Základy argumentace a etiky
filozofie pseudo-vědy
Tomáš Ondráček
ondracek.t@mail.muni.cz
Faculty of Economics and Administration, Masaryk University
2023
ÚVOD
konspirační teorie
Lindner (2017)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 2 / 91
ÚVOD otázky
otázky
ˆ Co je to dobrá věda, špatná věda a pseudo-věda?
ˆ Proč je problém špatná věda a pseudo-věda?
ˆ Může se věda vyrovnat se špatnou vědou a pseudo-vědou?
ˆ Jak lze obecně přistupovat k špatné vědě pseudo-vědě?
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 3 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PROHŘEŠKY
How Many Scientists Fabricate and Falsify Research?
(Fanelli, 2009)
scientists fabrication, falsification
or modification of data or
results
other ques-
tionable
research prac-
tices
admitted 1.97% 33.7%
know of 14.12% 72%
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 4 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PROHŘEŠKY
The trouble with retractions
Van Noorden (2011: 27)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 5 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PROHŘEŠKY druhy & typy
Misbehaviours of Various Kinds
Fanelli (2011: 85)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 6 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PROHŘEŠKY druhy & typy
druhy a typy prohřešků
ˆ Ethical Misconducts
ˆ Violations of ethical code.
ˆ Research Misconducts
ˆ Research misconduct means fabrication, falsification, or
plagiarism in proposing or performing research [...],
reviewing research proposals [...], or in reporting research
results [...]
(National Science Foundation, 2002).
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 7 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PROHŘEŠKY druhy & typy
National Science Foundation (2002)
ˆ Plagiarism
ˆ means the appropriation of another person’s ideas,
processes, results or words without giving appropriate
credit.
ˆ Fabrication
ˆ means making up data or results and recording or reporting
them.
ˆ Falsification
ˆ means manipulating research materials, equipment, or
processes, or changing or omitting data or results such that
the research is not accurately represented in the research
record.
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 8 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PROHŘEŠKY praktické provedení
National Science Foundation (2002)
A finding of research misconduct requires that—
I. There be a significant departure from accepted practices of the
relevant research community; and
II. The research misconduct be committed intentionally, or
knowingly, or recklessly; and
III. The allegation be proven by a preponderance of evidence.
(b) Research misconduct does not include honest error or
differences
of opinion.
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 9 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PROHŘEŠKY praktické provedení
základní chrakteristiky
ˆ metodologie nebo zásady
ˆ intencionalita
ˆ vědomost
ˆ nezodpovědnost, zbrklost, neohleduplnost
ˆ dostatek důkazů
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 10 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PROHŘEŠKY problémy
problémy: otázky
ˆ Jaký je vztah mezi etickými a vědeckými prohřešky?
ˆ Jak rozlišit omyl a prohřešek?
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 11 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PROHŘEŠKY problémy
porušení metodologie
ˆ The Tuskegee Syphilis Study
ˆ The Monster Study
ˆ Unit 731
ˆ introspekce
ˆ Dr. Roger Poisson
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 12 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PROHŘEŠKY problémy
intencionalita
ˆ Schön scandal
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 13 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PROHŘEŠKY problémy
znalost následků
ˆ Little Albert experiment
ˆ Milgram Experiment
ˆ Stanford Prison Experiment
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 14 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PROHŘEŠKY problémy
The Myth of Self-Correction in Science
Stroebe, Postmes, and Spears (2012)
Fraud Detectors Reducing the Risks
peer reviews rewards
replications cost
whistleblowing chance of discovery
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 15 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PROHŘEŠKY problémy
nová definice vědeckých prohřešků
Fanelli (2013):scientific misconduct as distorted reporting:
any omission or misrepresentation of the information necessary
and sufficient to evaluate the validity and significance
of research, at the level appropriate to the context in which
the research is communicated
ˆ mizí rozdíl mezi omylem a prohřeškem
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 16 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PUBLIKOVÁNÍ problémy
několik problémů
ˆ snižující se důvěryhodnost
ˆ příliš vědy
ˆ predátoři
ˆ vydavatelé
ˆ konference
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 17 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PUBLIKOVÁNÍ snižující se důvěryhodnost
pop-věda
ˆ zvyšující se počet pop-vědeckých tvrzení, pořadů, časopisů, ...
