw some conclusions. Either he's
that the costs are high because the productivity is low and
overtime is high, or he's saying that to cut the costs you have
simplify the methods and raise the wages. To decide which, you
to think through the introduction. What does the original
indicate the reader already knows?
36
HOW TO BUILD A PYRAMID STRUCTURE
Apparently he knows that costs are important, that TTW is
petitive in its pricing of simple jobs, and probably that
at TTW knows whether the costs are too high or not. In that
your thinking might go something like this:
Complication
composing room costs.
are they too high?
yes.
composing room costs are
the most important element
in total cost.
don't know ifthey are too high a
proportion, but uncompetitiveness
indicates they might be.
are they too high?
yes.
how do you cut them?
eliminate unnecessary steps in the
composing process and raise wages to
competitive levels.
9 shows these ideas in what might have been an acceptable
of this memorandum. You may not agree with the young
's reasoning, but at least it is presented so clearly that the
determine whether he agrees with it or finds things to
about it.
reprinted the memorandum in full here because I want to
that the total introduction includes a statement of the
points. With these included, the reader can get your entire
the first 30 seconds or less of reading. And since the rest
u\..uH.<t:L<~ exists only to explain or defend what you have
he can be confident that no important points are
up and surprise him later on. Consequently, he can
has limited time available. Indeed, if your entire thinking
to the reader in the first 30 seconds of reading, you
the headings serve to highlight the major points of
so that the reader can quickly pick up the general
37
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
Exhibit 9 REwritten TTW memorandum
thrust of your subordinate arguments if the document is a lengthy
one. To this end, you want to take some care in the way you word the
headings (see Chapter 6, How to Highlight the Structure), making sure ·.
38
HOW TO BUILD A PYRAMID STRUCTURE
them so that they reflect ideas rather than categories. Never
a heading called 'Findings,' for example, or 'Conclusions.'
headings have no scanning value.
CAVEATS FOR BEGINNERS
It is clear that the rigidity of the pyramid rules
you to start with an idea anywhere in the pyramid and
all the others. Essentially, though, you will either be
from the top down or from the bottom up. I have tried to
exactly what to do in a general way, but the possibilities are
so that questions are inevitable. Following are the answers
· some of the most commonly asked questions from beginning
of the pyramid.
try top down first. The minute you express an idea in writing,
to take on the most extraordinary beauty. It appears to
been chiseled in gold, making you reluctant to revise it if
Consequently, never begin by just dictating the whole
ent 'to get it all down,' on the assumption that you can
out the structure more easily afterwards. The chances are
love it once you see it typed, no matter how disjointed the
"'~'·""""'l"i really is.
the Situation as the starting point for thinking through the
trutzuc:no:n. Once you know what you want to say in the bulk of
introduction-Situation, Complication, Question, and
lSW'er--vou can place these elements in any order you like as you
depending on the effect you want to create. The order you
affects the tone of the document, and you will no doubt
to vary it for different kinds of documents. Nevertheless,
your thinking with the Situation, since you're more likely to
able to think up the correct Complication and Question
,...~ .....,.. that order.
't omit to think through the introduction. Very often you'II sit down
and have the main point fully stated in your head, from
the Question is obvious. The tendency then is to jump
39
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
directly down to the Key Line and begin answering the New
Question raised by the statement of the main point. Don't be
tempted. In most cases, you will find that you end up structuring
information that properly belongs in the Situation or
Complication, and therefore forcing yourself into a complicated
and unwieldy deductive argument. Sort out the introductory
information first so that you leave yourself free to concentrate
solely on ideas at the lower levels.
4 Always put historical chronology in the introduction. You cannot tell the
reader 'what happeneď in the body of the document, in an effort
to let him know the facts. The body can contain only ideas, and
ideas can relate to each other only logically. This means that you
can talk about events only if you are spelling out cause-and-effect
relationships, since these had to be discovered through analytical
thinking. Simple historical occurrences do not exist as the result
of logical thought, and therefore cannot be included as ideas.
5 Limit the introduction to what the reader will agree is true. The
introduction is meant to tell the reader only what he already
knows. Sometimes, of course, you won't know whether he actually
knows something; at other times, you may be certain that indeed
he does not know it. If the point being made can be easily
checked by an objective observer and deemed to be a true .
statement, then your reader can be presumed to 'know' it in the .•
sense that he will not question its truth.
6 Be sure to support all Key Line points. An idea has to be supported '
until you have answered all the questions likely to be raised by it.
Naturally, not every point needs the same depth of support. At
40
Key Line level, however, all points must have at least one level
support. This is particularly true of the 'therefore' point in
deductive argument. If you find yourself with no need to '"""n...rť
the final point, then you have overstructured your argument
probably need only an inductive grouping.
4
FINE
POINTS
OF
INTRODUCTIONS
saw in How to Build a Pyramid Structure, thinking through the
)ťiULCtlon is the key step in discovering the ideas that must be
in a document. By summarizing what the reader already
the introduction establishes the relevance of the question to
document will give him the answer. You can then devote
to answering it.
actually finding the structure of the introduction can be a
complex and time-consuming activity. To this end, you may
comprehensive understanding of the theory and nature
introductions than was given earlier. You will also want some
the nature of the introductory comments needed at each
structural points in the body of the document.
INITIAL INTRODUCTIONS
The initial introduction can be thought of as a
the top of your pyramid, outside the structure of the
41
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
ideas you are presenting (Exhibit 10). lt always tells the reader
story he already knows, in the sense that it states the Situation
which a Complication developed that raised the Question to
the document is giving the Answer. Why does it always have to be
story, and why one that he already knows?
WhyaStory?
If you think about it for a moment, you can
that nobody really wants to read what you've written the way he
wants to read a novel that everyone has assured him is both QTi.ot:•inl
and sexy. He already has a multitude of jumbled and unrela
thoughts in his head, most of which are on other subjects, and all
which are very dear and interesting to him. To push these
aside and concentrate only on the information you present, with
prior conviction of its interest to him, demands real effort. He
be pleased to make that effort only if there is a comp
enticement for him to do so.
