22 99 66
Anders slund
Comparative Oligarchy: Russia, Ukraine and the United
States
WW aa rr ss aa ww ,, AA pp rr ii ll 22 00 00 55
Materials published here have a working paper character. They can be subject to further publication. The views
and opinions expressed here reflect the author(s) point of view and not necessarily those of the CASE.
The paper was prepared for the international conference "Europe after the Enlargement", organized by CASE
­ Center for Social and Economic Research in Warsaw on April 8-9, 2005.
The publication was financed under the Matra Small Embassy Projects Programme of the Netherlands Ministry
of Foreign Affairs.
Keywords: Oligarchy, Russia, Ukraine, economic system, politics, property rights, legal reform,
corruption
 CASE ­ Center for Social and Economic Research, Warsaw 2005
Graphic Design: Agnieszka Natalia Bury
DTP: CeDeWu Sp. z o.o.
ISSN 1506-1701, ISBN: 83-7178-370-1
Publisher:
CASE ­ Center for Social and Economic Research
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tel.: (48 22) 622 66 27, 828 61 33, fax: (48 22) 828 60 69
e-mail: case@case.com.pl
http://www.case.com.pl/
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Studies & Analyses No. 296 ­ Anders slund ­ Comparative Oligarchy: Russia, Ukraine and the United States
Contents
Abstract. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1. What Is an Oligarch? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2. The Economics of Oligarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3. The Politics of Oligarchy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4. A Matter of Ideology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5. Current Trends in Russia and Ukraine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6. What Should Be Done? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
7. Conclusions: Make a Deal with the Oligarchs and Preach Capitalism. . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
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Studies & Analyses No. 296 ­ Anders slund ­ Comparative Oligarchy: Russia, Ukraine and the United States
Anders slund
Anders slund graduated from the Stockholm School of Economics and the University of Stockholm, and earned
his doctorate at the University of Oxford. He is director of the Russian and Eurasian Program at the Carnegie
Endowment for International Peace and since 1994 a senior associate at the Carnegie Endowment for
International Peace.Anders. He is also an adjunct professor at Georgetown University. He is examining the
transformation of formerly socialist economies to market-based economies. While the central area of his studies
is Russia, he also focuses on Ukraine and Kyrgyzstan and on the broader implications of the economic transition.
He co-directs the Carnegie Moscow Center's project on Economies of the Post-Soviet States. Dr. slund has
served as an economic advisor to the governments of Russia and Ukraine. He has been a professor at the
Stockholm School of Economics and Director of the Stockholm Institute of East European Economics. He has
worked as a Swedish diplomat in Kuwait, Poland, Geneva, and Moscow. Dr. slund is a member of the Russian
Academy of Natural Sciences and an honorary professor of the Kyrgyz National University. He is chairman of the
Economics Education and Research Consortium and chairman of the Advisory Council of the Center for Social
and Economic Research (CASE), Warsaw. He is also a non-executive director of Vostok Nafta Ltd.
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Studies & Analyses No. 296 ­ Anders slund ­ Comparative Oligarchy: Russia, Ukraine and the United States
Abstract
The incidence of oligarchs is one of the most significant political problems after communism. An
appropriate policy towards them has become a pressing issue for both Russia and Ukraine and addressing
this matter will greatly influence the future economic systems of these countries. The paper examines the
nature of oligarchs and the reasons for their emergence. Similarities with the great new businessmen in
America of the 1850s, the so called "robber barons", are drawn. The paper also discusses common
reactions to oligarchs and the ways to treat the oligarch problem. Finally, it reviews a number of policy and
political options; and promotes making oligarchs pay a compensation for benefits they have enjoyed, in
return guaranteeing them their property rights.
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Studies & Analyses No. 296 ­ Anders slund ­ Comparative Oligarchy: Russia, Ukraine and the United States
Oligarchs have become one of the big political problems after communism, and one of the big policy
questions in both Russia and Ukraine is what to do with the oligarchs. No doubt, this question will greatly
influence the future economic systems of these countries. In order to design a suitable policy for oligarchs,
we need to examine what oligarchs actually are, why they have arisen, and what people react against.
1. What Is an Oligarch?
"Oligarch" is an old and popular concept. It arose as a label for contemporaneous businessmen
simultaneously in Russia and Ukraine around 1994, and the main features of oligarchs in the two countries
were very similar1
. The popular meaning of an "oligarch" is a very wealthy and politically well-connected
businessman, a billionaire, or nearly so, who is the main owner of a conglomerate and has close ties with
the President. In traditional parlance, an "oligarchy" implies the rule of a limited group of people. It might
be more appropriate to call the oligarchs plutocrats, because their power is focused on money. Joel
Hellman (1998) has coined the phrase "state capture" to characterize the relationship between big
businessmen and the state in a country such as Ukraine, because the big businessmen influenced the state
by all kinds of means.