ˆ Dr. Oz
ˆ zavádějící a chybné informování ...
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 18 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PUBLIKOVÁNÍ snižující se důvěryhodnost
pop-věda
ˆ zvyšující se počet pop-vědeckých tvrzení, pořadů, časopisů, ...
ˆ Dr. Oz
ˆ zavádějící a chybné informování ...
ˆ Could sniffing flatulence be GOOD for you?
Potent gas can help prevent cancer, strokes and heart attacks,
claim scientists
(Mail Online 2014-07-11)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 18 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PUBLIKOVÁNÍ snižující se důvěryhodnost
pop-věda
ˆ zvyšující se počet pop-vědeckých tvrzení, pořadů, časopisů, ...
ˆ Dr. Oz
ˆ zavádějící a chybné informování ...
ˆ Could sniffing flatulence be GOOD for you?
Potent gas can help prevent cancer, strokes and heart attacks,
claim scientists
(Mail Online 2014-07-11)
ˆ Study: Smelling farts may be good for your health
(The Week 2014-07-11)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 18 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PUBLIKOVÁNÍ snižující se důvěryhodnost
pop-věda
ˆ zvyšující se počet pop-vědeckých tvrzení, pořadů, časopisů, ...
ˆ Dr. Oz
ˆ zavádějící a chybné informování ...
ˆ Could sniffing flatulence be GOOD for you?
Potent gas can help prevent cancer, strokes and heart attacks,
claim scientists
(Mail Online 2014-07-11)
ˆ Study: Smelling farts may be good for your health
(The Week 2014-07-11)
ˆ Silent, not deadly; how farts cure diseases
(The Guardian 2014-07-11)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 18 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PUBLIKOVÁNÍ snižující se důvěryhodnost
pop-věda
ˆ zvyšující se počet pop-vědeckých tvrzení, pořadů, časopisů, ...
ˆ Dr. Oz
ˆ zavádějící a chybné informování ...
ˆ Could sniffing flatulence be GOOD for you?
Potent gas can help prevent cancer, strokes and heart attacks,
claim scientists
(Mail Online 2014-07-11)
ˆ Study: Smelling farts may be good for your health
(The Week 2014-07-11)
ˆ Silent, not deadly; how farts cure diseases
(The Guardian 2014-07-11)
ˆ Farts can fight strokes, heart attacks and dementia, scientists claim
(The Mirror 2015-11-08)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 18 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PUBLIKOVÁNÍ snižující se důvěryhodnost
pop-věda
ˆ zvyšující se počet pop-vědeckých tvrzení, pořadů, časopisů, ...
ˆ Dr. Oz
ˆ zavádějící a chybné informování ...
ˆ Could sniffing flatulence be GOOD for you?
Potent gas can help prevent cancer, strokes and heart attacks,
claim scientists
(Mail Online 2014-07-11)
ˆ Study: Smelling farts may be good for your health
(The Week 2014-07-11)
ˆ Silent, not deadly; how farts cure diseases
(The Guardian 2014-07-11)
ˆ Farts can fight strokes, heart attacks and dementia, scientists claim
(The Mirror 2015-11-08)
ˆ původní výzkum (Le Trionnaire et al., 2014):
The synthesis and functional evaluation of a mitochondria-targeted hydrogen sulfide donor,
(10-oxo-10-(4-(3-thioxo-3H-1,2-dithiol-5yl)phenoxy)decyl)triphenylphosphonium
bromide (AP39)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 18 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PUBLIKOVÁNÍ snižující se důvěryhodnost
zaujatý výzkum
ˆ financování
ˆ udržitelnost
ˆ ...
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 19 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PUBLIKOVÁNÍ snižující se důvěryhodnost
špatná orientace & zaujatá znalost
ˆ Rosling (2016): The Ignorance Project
ˆ Project Implicit (2016): Project Implicit
ˆ Moralistic Fallacy
ˆ Gould (1996):
The mismeasure of man
ˆ Rushton and Jensen (2005):
Wanted: More race realism, less moralistic fallacy
ˆ ...