Even if he is quite eager to know what your document con
and convinced of its interest, he must stili make the effort to
aside his other thoughts and concentrate on what you're saying. All
us have had the experience of reading a page and a half of
and suddenly realizing that we haven't comprehended a word.
because we didn't push aside what was already in our heads.
Consequently, you want to offer the reader a device that will
it easy for him to push his other thoughts aside and concentrate
on what you're saying. A foolproof device of this sort is the lure
an unfinished story. For example, suppose I say to you:
'Two lrishmen met on a bridge at midnight in a strange city. .. '
I have your interest actively engaged for the moment,
whatever else you may have been thinking about before you read
words. I have riveted your mind to a specific time and place,
can effectively control where it goes by focusing it on what the
Irishmen said or did, releasing it only when I give the punch line.
Thaťs what you want to do in an introduction. You want to
on the reader's interest in the subject by telling him a story
Every good story has a beginning, a middle, and an end. That
42
FINE POINTS OF INTRODUCTIONS
43
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
establishes a situation, introduces a complication, and offers
resolution. The resolution will always be your major point, since
always write either to resolve a problem or to answer a question
already in the reader's mind.
But the story has also got to be a 'gooď story for the reader. Ifyou
have any children you know that the best stories in the whole world
are ones they already know. Consequently, if you want to tell the
reader a really good story, you tell him one he already knows or
could reasonably be expected to know ifhe's at all well informed.
Psychologically speaking, of course, this approach enables you
tell him things with which you know he will agree, prior to
telling him things with which he may disagree. Easy reading
agreeable points is apt to render him more receptive to your
than confused plodding through a morass of detail.
How Long Should lt Be?
How long should an introduction be? How
should a man's legs be? (Long enough to reach the ground.)
introduction should be long enough to ensure that you and the
reader are 'standing in the same place' before you take him by the
hand and lead him through your thinking.
Generally, this means two or three paragraphs, arranged as shown
in Exhibit ll. The Situation and the Complication can each be as
long as three or four paragraphs, but never more than that. It can
take very much to remind someone of what he already kn
Indeed, if you find yourself littering the introduction with c:x.uuHLil
you can be sure that you are overstating the obvious.
By contrast, the introduction can also be as short as a sen
'In your letter ofJanuary 15 you asked me whether.. .' The
you are in your everyday dealings to the person to whom you
writing, the shorter the introduction can get. But it must say ........,...~~.,
to remind the reader of his Question.
Where Do You Start the Situation?
You begin writing the Situation by making a staten1en
about the subject that you know the reader will agree with because
are telling him something that he already knows. If you find you can
44
FINE POINTS OF INTRODUCTIONS
Exhibit I I Set out the Key Line points at the beginning
statement about the subject, then either you have the wrong
you're starting in the wrong place to talk about it.
you can readily identify the reader by name, as in a letter or
um, determining where to start is usually fairly
You start at the point where you can make a selfand
noncontroversial statement about the subject - selfin
the sense that no previous statement is needed to make the
ne:am1ng of this one clear, and noncontroversial in the sense
expect him automatically to understand it and agree to it.
are writing a report for wide circulation, however, or a
article or a book, thejob is not so much to remind the reader
nP••t.rm as to plant one. Here getting started is a bit more
,,1\SiSUJme that your readers are moderately well informed, and
explanation ofwhat is already generally accepted knowledge
By arranging known material in a narrative form, and
45
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
usually in a way that they haven't thought about it before, you inspire
your readers to ask the question you wish to address.
The key characteristic of all opening Situation sentences is that
they leave you expectant for further information - and that is what
qualifies them to be openers. Each one establishes the base for
story to come. Here are some typical Situation opening sentences:
• Energoinvest is considering the possibility of exporting au.ulJtu•a:
from its Mostar plant to Ziar in Czechoslovakia. (Memorandum)
e Every major health service is beset by increasing pressure
already scarce resources - and the Irish Health Service is no
exception. (Report)
• If we accept the common usage of words, nothing can be more
readily disproved than the old saw, 'You can't keep a good
down.' (Book)
Whaťs a Complication?
The Complication of the introduction is not a
complication in the everyday sense of the word; it is the '-"-~<UJJU'L.a<~v•l
to the story. It describes an alteration to a stable situation, rather
a problem per se, although sometimes the alteration is a pro
Exhibit 12 shows several possible kinds of complications.
Exhibit 12 The Complication states an alteration to the Situation
46
FINE POINTS OF INTRODUCTIONS
further, Exhibit 13 shows some introductions pulled
from the daily newspapers, along with an outline of their
Why That Order?
The situation-complication-solution form of the
is essential. However, the order of the parts can be
reflect the tone you want to establish in the document.
the tone changes slightly in each of these examples:
47
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
What About the Key Line?
The Key Line not only gives the answer to the
Question raised by the statement of your Main Point, it also ·
48
FINE POINTS OF INTRODUCTIONS
of the document. If it is a lengthy one, therefore, you will
set the points out in the middle of the page as shown in
ll. You can then put a heading to represent the first point,
writing (see Chapter 6, How to Highlight the Structure).
the points out enables the reader to get your entire
in the first 30 seconds or so of reading. Since anything that
serve only to explain or defend these points, you have
ly put the reader in the position of being able to
whether he needs to go on or is ready to accept your
as they stand. In any case, he now knows what to expect
with a greater sense of ease.
is a short one, with only a paragraph or two to
section, you do not of course want to set out the points
repeat them in headings. In such cases, use the points as
to your paragraphs and underline them so that they
at the reader.
that the Key Line points should be expressed as ideas. It is
for example, to write an introduction like the following:
of the points is useless in the sense of conveying the
the document to the reader. It simply forces on the
of words that he can't put into perspective- mere
that wastes his time and delays his understanding.
of thumb, you never want to have a section labeled
' (or 'Introduction') because the major point it
not be on the same level of abstraction as the other
In the example above, of course, because the
about subjects instead of about ideas, the ideas likely
49
•
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
to be behind the subjects will probably not form a clear
either inductive or deductive.