Oligarchs are by no means anything unique to Russia and Ukraine. Andrei Shleifer (2005) has rightly
pointed out that oligarchs are typical of most middle-income countries. Much of the discussion about
economic populism in Latin America circles around the entrenched power of oligarchs (Dornbusch and
Edwards, 1991). People talk about oligarchs also in other countries in the former Soviet Union, notably in
Kazakhstan and Georgia, but hardly in the very poor countries Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, and not at all in
lingering socialist economies, that is, Turkmenistan, Belarus and Uzbekistan.
The historically most prominent example is the "robber barons" in the United States. The New York
Times referred to the new big businessmen in America as "robber barons" in the 1850s, alluding to the
knights who lived in castles along the Rhine and extorted fees for passage, who were the original oligarchs.
This label stuck. The robber barons were identified as the men who built great industrial and
transportation empires in the late 19th century in the U.S. (Steele Gordon, 2004, pp. 211-2).
In fact, the oligarchs in Russia and Ukraine have displayed much greater similarities with the American
robber barons than is usually understood, because time has healed and beautified in America. The
argument of this paper is that we can better understand the Russian and Ukrainian oligarchs, if we compare
them with the American robber barons. In all these countries, big businessmen have responded rationally
to a peculiar set of economic, legal and political conditions that were in place in all three countries in the
relevant period.
2. The Economics of Oligarchy
The outstanding economic characteristic of the oligarchs or robber barons is great wealth, and their
number is limited. Bradford de Long (2002, p.179) suggests that a present-day billionaire would be a good
proxy for a "robber baron." John Steele Gordon (2004, p. 207) aptly quotes US President Herbert Hoover:
"The trouble with capitalism is capitalists. They're too damn greedy."
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Studies & Analyses No. 296 ­ Anders slund ­ Comparative Oligarchy: Russia, Ukraine and the United States
1
See two excellent studies of the Russian oligarchs, Chrystia Freeland, Sale of the Century: Russia's Wild Ride from Communism to
Capitalism, New York: Crown Business, 2000; David Hoffman, The Oligarchs, New York: Public Affairs, 2002.
One fundamental cause of this generation and concentration of wealth was the sudden achievement of
great economies of scale in certain industries, especially metals, oil and railways. The super-rich emerge in
countries with large markets and rapid structural change, notably in the US during industrialization after
the Civil War and in Russia and Ukraine after communism.
An additional economic characteristic is the presence of rent, which is often difficult to distinguish from
economies of scale. Most of the original US robber barons made their money in railways, which easily
generate monopoly rents. Other robber barons focused on the natural rents of resource industries, John
D. Rockefeller on oil and Andrew Carnegie on steel2
. Today, the Russian oligarchs are typically preoccupied
with oil and metals3
, while six of the biggest Ukrainian oligarchic groups concentrate on steel
4
. Free
distribution of state assets, notably land around the railways, was also an important cause of enrichment in
the U.S., and that was of course true of Russia and Ukraine.
The nature of oligarchs is also determined by the prevailing legal conditions. Well-functioning legal
systems are a recent invention, and even within the West legal systems are subject to many flaws. Without
strong corporate legislation and a strong judicial system, partners find it difficult to agree or to solve
conflicts. Nor can principals (owners) control their agents (executives), so they are compelled to manage
their companies themselves. Joint stock companies emerged in the 19th Century, but many western
countries have adopted insider legislation only in the last two decades. As multiple scandals illustrate,
corporate governance remains poor in the West. John Steele Gordon (2004, (pp. 207-8) has eloquently
captured the state of law in the United States in the 1860s, which saw the rise of the robber barons.
Nowhere was...corruption more pervasive than in New York, and especially on Wall Street.... In 1868
the New York State Legislature actually passed a law the effect of which was to legalize bribery.... In 1868
the popular English Fraser's Magazine wrote that "in New York there is a custom among litigants as peculiar
to that city, it is to be hoped, as it is supreme within it, of retaining a judge as well as a lawyer."
Thus, the current legal practices in Russia and Ukraine appear just about normal for this stage of legal
development. Poor governance breeds poor corporate governance, impeding the evolution of financial
markets. As a consequence, businessmen with concentrated ownership are more likely to be more
successful than those having to deal with many minority shareholders. Moreover, businessmen rationally
opt for vertical integration to avoid the hazards of arbitrary court judgments about contracts, that is, they
prefer corporate hierarchies over markets (Williamson, 1975).