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 20 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PUBLIKOVÁNÍ predátoři
Beallův seznam
List of potential, possible, or probable predatory scholarly
open-access publishers.
Criteria (Beall, 2015):
ˆ Editor and Staff
ˆ Business management
ˆ Integrity
ˆ Other
ˆ Poor journal standards / practice
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 21 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PUBLIKOVÁNÍ predátoři
Beall (2015)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 22 / 91
VĚDECKÉ PUBLIKOVÁNÍ predátoři
testování
ˆ absurdní, nesmyslné, ...texty, prezentace, ...
ˆ Sokal (1996):
Transgressing the Boundaries:
Towards a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity
The content and methodology of postmodern science thus provide powerful
intellectual support for the progressive political project, understood
in its broadest sense: the transgressing of boundaries, the breaking
down of barriers, the radical democratization of all aspects of social,
economic, political and cultural life. Conversely, one part of this project
must involve the construction of a new and truly progressive science
that can serve the needs of such a democratized society-to-be.
ˆ automaticly generated texts
ˆ PDOS (2016):
An Automatic CS Paper Generator
(Sokal, 1996: 11)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 23 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA
==========
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 24 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA
Characteristics of Pseudo-Scientists
and Pseudo-Sciences
(Gardner, 1957)
ˆ Gardner
ˆ isolation from colleagues
ˆ tendency toward paranoia
I. considers himself a genius
II. regards his colleagues as ignorant blockheads
insults and accusations
III. believe of unjustly persecution and discrimination
IV. compulsions to attacking the greatest scientists and
the best established theories
V. tendencies to write in a complex jargon
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 24 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA
Lugg: pseudo-science and fallacies
(Lugg, 1987: 226)
If these observations are correct, there is an important analogy
to be drawn between pseudoscientific theories and fallacious
arguments. In both cases, it may indeed be necessary
to engage in empirical analysis to determine what is being
claimed. A pseudoscientific theory, like a fallacious argument,
may be obscurely presented and even when clearly
presented it may misrepresent what its proponents intend.
Beyond this, however, empirical analysis is neither required
nor appropriate. We no more need to know anything about
the world to say that theories are pseudoscientific than we
need to know anything about it to say that arguments are
invalid. Judgements about scientificity, like judgements of
validity, have nothing to do with empirical well-foundedness
and truth.
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 25 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA co?
The Face
Voyager 2 (2018)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 26 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA co?
příklady I
ˆ 2012 Doomsday Scare
ˆ Ancient Aliens
ˆ Apollo Moon Landing Hoax
ˆ Astrology
ˆ Crop Circles
ˆ Face on Mars
ˆ Bermuda Triangle
ˆ Cryptozoology
ˆ Flat Earth Theory
ˆ Hollow Earth Theory
ˆ Megalithic or 366 Geometry
ˆ Mythical Creatures
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 27 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA co?
příklady II
ˆ Channeling
ˆ Dowsing
ˆ Electronic Voice Phenomenon (EVP)
ˆ Extrasensory Perception (ESP)
ˆ Levitation
ˆ Numerology
ˆ Conversion Therapy
ˆ Hypnosis
ˆ Primal Therapy
ˆ Polygraph
ˆ Psychoanalysis
ˆ Subliminal Advertising
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 28 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA co?
příklady III
ˆ Body Language
ˆ Dianetics
ˆ Feng Shui
ˆ Handwriting Analysis
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 29 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA co?
Structure of Epistemic Fields
(Mahner, 2007: 549)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 30 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA Derksen
pseudo-vědci
Derksen (1993, 2001)
profile of the pseudo-sciences can be gained from the scientific
pretensions of the pseudo-scientist
Derksen (1993)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 31 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA Derksen
The Seven Sins
(cf. Derksen, 1993, 2001))
ˆ Dearth of Decent Evidence
ˆ pretence to producing reliable knowledge, obtained via
trustworthy methods
ˆ Unfounded Immunizations
ˆ accepting only particular interpretations of the data
ˆ Ur-Tenptations
ˆ uncritically assigning a deeper significance to prima facie
spectacular coincidences
ˆ Magic Methods
ˆ Insights of Innatates
ˆ Only the initiate has the right perspective on the truth.