Indeed, one suspects that the ideas in the various sections
badly jumbled as they stand. For example, the 'Unique benefits
specific results' should probably be discussed under the
of project team approach,' and the 'Prerequisites for suc
probably belong under 'How the program is organized.' Never
about categories, only about ideas.
Further Examples
If you are beginning to think that it might
difficult to write a good introduction, you're right. More botches
made of introductions than of any other part of a person's
However, by reading enough examples you should get a sense
when an introduction sounds 'right,' and keep working at
until they do.
50
FINE POINTS OF INTRODUCTIONS
Sl
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
LONG-TERM PUBLISHING PRO]ECT*
52
A
WeeklyReview
O F T H E
Affairs of FRA N CE:
Purg'd from the Errorsand Partialityof Ne11PfWritm
and Pttty-Stt~tefmen, of all Sides.
'1'be: INTR.ODUCTION.
T
H 1S Papcr h th'. Foandatlon of a nry luge aad Oll:•
ful OeGga, wblch, lf lt meet with roltablc Eocoll•
ra,;tmeut, Pumilfo S•f#'Í"Nm, l'bay contribatc to
sening the Affioin ol Ettr•p• in a Cltarer Ught, and to prc•
veot the various unccrtain Accoudtt, aacl tbc Partlal R.cflěai·
oas of our Strcet·Scriblers, wbo OaUy aoa Monthly Amure
Mankiod with StoritJ, nf Ci'citt ViB::orles when we are Beatca,
Miracles wheu we Caaqucr, aad 1 Mutdtudc of Unaccouotablc
and lnconfi1tcnt Stories, which have ll lcatl: this Elf«t, Thlt
People are pnll"ctl: with wroug Notions of Things, aad Na•
tions Wbccdled to beliere Nonlěnrc and Contndi61on.
FINE POINTS OF INTRODUCTIONS
li.a.tUIJlt::s demonstrate that the length of an introduction is
related to the length of the writing to follow. Rather,
to the needs of the reader. What does he have to be told
to comprehend fully the significance of your main point,
to want to read on to learn how you arrived at it?
ln Summary
I hope this discussion of opening introductions has
think that it is important to devote a good deal of
ensuring that you write a good introduction. For as you
· from the examples, a good introduction does more than
and hold the reader's interest. It influences his
flow lends a feeling of plausibility to the writer's
of the situation, which by its nature must
selection of the relevant details; and this feeling of
constricts the reader's ability to interpret the situation
It also gives a sense of inevitable rightness to the logic of
conclusion, making the reader less inclined to argue
cnl.ll'-111)1. that follows. Finally, it establishes the writer's
reader as a considerate one ofwanting him clearly to
the situation - to see behind the language to the reality
the theory behind writing good introductions:
are meant to remind rather than to injorm. This means
should be included that would have to be proveď to
for him to accept the statements of your points - i.e.,
always contain the three elements oj a story. These are the
Complication, and the Solution. And in longer
you will want to add an explanation of what is to
· first three elements need not always be placed in
· order, but they do always need to be included,
be woven into story form.
the introduction depends on the needs oj the reader and the
subject. Thus, there is scope to include whatever is
53
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
necessary for full understanding: history or background of
problem, outline ofyour involvement in it, any earlier ,",.,"c1·i.-.-::ottr
you or others have made and their conclusions, definitions
terms, and statements of admissions. All these items can and
be woven into the story, however.
SOME COMMON PATTERNS
As time goes on and you find yourself
through the introductions to a variety of documents, you will
some common patterns begin to emerge. Which patterns
become common for you will, of course, depend on the business
are in. But to show you what I mean, here are the five patterns I
seen repeated most often, drawn from both business and
They are:
1. Directives
2. Requests for funds
3.'How to' documents
4. Letters of Proposal
5. Progress Reviews
Directives
This must be the most common kind of
memorandum written anywhere in the world - reflecting a
in which you are writing to tell someone else to do "'-''·"".....""
this case, you will be planting the question in the reader's
rather than reminding him of it.
To illustrate, suppose you are holding a meeting for
salesmen, at which you are planning to teach them how to
new selling technique to chain grocery stores. However, in
do so effectively you need some information from
particular problem chain in their local area. How wo
structure the introduction? Very much in this manner:
54
FINE POINTS OF INTRODUCTIONS
At the field sales meeting we want to teach you how
to present the Space Management Program
Need a profile ofa problem chain in your area
(How do I prepare the profile?)
it as starkly as possible:
We want to do X
We need you to do Y
How do I doY?
the question would be implied rather than stated, since
of the writing would not require it to be spelled out.
it is absolutely essential that you spell it out for yourself
begin to write. Otherwise, you run the danger of not
<nh,t..lu sure ofyour question.
example, the question is 'How?' Whenever the question is
answer is inevitably 'steps,' so that you would end up with
something like that shown in Exhibit 14 (overleaf). Note
.the Complication and the Answer are reversals of each
the Answer is the effect of carrying out the actions,
would solve the problem.
,~u.vw""'' example, suppose you have a procedures manual
people in the company update or add to, and you want
they all do it in the same way:
you have another question that would be implied rather
in writing. To show the pattern starkly:
55
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
Exhibit 14 Field Sales Meeting
Requests for Funds
Another very common memorandum type is
requesting funds. For those the reader's Quesůon is always
approve the request?' and here again the Question
implied rather than stated, as would the Complicaůon. That is,
would have a formal structure that said:
S = The Consumer Group wishes to purchase a Wang System
together with four CRTs and three printers, at a cost of
C (They cannot purchase without your approval)
Q (Should I approve?)
Only the Situation would be stated in the writing, and then
pyramid structure would tell the reader to approve the
some set of relevant reasons.
For example:
56
We should approve this request because:
The cost will be more than offset by the projected
It will greatly increase the Group's productivity
lt will create new opportuniůes for service.