Hence, the combination of poor legal systems, large economies of scale and fast structural change
naturally leads to the concentration of fortunes of the kind we have seen in oil, metals and railways in the
Unites States in the 19th century as well as in Russia and Ukraine today. Therefore, it is difficult to see how
a market economy could be introduced under these conditions without generating super-rich
businessmen.
3. The Politics of Oligarchy
The key legal problem, however, is property rights. Hernando de Soto (2000) has importantly has
pointed out how the absence of property rights harm the poor in middle income countries and the
developing world today. The rich are also governed by the same hazard. The difference is that they have
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Studies & Analyses No. 296 ­ Anders slund ­ Comparative Oligarchy: Russia, Ukraine and the United States
2
J.P. Morgan was an odd man out in finance, and so was Jacob Astor in real estate (De Long, 2002).
3
In oil: Yukos, Lukoil, Surgut, TNK, Sibneft, in metals Rusal, SUAL, Norilsk Nickel, Severstal, Evrazholding, NLMK, MMK, and UMMK.
4
System Capital Management, Interpipe, Privat Group, Industrial Union of Donbass, Zaporozhstal, and Zavod imeni Ilicha.
the possibility to use politics as a means of reinsuring their shaky property rights. Admittedly, they also use
politics to extract more state resources and to undermine the property rights of others, whose political
assets are weaker than they used to be, but the fundamental problem is the weakness of their property
rights to already acquired property. For the very rich, politics is foremost a means to further their business
interests.
Politics offer a number of goods to buy. Starting at the top, businessmen buy presidential decisions,
usually not from the President but from his family or closest aides. The difference between the
administration of Ulysses Grant (1869-77) and Boris Yeltsin or Leonid Kuchma is less than people now
want to recognize. Although the U.S. robber barons arose in the 1850s (Commodore Cornelius
Vanderbilt), it was not until the early 1900s President Theodore Roosevelt effectively stood up against
them.
The second kind of political goods on sale is legislation from the national parliament. The United States
has not prohibited the purchasing of legislation, or lobbying, but on the contrary legalized this process and
made it transparent. President Putin has complained that Yukos could block minor tax legislation directed
against oil companies in Russia, but the United States cannot tax energy at all because of the strong
corporate energy lobby. One of the causes of the strength of the corporate lobbies in parliament in the
U.S., Russia and Ukraine is that parliamentary elections are dominated by one-man constituencies5
. That
means that individual candidates need to mobilize their campaign financing on their own, which is much
easier to do if each contribution is relatively large or the candidate himself rich. The US Senate was even
called a Club of Millionaires in the gilded age of the 1880s, which is true of the Ukrainian parliament today,
and U.S. congressmen are still greatly dependent on their founders. The situation in the U.S. Congress is
quite similar to the Russian Duma, where individual oligarchs finance a few parliamentarians in return for
their attention to corporate interests. Ukraine stands out with the most oligarchic parliament possible after
the March 2002 elections. It is commonly said that 300 out of the 450 deputies in the Supreme Rada are
dollar millionaires, and until the Orange Revolution half the Supreme Rada was dominated by nine
oligarchic factions, primarily representing the interests of business groups.
A third group of political goods for sale is government decisions. This is straightforward corruption.
Several of the ministers of President Ulysses Grant's administration were direct beneficiaries of corrupt
payments of railway companies (Steele Gordon, 2004, p. 219), and corruption of cabinet ministers has
been a patent problem in the United States. With the American revolving doors between government and
the private sector, conflicts of interests slightly detached in time have become almost impossible to
prosecute. By contrast, in the 1990s it was amazing how little attention the Ukrainian and Russian oligarchs
devoted to government posts. Ministers tended to stay with civil servants, some of whom were corrupt,
but others were not. In Russia, the half-year appointments of Vladimir Potanin and Boris Berezovsky to
senior government posts were exceptions. Russian businessmen prefer to buy services from the relevant
officials or purchase public jobs for their helpers. At present, Russian ministerial posts are reportedly
traded for prices in the range of $10-$30 million. The prices depend on post and to whom the payment is
being made, while deputy ministerial posts are being traded in a closer range of $8-$10 million. The Russian
administration has become more pervasively corrupt than ever before
6
. Again, Ukraine has been far more
oligarchic than Russia. Two prime ministers in the 1990s, Yukhum Zviahilsky (1993-94) and Pavlo
Lazarenko (1996-97), were major businessmen themselves (slund, 2000). Even so, the Ukrainian
government remained dominated by civil servants until November 2002, when the country's first coalition
government was formed under Prime Minister Viktor Yanukovich, and big businessmen moved from
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Studies & Analyses No. 296 ­ Anders slund ­ Comparative Oligarchy: Russia, Ukraine and the United States
5
Admittedly, only half the deputies in Russia and Ukraine are elected in that way, but many slots on party lists are bought by wealthy
businessmen.