ˆ All-Explaining Theories
ˆ Uncritical and Excessive Pretensions
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 32 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA immunizations
Boudry and Braeckman (2011: 146):
Immunizing Strategies and Epistemic Defense
Mechanisms
“We define an ‘immunizing strategy’ as an argument brought forward
in support of a belief system, though independent from that belief
system, which makes it more or less invulnerable to rational
argumentation and/or empirical evidence. By contrast, an epistemic
‘defense mechanism’ is defined as an internal structural feature of a
belief system, which has the same effect of deflecting rational
arguments and empirical refutations.”
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 33 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA immunizations
Boudry and Braeckman (2011):
Immunizing Strategies and Epistemic Defense
Mechanisms
ˆ Conceptual Equivocations & Moving Targets
ˆ Multiple Endpoints
ˆ Deflationary Revisions
ˆ Postdiction and Feedback Loops
ˆ Conspiracy Thinking
ˆ Turning the Evidence on its Head
ˆ Explaining the Motives for Disbelief
ˆ Changing the Rules of Play
ˆ Invisible Escape Clauses
ˆ Tailoring Around the Phenomena
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 34 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA immunizations
Derksen: The Seven Sins
(Derksen, 1993, 2001)
ˆ Dearth of Decent Evidence
ˆ pretense to producing reliable knowledge,
obtained via trustworthy methods
ˆ Unfounded Immunizations
ˆ accepting only particular interpretations of the data
ˆ Ur-Temptations
ˆ uncritically assigning a deeper significance to prima facie
spectacular coincidences
ˆ Magic Methods
ˆ Insights of Innatates
ˆ Only the initiate has the right perspective on the truth.
ˆ All-Explaining Theories
ˆ Uncritical and Excessive Pretensions
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 35 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA immunizations
Minimum of the Demarcation
(Ondráček, 2020)
Any scientific discussion has to aspire to critical discussion
and has to be done in a scientific context
(has to be labeled by protagonists as scientific).
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 36 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA imunizace
Popper: Conventionalism
(K. R. Popper, 2005: 15); (K. Popper, 2005: 58, 61)
I very soon found that every theory can be “immunized” (this
excellent term is due to Hans Albert) against criticism. If we
allow such immunization, then every theory becomes unfalsifiable.
Thus we must exclude at least some immunizations.
Only the ‘laws of nature’ are simple; and these, the conventionalist
holds, are our own free creations; our inventions;
our arbitrary decisions and conventions.
The only way to avoid conventionalism is by taking a decision:
the decision not to apply its methods.
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 37 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA imunizace
Immunizing Strategies
and Epistemic Defense Mechanisms
Boudry and Braeckman (2011: 146)
We define an ‘immunizing strategy’ as an argument brought
forward in support of a belief system, though independent
from that belief system, which makes it more or less invulnerable
to rational argumentation and/or empirical evidence.
By contrast, an epistemic ‘defense mechanism’ is defined as
an internal structural feature of a belief system, which has
the same effect of deflecting rational arguments and empirical
refutations.
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 38 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA imunizace
Popper: Types of Immunizations
(K. Popper, 2005: 62)
Types
introduction
of ad hoc hypotheses
modification
of ostensive (or explicit) definition
adoption
of sceptical attitude
as to the reliability of the experimenter justifications
or the experimenter herself
cast doubts
on the acumen of the theoretician
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 39 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA imunizace
Popper: Types of Immunizations
(K. Popper, 2005: 62)
The list makes no claim to completeness: it must be left to
the investigator, especially in the fields of sociology and psychology
(the physicist may hardly need the warning) to guard
constantly against the temptation to employ new conventionalist
stratagems–a temptation to which psychoanalysts,
for example, often succumb.
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 40 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA imunizace
Immunizing Strategies
and Epistemic Defense Mechanisms
(Boudry & Braeckman, 2011: 146)
ˆ Conceptual Equivocations & Moving Targets
ˆ Multiple Endpoints
ˆ Deflationary Revisions
ˆ Postdiction and Feedback Loops
ˆ Conspiracy Thinking
ˆ Turning the Evidence on its Head
ˆ Explaining the Motives for Disbelief
ˆ Changing the Rules of Play
ˆ Invisible Escape Clauses
ˆ Tailoring Around the Phenomena
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 41 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA proč?
problémy
ˆ zdroje a náklady
ˆ bezpečnost
ˆ rozhodování
ˆ ...