FINE POINTS OF INTRODUCTIONS
'How to' Documents
Frequently, particularly in consulting, you write
someone has a problem and you are telling him how to solve .
ofany 'how to' document is 'steps,' as shown below:
Q =How?
the introductory structue varies slightly depending on
are telling the reader how to do something he has
before or whether you are telling him how to do
he is already doing. The memorandum on The
Board shown on page 19 in Chapter 2 is an example of
do X activity
set up to do so
do we get set up?
suppose you have a company whose market forecasting
inaccurate forecasts, and they want you to tell them how
accurate ones. The structure is always:
present system is X
doesn't work properly
change to make it work properly?
is to begin your thinking by literally laying out the
as they do it now. (See Exhibit 15.) Then lay out the
think it should be done. The differences between the
and the second tell you what the steps on your Key
57
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
Exhibit 15 Comparison of Processes
until September
Let me emphasize the importance of making the two
visible to yourself before you begin to write. You may
you know precisely what they are, having been working on
so long. But unless you lay them out and compare them, the
of leaving something important out are very great. You
sure your thinking is complete and that you have not left
out unless you make the actual step-by-step comparison. I
58
FINE POINTS OF INTRODUCTIONS
examples of incomplete thinking in this area that I make a
point of mentioning it. Indeed, we had an example in the
memo in Chapter 3.
Letters of Proposal
These documents are the lifeblood of consulting,
thus had a good deal of thought lavished on them over the
..,u.uM.uLJLu~ firms. Most firms follow this approach:
.. You have a problem
You have decided to bring in an outsider to solve it
(Are you the outsider we should hire to solve it?)
to the Question is always 'yes,' of course, followed by a
explaining that:
the problem
a sound approach for solving it
good people to work on it.
logical in concept. However, let me point out that,
the only section that reflects thinking is the approach
first section is an extended description of the Situation,
to the reader in organized form everything he has told
the problem arose. Similarly, the final section, while
a listing of the qualifications of the people who will be
the team.
thinking is done in the approach section, where you
steps you will take (never more than 5) to solve the
se steps must be stated in end-product terms as
Chapter 9, and will serve to define the major phases of
the specific end products to be expected at the end of
·ít is on the basis of the approach that the client should
to hire, although alas that is not always the case.
Finally we come to Progress Reviews. These are
communications one schedules with the client at
phase of the study, leading up to the final report.
one, the structure is always the same.
59
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
The first one will say something like this:
S = You people have X problem.
C We told you in our Letter of Proposal that we would do Y
first to solve it. We have now done Y.
Q What did you find?
Once this presentation has been made, the client will have
particular reaction. Perhaps he will ask you to investigate
anomaly you have uncovered in your work. Or he may approve
you've done and tell you to move on to phase two. At the time
your next progress review, then, you might say something like this:
S In our last progress review we told you that you had a
capacity problem
C You said you thought this would not be a problem long
because you believed your competition was shortly going
out of business. You asked us to investigate whether that
were the case. We have now completed our investigation.
Q (What did you find?)
A We found that you will still have a capacity problem,
onlyworse.
Or to put it in skeletal form:
S We told you X
C = You asked us to investigate Y, which we have done
Q = What did you find?
What must be apparent by now from these examples is that the
on which your entire document depends is the Question, of
there is always only one to a document. Ifyou have two, they must
related: 'Should we enter the market, and if so, how?' is really
should we enter the market?' since if the answer to the first
is no, the second question is not dealt with.
On occasion you will not be able to determine the question
just by thinking through the introduction. In that case, look at
material you intend to include in the body. Whenever you have a
ofpoints you want to make, you want to make them because you
the reader should know them. Why should he know them?
because they answer a question. Why would that question have
60
FINE POINTS OF INTRODUCTIONS
of his situation. So that by working backward you can invent
""'"'"'u.nc introduction to give your question a logical provenance.
TRANSITIONS BETWEEN GROUPS
Once you have written your introduction and moved
the body of your document, you must pause periodically to let the
know where you've been and where you next pian to go- at
the end or the beginning of each major grouping. In doing so,
you want to make your progress from point to point seem
and nonmechanical. Thus, you do not want to say such things as:
words, you do not want to relate what two chapters or sections
want to relate what they say- their major ideas. And you want to
such a way that you seem to be looking in two directions at once
to what has been said and forward to what is to be said. If you
this pause at the beginning of a chapter, section, or subsection,
use the technique of referencing backward. If the chapters
are long ones, then you will probably find it clearer to pause
end and make a summary before going on.
Referencing Backward
The technique of referencing backward consists
of picking up a word or a phrase or the main idea of the
portion of the pyramid that you are linking, and using it
opening sentence. You are probably familiar with the
in transitions between paragraphs. For example:
61
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
You follow precisely the same technique at the beginning of a
chapter, a new major section, or a new subsection. Suppose you
just finished a chapter telling the Ritz-Ryan hotel chain that it
not taking full advantage of its common ownership of many
restaurant, and catering operations. You are about to start a
chapter outlining the changes that would have to be made in the
executive structure if the Group is to be in a position to
advantage, and you have a pyramid like that shown opposite.
linkings, referencing backward, might read as follows:
I'm sure you see the technique. The point is to make the
unobtrusive yet clear, primarily through picking up the key word
phrase and carrying it forward. You are, of course, carryi
forward to connect with the major point of the next section,
has already been introduced briefly in the 'explanation' part of
original introduction. Thus, here you need not lead up to it
'story' as you did previously, since your reader now presumably
as much information as he needs to understand the points. You
however, need to introduce the grouping of ideas to come
this section, and explain how they support its major point.
62
FINE POINTS OF INTRODUCTIONS
63
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
Summarizing
Sometimes the chapter or section will be pvtr"'"'"'
long or complicated, in which case you will want to stop an
summarize completely before going on. An example of doing this is
the end of the first section on page 52, where the conclusions
introductions are summarized. Here is the summary that appeared
the end of the Ritz-Ryan chapter we have just been discussing.
Concluding summaries of this sort are not difficult to write if
keep in mind that they are meant to restate, as adroitly as JJv.~::.uH•
the principal matter and tone of the preceding text. Since you
these in front of you in your pyramid, all you are doing is
them together again for the reader.
In all of this positioning, the intention is to make the job
thinking required of the reader as easy as possible. He is, after
rarely trained in analysis and reflection, and can have nowhere
the understanding of the subject you have even if the subject is
own company. You and he are not peers in interpreting
thinking on the subject.