6
Interviews with insightful Russian businessmen, March 2005.
Parliament to top government jobs. Viktor Yushchenko promised to draw a sharp line between business
and government, and his first government contains only two substantial businessmen (Yevhen
Chervonenko and David Zhvania).
A fourth political good of great value is court decisions. The quote above about New York courts in the
1860s says it all about American courts at that time. In Russia and Ukraine, the utilization of courts has risen
all the time, as law has evolved (Hendley et al., 1997). Alas, as courts have become more important, they
have also become more corrupt, and the prices of court decisions have risen in parallel (Kaufman and
Siegelbaum, 1996).
Media, the fourth estate, is a fifth kind of political good, although it is mostly private and only influences
the government. In the United States, media owners have had a free hand for a long time. Publicity has
long been traded freely in Russia and Ukraine, and this is completely legal. In Russia, media were dominated
by the oligarchs Boris Berezovsky and Vladimir Gusinsky under President Yeltsin. President Vladimir Putin
has gradually expanded government control and ownership over media, but the trade in publicity for
commercial purposes is continuing as before, and you can buy price lists from public relations agencies in
Moscow, specifying how much it costs to buy positive news reporting by various prominent TV
personalities7
. In Ukraine, oligarchs (primarily Viktor Medvedchuk and Viktor Pinchuk) bought up a lot of
media, especially TV, before the presidential elections in October 1999, inspired by the Russian presidential
elections of June 1996. Oligarch even assumed the meaning, owner of media8
. The main media have so far
stayed in the hands of a few oligarchs.
This discussion of the economic, legal and political conditions of oligarchy is meant to show that the
Russian and Ukrainian oligarchs are by no means as atypical as is often argued. The oligarchs are responding
rationally to the prevailing conditions in order to maximize an objective function combining profit and
security. Most countries in the world are oligarchic. Just look at Sweden and Finland, which are similarly
dominated by heavy industry with large economies of scale. The common argument that American robber
barons were different because they invested and built new enterprises hardly holds up (Goldman, 2004).
The U.S. robber barons mainly made their fortunes on railways, but through the free distribution of
government land, as well as subsidized state financing, which were critical for the success of railways (de
Long, 2002). Naturally, the first railways enjoyed great monopoly rents. Resources and rents are
characteristic of oligarchs throughout the world. After the Russian and Ukrainian oligarchs had seized their
enterprises, they have invested heavily by any standard (Shleifer 2005).
The prime political complaint about oligarchs is their excessive wealth and the purportedly
extraordinary inequality in Russia and Ukraine. The number of oligarchs is quite large in Russia, but part of
the explanation is that they appear better at partnerships than their American brethren a century earlier,
rendering several people rich out of one major enterprise. Yukos stands out as an example of loyal
partnership breeding at least seven billionaires. The Ukrainians, by contrast, appear about as distrustful as
their American forefathers. One important cause of these great fortunes in the United States, Russia and
Ukraine is that these are rather large countries and thus their markets are huge. Therefore, the dominant
businessmen in these countries easily become much richer than in smaller countries. The Gini coefficients
for Russia and Ukraine are also similar to that of the United States, and far below the average of Latin
America (World Bank, 2004).
Another common view is that oligarchs are disliked because they are parasites, not producing anything.
In reality, however, the popular perception appears to be changing in the opposite way. The less rent-
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Studies & Analyses No. 296 ­ Anders slund ­ Comparative Oligarchy: Russia, Ukraine and the United States
7
A Russian peculiarity is that enterprises can also pay to avoid negative publicity, something that Gazprom has excelled in (Interview
with Boris Fedorov in the spring of 2001).
8
I owe this observation to Olena Prytula.
seeking and the more productive oligarchs become, the more unpopular they become. This is particularly
evident in Ukraine, where the oligarchs focused and made most their money on commodity trade until
2000. The all-dominant business was gas trade, and one of the gas oligarchs, Ihor Bakai, stated famously in
an interview in 1998, "All really rich people in Ukraine have made their money on gas" (Timoshenko,
1998). Other sources of revenues were subsidized state credits, steel exports, oil trade, coal subsidies,
agricultural and chemical exports, anything but production (slund, 2000). At the time of the Orange
Revolution in 2004, Ukraine's GDP was growing at a staggering pace of 12.4 percent, much of it steel
produced in the oligarchs' steel mills, and many other branches of industry were taking off in the oligarchs'
hands. The issue is really transparency. People do not react against billions of dollars are spirited out of the
state treasury, because they do not see them. The oligarchs are becoming subject to much greater public
criticism, when they no longer steal but produce, because the public do see factories, and then they draw
their own conclusions about personal wealth.