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 42 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA proč?
feng shui
Henry (2019)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 43 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA proč?
vakcinace I/II
Volfová (2018)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 44 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA proč?
vakcinace II/II
ˆ Common good (společné dobro)?
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 45 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA proč?
plochá Země
Koubek (2018)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 46 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA proč?
zdravotní péče
ČTK (2018)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 47 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA proč?
volby
Aktuálně.cz (2018)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 48 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA proč?
konspirační myšlení
ˆ Věříte v konspirace?
ˆ Jaký je problém konspirací?
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 49 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA příklady
Conceptual Equivocations & Moving Targets
ˆ Multiple Endpoints
ˆ predictions in horoscopes (Gilovich (1991: 58–59))
ˆ Nostradamus (Hines (2003); Marks (2000: 262–266))
ˆ Deflationary Revisions
ˆ Jehovah’s witnesses (Zygmunt (1970: 931, 934))
ˆ Freud’s theory of the libido (Cioffi (1998: 16))
ˆ postmodernisms and social constructivism (Kukla and
NetLibrary, Inc. (2000: x))
ˆ “switcheroos” and “reverse-switcheroos” (Kukla and
NetLibrary, Inc. (2000: x))
ˆ “Motte and Bailey Doctrines”
(Shackel (2005: 298); Fusfield (1993))
ˆ Intelligent Design, Creationists (Behe) (Behe (1996: 39))
ˆ Intelligent Design, Creationists (Demski) (Perakh
(2004: 64–75))
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 50 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA příklady
Conceptual Equivocations & Moving Targets
Multiple Endpoints
(van Eemeren, Grootendorst, & Eemeren, 2004; Ward, 2007: 206)
Un Empereur naistra pres d’Italie,
Qui a l’Empire sera vendu bien cher;
Diront avec quelz gens il se ralie,
Qu’on trouvera moins prince que boucher.
An Emperor shall be born near Italy,
Bought by the Empire at a bankrupt rate;
You’d say the herd, he gathers to himself,
Denote him butcher rather than a prince.
ˆ P-D 10 Language Use Rule
ˆ Discussants may not use any formulations that are insufficiently clear or confusingly
ambiguous, and they may not deliberately misinterpret the other party’s formulations.
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 51 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA příklady
Multiple Endpoints
(Ondráček, 2020)
D2
D1
Dx W
B
C
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 52 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA příklady
Multiple Endpoints
(Ondráček, 2020)
W1
(z → hf )
B1
(t → h)
(h ↔ hf )
((hf ∧ i) → z)
Bi
i
C1/D2
hf
W2
(z ∧ (z → hf )) → t)
IS1a
((hf ∧ i) → (z1 ∨ z2 ∨ z... ∨ zx))
C2
t
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 53 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA příklady
Deflationary Revisions
Intelligent Design, Creationists (Behe)
Switcheroos
(Behe, 1996; Kukla & NetLibrary, Inc., 2000: 39)
By irreducibly complex I mean a single system composed of
several well-matched, interacting parts that contribute to the
basic function, wherein the removal of any one of the parts
causes the system to effectively cease functioning.
An irreducibly complex system cannot be produced directly
(that is, by continuously improving the initial function, which
continues to work by the same mechanism) by slight, successive
modifications of a precursor system, because any precursor
to an irreducibly complex system that is missing a part is
by definition nonfunctional.