Thus, you must expect that his mind will not be precisely
you want it to be, in terms of understanding, as you finish
lengthy group of points and prepare to go on to the next.
transitions are meant to grab his mind, as it were, and pull it
where it belongs if he is to comprehend what you are trying to
This is essentially an exercise in good manners, provided it is
gracefully and only where needed.
64
FINE POINTS OF JNTRODUCTIONS
Concluding
Theoretically, if you write a proper introduction
the body ofyour document to obey the pyramid rules,
not need a concluding statement. You have, after all
sta~ed ~our reader's question at the beginning, and answered
w~th 1mpeccable logic. Nevertheless, you may feel a
need to end gracefully rather than simply to stop
The tend~ncy to end short memos by saying, 'If you have
questwns, please do not hesitate to call ' no doubt
this need. '
obvious, perhaps too obvious, procedure at the end of a
is to signal the end by putting a line of asterisks in
of the page, which is sometimes called a 'sunset.' You
your last paragraph with the words, 'In conclusion . . .'
phasize your main point. However, if you favor this
you want to avoid merely making a lame restatement of
· have already made abundantly clear:
want to find a compelling set of words that not only
the reader what you have been saying, but also produces
emotion in him about it At least, that is Aristotle's
what to do in a conclusion.
is an 'appropriate emotion' for the end of a business
may be open to ~uestion, but I should think the major
want to leave w1th your reader is that of a need and
Consequently, you want to give him some indication of
to think about or is able to do with the new knowledge he
as a result of his reading. This can take the form of
ophical insight or a prescription for immediate
Lincoln, in his second inaugural address, managed
65
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
You will, of course, want to be as subtle and restrained as
subject and your reader demand, so that what is an
ending will vary with each. An airline president, for example,
probably be offended by strongly emotional statements when
urged to adopt a new planning system. But on a subject on
already feels strongly, such as deregulation of his industry, he
surely be wide open to emotional appeals.
In general, however, if you insist on appending a conclusion,
will want to write something that puts into perspective
significance of your message. Here, for example, is the ~..-vu1...1u~
paragraph of a report whose message was that it is te
possible to create a European-wide system for rapid re
computer of technicalliterature.
As you may have gathered from my tone, I do not
people to write concluding paragraphs because they are so
do well. Simple pragmatism dictates that you do without.
there is an occasion on which you will definitely need a
section, and that is when you are dealing with future actions.
66
FINE POINTS OF INTRODUCTIONS
u''""·"''..." you will write a very long document that recommends
of action that you think the reader is likely to take. If he
it, there are some things he ought to do Monday morning to
in motion. To house these activities, you create a section
Next Steps. The only rule is that what you put in this section
something that the reader will not question. That is,
must be logically obvious ones.
example, suppose you are recommending that the client buy
and you think that he is going to do so. Mter 30 pages of
why you think it is a good idea, you assume you have him
d. You then title your next section Next Steps, and say
like, 'Ifyou think this is a good buy then you should:
the bank to make sure the money for purchase will be
when you need it
ne the Acquisitions Committee to handle the admin-
details.
your reader is not going to say to you, 'Why do I ask him to
can't I ask him to dinner?' These are self-evident points,
accepted without demur. If, on the other hand, they
that did raise questions in his mind, then you would
them in the body of your text, and make certain they
and vertically with everything else you're saying.
67
DEDUCTIO
AN
INDUCTIO
THE DIFFEREN
As we have demonstrated, clear writing results from
exposition of the exact relationships between a group of
the same subject. Properly organized, these ideas will always
pyramid, with the various levels of abstraction sorted out and
under a single thought.
Ideas in the pyramid relate in three ways - up,
sideways. An idea above a grouping summarizes the ideas
while these ideas in turn explain or defend the point
same time, the ideas in the grouping march sideways
order. What constitutes logical order differs depending on
the pyramided group was formed deductively or inductively.
These two forms of reasoning are the only patterns
establishing logical relationships between ideas.
understanding of how they differ and what their
essential to being able to sort out your thinking and
clearly in writing.
68
D E D U C T I 0 N A N U I N IJ U l.. I I U N : I H 1: LJ 1 r r c " c '" ._. "
the difference is as shown in Exhibit 17. Deduction
line of reasoning that leads to a 'therefore' conclusion,
above is a summary of that line of reasoning, resting
the final point. Induction defines a group offacts or ideas
.. same kind of thing, and then makes a statement (or
about that sameness. The deductive points derive from
the inductive points do not.
are really quite enormous, as the next two
demonstrate. Once you have digested them, you should
difficulty in recognizing or sorting out either form of
in choosing the one that appropriately permits you to
you mean.
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Deductive reasoning appears to be the pattern
mind generally prefers to use in most of its thinking, possi
because it is easier to construct than inductive reasoning. In
case, it is usually the pattern one follows in problem solving,
therefore the one people attempt to follow in communicating
thinking. But while it is a useful way to think, it is a ponderous
to write, as I shall hope to show.
How ltWorks
First, leťs understand what deductive reasoning
is usually described as taking the form of a syllogism - an
in which a conclusion is inferred from two premises, one major
one minor. I find these terms confusing in explaining how uo:::uLtcL
thinking works in writing, and so I will not use them again.
Instead, think ofa deductive argument as needing to do three
• Make a statement about a situation that exists in the world.
• Make another statement about a related situation that
the world at the same time. The second statement relates to
first if it comments on either its suqject or its predicate.
e State the implication of these two situations existing in the
at the same time.
Exhibit 18 shows several deductive arguments, each of which
seen to do precisely these three things. And in each case the
the top should roughly summarize the ideas grouped below,
heavily on the final point. Thus, 'Because Socrates is a man
mortal,' or 'Since the unions behave as a monopoly, they
controlled by the monopolies law,' or 'If you want to ,n,-r,.."c"
volume, you must correct your present structure,' and so forth.
These are examples of deductive arguments in which each
the reasoning has been included. But sometimes you
yourself wanting to skip a step and chain two or more
arguments together, since to put in every step would take
and sound pedantic. This chaining of arguments is
\
70
DEDUCTION AND INDUCTION: THE DIFFERENCE
18 Examples of deductive arguments
. horing this argument would be to read ifyou put in
m general that is my major complaint about the use
71
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
of deductive arguments in writing. They are boring, prim
because they make a mystery story out of what should
straightforward point.