Conversely, a standard view, much cherished by Western observers such as Joseph Stiglitz (2002) and
Marshall Goldman (2004), is that privatization is key to the wealth of the oligarchs. Again, Ukraine
illustrates particularly clearly that this was not the case. Until 2000, all oligarchs focused on gas trade and
little else, and no privatization was required for that. Volumes have been written about the loans-for-shares
privatizations in Russia
9
. To begin with, the oligarchs did not become oligarchs through these privatizations,
but they were all known as oligarchs before. Moreover, most oligarchs did not participate in the loans-for-
shares privatizations, so they did not the oligarchs. Unlike many other privatizations, money was actually
paid, and even if the amounts were paltry in comparison with the potential values of the enterprises, they
were larger than in virtually all other privatizations. Most of the enterprises involved in loans-for-shares did
extremely well, notably Yukos and Sibneft, which led the revival of the Russian oil industry, and soon they
paid as much taxes in one year as anybody possibly could have tried to sell these enterprises for in 1995.
Thus, economically, the loans-for-shares privatizations in Russia were an unmitigated success, and soon
these privatized companies generated more taxes in one year than anybody really though they could be
sold for in 1995. The state would have lost greatly, if it had kept them and privatized them later regardless
of the sales price. It should be remembered that the old management both mismanaged these state
properties and stole most of the proceeds. More broadly, it can be said that privatizations are much more
detested than theft of money, because the objects of privatization, factories, can be seen with the bare eye.
Also with privatization the problem is that it is too transparent so that ordinary people can see the wealth
(Shleifer and Treisman, 2000; slund, 2002; Shleifer, 2005).
Similarly, the popular reaction against the Russian oligarchs appears to have caught on around 2000 after
several of the major oligarchs had decided to become fully legal and legitimate, pay taxes, declare their
ownership and spend substantial amounts on charitable donations. In hindsight, it can be argued that this
voluntary transparency was the most serious mistake the Russian oligarchs made.
In Ukraine, privatization was later and messier than in Russia (Yekhanurov, 2000), which only seems to
have bolstered the power of the oligarchs. The excesses of the oligarchs delayed economic recovery much
more in Ukraine than in Russia. In 2000, substantial economic policy changes occurred against the will of
the oligarchs, which led to great economic growth. Although the oligarchs continued to reinforce their
wealth for some time, the new competition of other emerging big businessmen challenged the very
oligarchy (slund, 2001). The popular edge after the Orange Revolution is directed against the two leading
oligarchs, Viktor Pinchuk and Rinat Akhmetov, who have made the transition from commodity trading to
production, while the shadier oligarchs appear to escape the brunt of the critique. Pinchuk and Akhmetov
possess large steel corporations, whose corporate structures appear both transparent and efficient.
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Studies & Analyses No. 296 ­ Anders slund ­ Comparative Oligarchy: Russia, Ukraine and the United States
9
The best is Freeland (2000) and Hoffman (2002). See also, Blasi et al. (1997).
Admittedly, they are the beneficiaries of the most disputed privatization in Ukraine, of the huge steelworks
Kryvorizhstal, which was somewhat reminiscent of the loans-for-shares privatizations in Russia. It
generated substantial revenue ($800 million), and it was comparatively transparent, though not
competitive. Pinchuk alleges plausibly that this privatization alone netted the state more than all other
privatizations of steelworks in Ukraine.
There appears to be a negative correlation between economic utility and popular acclaim. Insider
privatization, which predominated in the early transition, appears to be easily accepted however ineffective
they were. If the first beneficiary wasted his funds, he is easily forgiven, or at least forgotten. If somebody
buys a mismanaged privatized enterprise for a penny on the secondary market, nobody seems to complain.
Nor do people seem to react if somebody takes over a well-managed company at a low price after having
ordered out law enforcement agencies in lawless persecution.
The sense morale is not pretty. The more shady machinations oligarchs make their money on, the safer
they are. The more productive they become, the more disliked they will be. The more transparent they
are, the more condemned they will be. The more taxes they pay, the more exposed they become. Just
look at Yukos. Admittedly, time heals wounds, and so does failure. Few are concerned about organized
criminals who emigrated or state enterprise managers who lost their fortunes after having run their ill-
gotten enterprises aground.
4. A Matter of Ideology
So what is the problem with oligarchs? There is a bit too much noise in the discussion about oligarchs,
but the comparison with the United States helps to clarify the debate. The point is that people do not like
successful capitalists, which is a purely ideological issue. This becomes plain if you look at some of the anti-
oligarchic literature (Goldman, 2004; Stiglitz, 2002). Indeed, the United States government did not react
against the robber barons in the 1860s and 1870s, when their excesses were worst, but under Theodore
Roosevelt in the early 1900s, when populism had grown strong, although Andrew Carnegie was then giving
away his wealth at an unprecedented speed.
In the end, however, the acceptance of large fortunes is a matter of ideology. If people are to accept
that some are very rich, they must believe that great richesses are permissible. The outstanding example
of the acceptance of great richesses of others under democratic conditions is the United States, and the
United Kingdom comes a decent second, both largely embracing classical liberalism. In his book, The
Constitution of Freedom, Friedrich Hayek (1960) has formulated this ideology, accepting both the formation
of wealth and its inheritance.
Edward Luttwak (1999, pp. 17-21) has taken the argument quite a bit further, arguing that capitalism
could succeed in the United States because of the country's intrinsic Calvinism. Religion compelled people
to work hard and save. Americans see the desire to become rich as praiseworthy and success in doing so
as a moral achievement. Wealth is an indication of virtuous life. Yet, puritanically, winners are not supposed
to indulge in hedonism but to keep working hard to become even richer. Therefore, wealth does not
become all that ostentatious. Conversely, people who did not make that much money were not equally
virtuous, and had better be ashamed of themselves. Alas, "there are also plenty of non-Calvinists among
the losers" (ibid., p. 22), but those who did not understand better but stole were ruthlessly thrown into
prison, landing the U.S. with one of the proportionately largest prison populations in the world.
Hillary Appel (2004) has compared privatization in the Czech Republic and Russia, and she has come to
the conclusion that Vaclav Klaus wisely utilized classical liberal ideology fully to facilitate privatization.
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Studies & Analyses No. 296 ­ Anders slund ­ Comparative Oligarchy: Russia, Ukraine and the United States
Although the Russian privatizers were equally radical liberals, they decided that they were better off justify
privatization in terms of concrete material benefits, advocating relevant shares for various groups of
stakeholders (Boycko et al., 1995; Chubais, 1999). Alas, the Russian public felt cheated when their
expected material benefits did not result, while the Czechs happily reelected Klaus, because he had not
promised concrete benefits but an ideology, although the Czech Republic persistently underperformed in
economic growth (see EBRD, 2004).
The fortunes of the Russian and Ukrainian oligarchs can hardly be accepted by the public, if people in
these countries do not accept a truly capitalist ideology. The key to an understanding of what is going on
now is that this is not a legal matter. The obvious point is that nothing could be done by law in a situation
when laws were in disarray, the courts unreformed and the law enforcement ineffective at best but more
likely corrupt (Gaidar, 2003). Therefore, both the state and the market had to fail in the transition, and the
best that could be done was to guide society toward a normal situation (Shleifer and Vishny, 1998; Shleifer
and Treisman, 2000).
The main enemy of liberalism is no longer socialism, even if many of its sentiments linger. Its place has
been taken by populism. Much of the discussion about economic policy in Latin America in the 1970s and
1980s concerned populism. At that time, populism was primarily directed against the laws of
macroeconomics (Dornbusch and Edwards, 1991). Now, the importance of macroeconomic stability has
been greatly appreciated throughout the world, as the Washington consensus has effectively won. Instead,
the new economic populism looks for redistribution through the undermining of existing property rights.
As usual, populism is driven by a combination of forces, both those really suffering from the lack of justice
and others who want to make their fortunes on a manipulation of a sound capitalist order.
5. Current Trends in Russia and Ukraine
Rather than being a real social, legal or economic problem, the oligarchs appear to have led the
economic recovery in Russia and Ukraine. The more successful they become, and the higher the growth
rate, the more disliked them become. The two main forces criticizing the oligarchs are emerging big
businessmen, aspiring to seize their property, and populist politicians, just wanting to agitate people against
some being richer than others. However, there is also a liberal concern, namely that the oligarchs are
benefiting from privileges and that the playing field is not level. From this analytical vantage point, it appears
easier to understand what is currently happening in Russia and Ukraine.
Russia under President Vladimir Putin has chosen a first option. One company, Yukos, has been singled
out for confiscation through the arbitrary application of taxation, and its main owner has been jailed under
great popular applause. As a result of tampering with both tax legislation and the judiciary, both the
excellent tax reform and the judicial reform have been discredited, and the credibility of property rights
has been undermined. Less noticed is what has happened to the rest of the big business world. The
oligarchs have been forced to "reinsure" their property rights repeatedly with large and arbitrary amounts
to Kremlin funds for various purportedly charitable purposes. Ironically, this arguably helps enrich the
oligarchs, because smaller businessmen who encounter these practices of extortion tend to bail out and
sell their up-and-coming enterprises to the established oligarchs who thus gain dynamic enterprises for
very reasonable prices. Meanwhile the oligarchs also benefit from less competition. The natural
expectation is that Russia's high economic growth will tamper off. The drawback is social, because this is
probably a significant cause of Russia's economic growth being less than the average for the CIS for the last
four years (EBRD, 2004).