Exhibit 19 Example of a chained deductive argument
The supply of used
newspaper in Southern
California is adequate to
meet demand there now
and in the future
Continued selling of used newspaper
to Asian countries could aggravate
the already short supply of newsprint
in Southern California
countries have caused
a serve shortage that
will persist
When to Use it
This leads me to urge that, on the Key Line
you try to avoid using a deductive argument, and strive ·
always to present your message inductively. Why? Because it is
on the reader.
Let's look at what you force the reader to do when you ask
absorb a deductively organized report. Suppose you wish to
that he must change in some way. Your argument would .
something like this:
72
Why?
r~----------~A~--------~,
Here's what is
goingwrong
Al Bl Cl
Here's what is
causing it
A2 B2 C2
DEDUCTION AND INDUCTION: THE DIFFERENCE
your reasoning, the reader must first take in and hold
of what is going wrong. I agree this is not a difficult task,
you ask him to take the first A of what is going wrong, bring
relate it to the second A of what is causing it, and then
in his head while you make the same match for the Bs and
you ask him to repeat the process, this time tying the first A
going wrong to the second A of what is causing it, and
whole cartload to hitch to the third A of what to do
the same with the Bs and Cs.
do you make the reader wait a very long time to find out
do Monday rooming, you also force him to re-enact
problem-solving process before he receives his reward. It is
you're saying to him, 'I worked extremely hard to get this
I'm going to make sure you know it.' How much easier on
you simply to present the same message inductively:
A2 Al B2 Bl C2 Cl
of answering the 'Why?' question first and the 'How?'
you simply reverse the order. And now, while you
have deductive arguments at the lower levels, still you
the reader's major question directly, with clear fences
between subject areas, and all information on each
place.
it another way, at the end of the problem-solving
will have come up with a set of ideas that can be sorted
:orrtmc:!nciatl,on Worksheet like that shown in Exhibit 20.
you to visualize the fact that you have gathered findings
to draw conclusions from which you determined
73
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
In writing to recommend action, you will never give findings
do not lead to conclusions, nor state conclusions that are not
on findings. (The conclusions are, in fact, the findings at a
level of abstraction.) Nor will you have conclusions that do not
to recommendations, nor recommendations that are not based
conclusions. (One conclusion can lead to several rec:OJnnne:ndation
Exhibit 20
The conclusions generally state the problem that
recommendations solve. Consequently, the effect of
recommendation is to solve the problem you concluded was there.
example, sales are off 40 per cent (finding) because our rrvmr•Ph~'
added a new device to his product (conclusion as to why sales are
so you recommend that we add a similar device to ours. The effect
the recommendation is to make our product competitive.
Now, you can present this message deductively, one column
time, in effect:
• Sales are off 40%
• They are off because of competitive changes
• Therefore, I recommend we make similar changes.
Or you can simply turn the whole thing 90 degrees to the left
begin with the recommendation:
74
DEDUCTION AND INDUCTION: THE DIFFERENCE
must redesign to regain position
Competition has done so
Has resulted in a 40% loss of our market share.
here is whether it is better to tell the reader why he
change and then how to go about it, or that he should
and why. As a rule of thumb, it is always better to present
before the argument, since that is what the reader cares
unless you face one of those rare cases in which it is the
t he really cares about. I can think of only two situations
the argument might be more important to the reader
the action:
is going to disagree strongly with your conclusion, so you
prepare him to accept it
is incapable of understanding the action without prior
.am:mcm (as in a paper on how to do risk analysis), so that you
give him the reasoning that underlies it.
the recipients of business documents fall into either class,
, so that in general you will find yourselfwanting to structure
Line ofyour pyramid to forman inductive argument.
that I am talking only about the Key Line here, and not
.lower levels. Deductive arguments are very easy to absorb if
you directly:
Birds fly I am a bird Therefore, I fly
however, you must plough through 10 or 12 pages between
point and the second, and between the second and the
they lose their instant clarity. Consequently, you want to
reasoning as low in the pyramid as possible, to limit
information to the minimum. At the paragraph level
arguments are lovely, and present an easy-to-follow flow.
· reasoning is always easier to absorb at higher levels.
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THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
INDUCTIVE REASONING
Inductive reasoning is much more difficult
well than is deductive reasoning, since it is a more creative
In inductive reasoning the mind notices that several different
(ideas, events, facts) are similar in some way, brings them
in a group, and comments on the significance of their similarity.
In the example of the Polish tanks cited in Exhibit 17, the
were all defined as warlike movements against Poland. Hence,
inference that Poland was about to be invaded. If, however, the
had been defined as preparations by Polanďs allies to attack the
of Europe, a quite different inference would have been in order.
This brings us to the two major skills one must develop to
creatively in the inductive form:
e Defining the ideas in the grouping
• IdentifYing the misfits among them.
How to do both things with precision is explained in <..UJLl'"'Ll"''
detail in Chapter 7. But at this point you need only understand
rudiments of how it is done to be able to distinguish the
from deduction.
How ltWorks
The key technique is to find one word that
the kind of ideas in your grouping. This word will always be a
noun (a) because any 'kind of' thing will always be a noun,
because you will always have more than one of the 'kind of'
your grouping. 'Warlike movements' is a plural noun in this
and so is 'preparations for attack.'
Ifyou look at the inductive groupings in Exhibit 21, you will
be able to see that each one can be described by a plural
schemes, steps, ways of hurting. And in each case again you
that none of the ideas in any of the three groupings is a misfit;
one matches the description of the plural noun.
The next step is always to check your reasoning, and this is
by questioning from the bottom up. For example, if you see a
who wants to found a city in which only Latin should be
76
DEDUCTION AND INDUCTION: THE DIFFERENCE
I Clear inductive arguments
Maupertuis was an ingenious man,
but not a man of strong practical sense,
as evidenced by the schemes he was
incessantly devising
Could increase
estate taXes
settlement
hole in the center of the earth, etc., can you infer that
ingenious man, but not a man of strong practical sense?
or at least you could when the statement was
77
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
Exhibit 22 Poor inductive arguments
By contrast, consider the two examples in Exhibit 22. If you s
managers who don't face reality, won't countenance criticism,
can you infer that they mismanage because they want to? Certainly
not, iťs sloppy reasoning and writing.