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The new Ukrainian government is contemplating a second option, to re-privatize enterprises that have
been improperly privatized. In Ukraine, the dominant motive appears to be revenge against the oligarchs
who supported the old regime. Another motive is the big businessmen around the new regime who want
to seize the assets of the old oligarchs. Again, a third goal is to level the playing field. Clearly, the two first
objectives contradict the third one, which is the legitimate goal. One idea is that the privatization will be
annulled, compensation paid to the prior owner for his initial payment, and then the enterprises will be sold
anew by the state at a competitive auction. The redistribution of property is often considered one of the
characteristics of a revolution (Mau and Starodubrovskaya, 2001), but the revolution theoretician Charles
Tilly (1973) has argued that redistribution of property always prevents the evolution of democracy. Only
very recent privatizations can be reversed, because many enterprises have changed hands, and how will
partial sales and investments be considered? Obviously, the oligarchs will resist, and the combination of their
willingness to spend and a corrupt state makes it more likely than not that they will win. Nor is it likely that
a new case-by-case privatization will be very successful, because they rarely are in weak postcommunist
state (Havrylyshyn and McGettigan, 2000). In a revolutionary situation, many businessmen, not least
respectable foreigners, are likely to stay out. In the case of Ukraine, however, the prior Ukrainian oligarchs
might be replaced by Russian oligarchs, who are not marked by their cooperation with the old regime. The
old owners will undoubtedly sue the state and court cases will be long-lasting. East Germany showed how
harmful the unlimited legal pursuit of property rights through the courts can be, leaving millions of
properties unused for years, although the East German courts were the least corrupt in the postcommunist
region (Siebert, 1992). Property strife does reduce the propensity to invest, which is vital for economic
growth. If not ranged in early on, this option might be more destabilizing than the Russian choice.
In neither Russia nor Ukraine, would the current thinking about reprivatization lead to reinforced
property rights or a more level playing field. The state might extract more revenues, but the legal system
is rather being undermined, and economic growth is likely to suffer.
6. What Should Be Done?
The question remains, what can and should be done to cure this problem with oligarchs? The criticism
of the Russian and Ukrainian schemes does not imply that nothing should be done. According to the
argument above, the oligarchs are natural results of the economic, legal and economic conditions that
persist. If we want to change the oligarchs' status, we can pose demand upon them that they are prepared
to accept, change their incentives or alter the economic, legal and political environment within which they
operate. If the problem is that the oligarchs have paid to little to the state, that issue should be settled one-
and-for-all, while their property rights should be reinforced.
The third and probably best option might be what the new Georgian regime attempted after the Rose
Revolution. The government asked the incumbent owners of spuriously-privatized enterprises to pay up
or at least make an additional contribution to the state. The oligarchs were invited one after the other to
a group of top officials, and a price was conclusively agreed. As a result, the state treasury was filled up,
and a stable settlement appears to have been accomplished. Judging from recent public statements from
the Ukrainian oligarchs under attack (Viktor Pinchuk and Rinat Akhmetov), this is their preferred solution.
They want to sit down with the responsible state officials and arrive at a final and definite deal, and then
they allege that they are happy to pay what the government demands. This solution has several advantages.
The oligarchs would be co-opted, as this would amount to a real compromise. The state would get
substantial revenues, which would give it a strong case to the public. Therefore, it would become politically
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possible to give the oligarchs amnesty for prior violations, and their property rights could hopefully be
guaranteed by the state. Taxation is preferable to redistribution of property rights.
A fourth policy option would be to guarantee the oligarchs full property rights without asking them for
any compensation. Obviously, this is the choice of the oligarchs, but it is hardly realistic in the current
political climate. With their huge charitable donations primarily to the social sector, the Russian oligarchs
are trying to develop this option. President Putin appears to toy with this fall-back position. Given the
public outrage that became evident in the Ukrainian Orange Revolution, however, amnesty without some
direct compensation to the state does not appear very plausible in Ukraine.
Whenever an amnesty has been decided, it should be sanctified by all possible means. Property rights
are fundamental rights that should be guaranteed by the Constitution. If the state can effectively guarantee
the property rights of the oligarchs, their demand for reinsuring their property rights through huge political
expenditures diminishes. Then, state capture can cease and corruption can more easily be brought under
control. Arguably, the privatization of more enterprises remains so attractive that an amnesty can only
become effective after almost all major privatizations has been completed.