What about the next one? If productivity is low, overtime high,
and prices uncompetitive, can you infer that you have a nrnr·•r-.
improvement opportunity? Perhaps, but I can think of three or
other things that could also be labeled indicators of a
improvement opportunity. In that case, you know the overall point
at too high a level of abstraction in relationship to the three
grouped below, since it does not make a statement specifically
only about them.
In fact, however, this is really a deductive argument
as an inductive one, as you may have remembered from the <:OA•ctuJv•.::
in Chapter 3. The low productivity led to the high overtime,
led to uncompetitive prices. Whenever you have only one piece
78
DEDUCTION AND INDUCTION: THE DIFFERENCE
for anything, you are forced to deal with it deductively.
the point implied at the top is something like 'Our prices are
because our productivity is low.'
How lt Differs
I'm sure you can see now how very different
uu'-••vu and induction are, and how easily you can tell the
. Remember, ifyou are thinking deductively, your second
will always comment on the subject or predicate of the first.
does not so comment, you should be able to classify it by the
plural noun as the first, to test that you have a proper
grouping.
demonstrate, I recently ran across two so-called deductive
in a logic book, which went as follows:
poth cases, I'm sure you will instantly be able to see that the
point does not make a comment on the first point, so these
cannot be deductively related. What the second point does do
case is to add another member to the classification (plural
established in the first point. Placing ideas in classes is
them by a plural noun, and you know that that is induction.
test yourself, suppose I say to you:
pick which of the next two points relates inductively to this,
which one deductively?
79
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
Clearly the first is deductive and the second inductive.
Note that with inductive ideas you generally either hold
subject constant and vary the predicate, or hold the pre
constant and vary the subject.
For example, you could say:
It is interesting to note that whether you couple the ideas to
an inductive grouping or the beginning of a deductive line
reasoning, your mind automatically expects either a sumrnai
statement or a 'therefore' point. This expectation of the mind
deductive and inductive arguments to be completed often leads
reader to project his thinking ahead, to formulate what he thinks
next point will be. If his is different from yours, he can become
confused and annoyed. Consequently, you want to make sure that
will easily recognize the direction in which your thinking is tending
giving him the top point before you state the ideas grouped below.
80
6
HOW
TO
HIGHLIGHT
THE STRUCTURE
you have worked aut the logic of your pyramid an~ are
to begin writing, you want to be sure you arrange your 1deas
the page in a way that emphasizes the various d~vision~ of
t. In doing so, you will naturally reflect the hierarchiCal
of the pyramid, as shown in Exhibit 23.
can reflect this hierarchy in a variety ofways, the most common
are headings, underlined points, decimal numbering, and
display. Feelings run high about which of these is the 'besť
device. I myself lean to the use of headings as described
However, in deference to what are excellent reasons given by
''-''"'""'""" of the others, I discuss them as well.
format you chaose, remember that your objective is to
comprehension easier for the reader. This means that ~he
must be applied properly to reflect the levels of abstractiOn
argument. To give the desired appearance without the
content can cause confusion.
this end, you want to make sure you thoroughly understand
rules before you begin application.
Bl
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
Exhibit 23 Headings should reflect the divisions of thought
HEADINGS
Essentially, the technique is to place signs for
increasingly subordinate ideas ever further to the right of the page
(Exhibit 24). Thus, major ideas are capped with major section
headings at the left-hand margin, divisions of these major ideas are
capped with subsection headings, divisions of those with numbered
paragraphs, and so on. Of course, the style of headings you choose
need not necessarily follow this particular form, but whatever the
form, each heading should represent a division of thought.
Because your headings will represent divisions of thought, their
use should reflect the relationships between the ideas inherent in
the pyramid. To this end, you will want to take care that you:
82
HOW TO HIGHLIGHT THE STRUCTURE
use only one ojany element. Since the headings indicate levels of
in the pyramid, you can never have only one item at
level. Thus, you can never have only one major section, or one
uose<:tlc>n, or one numbered paragraph, or one dash point. Put
plainly, you shouldn'tjust stick in a heading because you think
would look good on a page, the way newspapers and magazines
to break up the printing. A heading is meant to call attention to
fact that the idea it represents is one of a group, aU of which are
:needed to understand the overall thought they support.
Show parallel ideas in paralleljorm. Since all of the ideas in a group
.are the same kind of idea, you want to emphasize this sameness by
. ing the same grammatical form for the wording of each
~ht~adlinJ?;, etc. Consequently, if the first idea in a group of major
,:"'-·'-wvu headings begins with a verb, all the rest must as well; if the
idea in a group of subsection headings begins with an 'ing'
so should all the others:
Appoint ajull-time ChiefExecutive
To coordinate activities
To effect improvements
Establish clear lines ojauthority
Regrouping hotels by support needs
Assigning responsibility for overseas operations
Removing Boards from the chain of command.
you can see, because the subsection headings in the first group
with the word 'To' does not necessarily mean that those in the
group must do so as well. Remember that there are invisible
imposed between the ideas in each major section. Thus, the
to be emphasized is between ideas in the subsection
not between groups of subsections.
Limit the wording to the essence oj the thought. The headings are
meant to remind, not to dominate. Thus, you want to make them
as concise as possible. You would not want, for example, to make
the first major section heading above read 'Appoint a full-time
Chief Executive to provide clear central authority.'
Don't regard headings as part oj text. Headings are for the eye more
then they are for the mind. As a result, they are not often read
83
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
Exhibit 24 Examples of Headings
84
HOW TO HIGHLIGHT THE STRUCTURE
and you cannot depend on them to carry your message.
't-rt~rtilin•:rlv you need to make sure that your opening sentence
a heading indicates that you are turning to a new topic. In
your entire document should be able to be read as a smoothpiece
without the headings. By the same token, you
never use the headings as part of the text.
, example:
Appoint a full-time ChiefExecutive
This action will go far toward clarifying the day-to-day
responsibilities of ...
rule, of course, does not apply to numbered paragraphs, which
t to be read as part of the text.
tmroauce each group oj headings. In doing so, you want to state the
or point that the grouping will explain or defend, as well as
ideas to come. To omit this service is to present the reader
a mystery story, since he will then not be able to judge what
point is you are trying to make in that section until he gets to
end - and by then he may well have forgotten the beginning.
this reason, you should never have a major section heading
immediately after the title, nor should you ever have a
ub:sec:tiou heading begin immediately after the section heading.
't overdo. This is perhaps the most important rule of all. You
to use headings only if they are going to clarify your meaning
if they are going to make it easier for the reader to keep the
"u,JuJ,vl"lUll" of your thought in his head. Often it is not necessary
useful to have any divisions below the major section headings.
formulate your headings properly, they will stand in the tahle
rnr,tP'nt~ as a precis of your report- another extremely useful
for the reader in trying to come to terms with your thinking.
UNDERLINED POINTS
Another popular approach is literally to show the
rarchy of ideas by underlining the entire statement of the
85
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
support points below the Key Line level (Exhibit 25). Lower
support points are also stated in their entirety, but distinguished
form and indentation.
The purpose of this format is to provide speed and ease
reading. The theory is that the reader should be able to s
through if he wishes, reading only the major underlined points,
in that way comprehend the entire message.
Exhibit 25
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HOW TO HIGHLIGHT THE STRUCTURE
this is lovely for the reader, it can be a bit difficult for the
because it imposes some strict rules on him.
ou must be absolutely disciplined in applying question/answer logic.
below must directly answer the question raised by the point
and no more. There is no room in this format for graceful
of language or attempts at amplification. Such things
the clean, stark presentation of the logic. If you must
lify or give background, you will have to do so in the
or concluding paragraphs.
must be careful to word the points so that they state their message as
as possible. It destroys the ease with which the logic can be
nm,nr'PhPnrlPrl if the reader must wade through 30 words before
grasps the point. If you find yourself with more than a dozen
or more than one subject and predicate, think again.
You must be totally ruthless in limiting your points to the outline ojyour
deductive or inductive argument. Most people ignore this requirement
end up simply listing points, without regard to the niceties of
induction or deduction. Vou know that there are never
than four points in a chained deductive argument, and never
than five in an inductive one. If you find yourself going
•beyond that, the likelihood is that you have overlooked an
,opportunity to group, and should rethink what you are saying.
DECIMAL NUMBERING
Many companies, and most government institutions,
use numbers rather than headings to emphasize the
of a document, and some go so far as to number every
This approach is claimed to have the advantage that any
topíc or recommendation can be easily and precisely referred to.
However, frequent index numbers do tend to interrupt the
's concentration on the content of the document, or on any
of it, as a whole. In addition, they have a distinct practical
Hs~lrlv·::~ntage, in that any amendment to the finished copy that
elhnir1at,es a paragraph or so could necessitate the renumbering of
subsequent paragraphs. Not a pleasant thought for your
even with word processing.
87
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
If you decide that you prefer to have numbering because
value as a quick guide, you would probably be wise to use it
conjunction with, rather than as a replacement for, headings.
headings have the value of enabling the reader to pick up the
the ideas quickly as he reads. And they are quite useful in
his memory if he finds he has to go back to the document
days after his initial reading.
In addition, you will usually find that saying 'In Section 4.1
manufacturíng profits... ' is clearer as a reference in jo
someone's comprehension and thinking than is saying only
Section 4.1...' In the former case, the person has the general idea
mind as he turns to the specific reference; in the latter, he must
to it before he can begin to think about it.
The excerpt shown in Exhibit 26, from the opening of uua~,~,..::;,
of Antony Jay's fine book, Effective Presentation (or The New
as it is known in the United States), illustrates the way you
your document to end up looking if you use the headi
number form.
What numbering system should you use? This one is very ~..u.uuuuJ
I. There is no other animal that will suffer to the death to aid its
as will a dog
1. Other animals will run when danger nears
a. The dog will remain
i. Even though it might mean death.
This one is probably simpler to use:
1. There is no other animal that will suffer to the death to aid its
as will a dog
1.1 Other animals will run when danger nears
1.1.1 The dog will remain
1.1.1.1 Even though it might mean death.
These examples show the relationships of the numbered
each other, rather than the actual form they should take. The
as Exhibit 23 indicates, should reflect the actual divisions of
in the piece of writing. Accordingly, you would not number
paragraphs in initial introductions, in concluding "UJ'""·""
linking comments, or in the introduction to subpoints.
88
HOW TO HIGHLIGHT THE STRUCTURE
26 Example of using headings and numbers
89
THE PYRAMID PRINCIPLE
INDENTED DISPLAY
Sometimes your document will be so short
neither headings nor decima! numbering would be appropriate
highlight the divisions of your thinking. Nevertheless, you will
be dealing with groupings of ideas, and you will want to •u1';•w'"'
them in some way.
Groups of points supporting or explaining an overall idea
always easier for the reader to absorb if they are set off so as to
easily distinguishable as a group. Consider, for example, the
versions of the memorandum shown in Exhibit 27.
Exhibit 27-A
90
HOW TO HIGHLIGHT THE STRUCTURE
first version is perfectly clear as it stands; but the approach
in the second version makes the points literally jump ouť at
the major rule to remember when you set your ideas off
way is that you want to be sure to express them in the same
uw.UI••,.. form. Not only does this usually save words and make
easier to grasp, but it also helps you to check whether you
clearly what you mean to say. Arranging the ideas in this
Exhibit 27-B, for instance, shows up the fact that the author
not stated what kind of slides he wants for the section on
Environment.
ether the memorandum is long or short, the visual
,rr.,·mF·nt of groups of ideas to set off their similarity to each
as ideas will always make them easier to comprehend. As with
however, one set of indented groupings per memorandum
· otherwise the visual effect is lessened.
these devices serve as visual aids to the reader. They are meant
to the reader's eye the logical relationships with which his
91