A fifth way of combating oligarchs is the social democratic approach, through progressive taxation. The
problem is that it changes the economic system permanently and is likely to harm both entrepreneurship
and economic growth for the foreseeable future. Bradford De Long (2002) points out that the United
States hardly generated any billionaires from 1930 to 1980, because also in the U.S. social democracy was
victorious. The outstanding feature of this period was high progressive taxation, which often exceeded 90
percent for the truly rich and peaked at 94 percent after World War II (Steel Gordon, 2004, p. 359). Thus,
even under the generally liberal conditions of the United States, high progressive taxes on the very rich can
stem the development of newly rich people. High progressive taxes almost define social democracy as
distinct from a liberal market economy. To introduce them would be to through out the child with the
bathwater. Fortunately, it is against the mood of our time, which is cherishes flat taxes. In addition, the
oligarchs are more likely than not to evade or avoid such taxes by buying themselves sufficient legislative
clout to stop such taxation, at least for themselves. Note that the wealthy aristocracy persists in many
European countries with high progressive taxes, while new entrepreneurs are restrained.
Not only the demand for corruption needs to be reduced, but also the supply. The means for the
combat of corruption are many (Rose-Ackerman, 1999). The range of reforms of the public sector is great,
but much can be accomplished through political reforms. The problem is the one-man constituencies,
which are most easily bought by rich businessmen. Legislation on campaign financing has proven toothless
in Russia and Ukraine, while transition to proportional elections for parties is likely to be a more effective
cure. A party with a large number of members of parliament and a political program cannot easily switch
positions without logic, although, it is no guarantee, as Vladimir Zhirinovsky's LDPR successfully has
shown, and corruption in campaign financing often occurs in Western countries.
Another vital political reform to reduce both corruption and the power of the oligarchs is to move from
a presidential system to a parliamentary system. At present, the borderline between free and half-free
countries in Eastern Europe goes approximately along the line between presidential systems and
parliamentary rule (Freedom House 2005). It is easy to understand why. The oligarchs have thrived in
collusion with the President and his closest advisors in a sphere that has been unregulated, nontransparent
and unaccountable. Theoretically, such controls can be introduced in a presidential system, as is the case
in the United States, but that is a very difficult system to construct.
Media freedom and pluralist ownership of media is another vital condition for the checking of
corruption and thus the power of oligarchs, because unpredictable media reporting does expose a great
many scandals.
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7. Conclusions: Make a Deal with the Oligarchs and Preach
Capitalism
Ironically, the key problem of our time is the generators of an unprecedented boom in Russia and
Ukraine. In the mid-1990s, young local people took on the challenge to transform the seemingly moribund
Soviet smokestacks. They succeeded beyond any expectation, and especially in Ukraine revitalized old
steelworks have driven the economic recovery. Soon, some new owners became conspicuously rich,
especially as only economies of scale were great, rents ample, and only enterprises with concentrated
ownership made it. Since their property rights were weak, the new entrepreneurs, commonly called
oligarchs, reinsured their property rights by buying politicians, judges and other officials, what is called
corruption or state capture.
Both Russian and Ukrainian politics are driven by a popular urge to defeat corruption, identified with
oligarchs. The United States faced the same dilemma, how to quell the excesses of the new big
businessmen, in the Gilded Age in the late 19th century, when Andrew Carnegie made a fortune on steel
and John Rockefeller on oil. Russia under Putin has instigated confiscation through taxation of the biggest
oligarchs and extorted the rest with periodic payments. Ukraine is considering a large scheme of re-
privatization, which might destabilize both politics and economics, not to mention law.
The problems with these schemes are that they are driven by the wrong ideology, a populist dislike of
the rich plus a desire by rising businessmen to grab the assets of the old oligarchs. Neither should be
encouraged. Yet, there is a liberal argument for the leveling of the playing field, doing away with their
current privileges and possibly making them pay up for some past benefits. In return their property rights
would be guaranteed. The new government in Georgia has done exactly that. It has negotiated with the
oligarchs and forced them to pay a certain amount to the state, but then guaranteed their property rights.
This deal should be made one and for all, while the introduction of high marginal income taxes would
impede not only the evolution of old oligarchs but probably preserve the old ones and brake economic
growth.
The essence of the oligarch discussion, however, is ideology. The emergence of oligarchs must be
understood as a natural consequence of the prevailing economic, legal and political conditions. To
overcome this discussion the public need to accept the fundamental principles of capitalism. Yet, the
oligarchs need to be disciplined. If the state is able to guarantee property rights to big businessmen, their
need to capture the state with large political payments will plummet. The supply of available political
services can also be reduced through the introduction of proportional elections, parliamentary systems and
media freedom. Then, a normal legal system, which can discipline the oligarchs, can evolve.
In the end, no political solution is likely to hold if it is not supported by a strong ideological base. If
people cannot be convinced that they need capitalism for their own good, they are not likely to accept the
perseverance of the super-rich.
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