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 54 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA příklady
Deflationary Revisions
Intelligent Design, Creationists (Behe)
Switcheroos
(Ondráček, 2020)
D2
D1 C1
C2
D2
D1 Q1
Q2
C
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 55 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA příklady
Postdiction and Feedback Loops
ˆ the belief in the efficacy of rituals and magic
(Boyer (1994: 144, 207); Evans-Pritchard (1937))
ˆ the belief in the therapeutic power of healing crystals, chakra
stimulation, and homeopathy
ˆ parapsychology
(Wiseman (2010: 38); Gilovich (1991: 21); Randi (1981: 13))
ˆ water divining (Randi (1981: 13))
ˆ Freudian psychoanalysis: the etiology of psychological illness
(Freud (1924: 119))
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 56 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA příklady
Postdiction and Feedback Loops
(Ondráček, 2020)
Da
Db
nonDa
C
nonC
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 57 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA příklady
Conspiracy Thinking
ˆ Turning the Evidence on its Head
ˆ “errant data” (Keeley (1999: 118))
ˆ Explaining the Motives for Disbelief
ˆ Freud’s Psychoanalysis
(Crews (1986: 14); Gellner (1985); Freud (1957: 39))
ˆ Defenders of Marxism
ˆ Young Earth Creationism (Morris (1963: 93))
ˆ UFOs and alien abductions (Jacobs (1998: 112, 117, 258))
ˆ Scientology (Foster (1971: 134))
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 58 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA příklady
Turning Evidence on its Head
errant data
(Ondráček, 2020)
Do non − Cot
D
Wot
Bot
Wot2
Cot
Dn
Wk
Bk
Ck
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 59 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA příklady
Changing the Rules of Play
ˆ postmodernist philosophers and radical social constructivists
(Shackel (2005: 311–319))
ˆ alternative medicine (Gordon (1996); (Williams, 1980))
ˆ homeopathy (Guttentag (1940))
ˆ psychoanalysts
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 60 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA příklady
Changing Rules of Play
(Shackel, 2005: 312)
Firstly, the metaphilosophical claim is made that philosophy
cannot properly be done except negatively: that to occupy
a position is already to be mistaken. I am going to refer to
this position as the No-Position Position. Secondly, alogosia
is asserted: true normative theories of objective rationality
are not available; whatever we take to be the canons of rationality
are constructions, so could have been constructed
differently, and although there may be some ways in which
they could not be constructed, among those ways in which
they can be constructed there are no better or worse ways of
constructing them.“
ˆ P-D 2 Obligation to Defend Rule
ˆ Discussants who advance a standpoint may not refuse to defend this standpoint when
requested to do so.
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 61 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA příklady
Invisible Escape Clauses
ˆ Tailoring Around the Phenomena
ˆ Omphalos hypothesis by Philip Gosse (1857) (Gosse (1857))
ˆ the idea of negative psi (“catapsi”)
(Wiseman (2010); Sheldrake (1995); Bonewitz (1989: 55))
ˆ Franz Anton Mesmer and magnetizers (Mackay (1974
(1841): 290))
ˆ Parapsychologists and “error phenomenon” (or “decline
effect”)
(Kennedy (2003: 67); Kennedy (2001); Humphrey
(1996: 152); Beloff (1994: 7, 11))
ˆ Imponderabilia
ˆ the astrologer’s belated invocation of the formation of stars
(at the moment of conception)
ˆ Bigfoot and UFO (Zuefle (1999: 27); Mack (1995))
ˆ Freudian psychoanalysis and quantitative factor
(Cioffi (1998: 119); Esterson (1993))
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 62 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA příklady
Tailoring Around the Phenomena
Franz Anton Mesmer and magnetizers
(Mackay, 1974 (1841): 294)
And it should be especially remarked that the magnetisers
do not lay claim to a universal efficacy for their fluid; the
strong and the healthy cannot be magnetised; the incredulous
cannot be magnetised; those who reason upon it cannot
be magnetised; those who firmly believe in it can be magnetised;
the weak in body can be magnetised, and the weak
in mind can be magnetised. And lest, from some cause or
other, individuals of the latter classes should resist the magnetic
charm, the apostles of the science declare that there
are times when even they cannot be acted upon; the presence
of one scorner or unbeliever may weaken the potency
of the fluid and destroy its efficacy. In M. Deleuze’s instructions
to a magnetiser, he expressly says, ‘Never magnetise
before inquisitive persons!’
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 63 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA příklady
Tailoring Around the Phenomena
Franz Anton Mesmer and magnetizers
(Ondráček, 2020)
Da
nonCDb W
B
Q
R
C
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 64 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA jak?
diskuze
Česká televize (n.d.)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 65 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA jak?
zneužití
(Kingsbury & Dare, 2017)
ˆ Cherry-Picking
ˆ Using Contentious Scientific Results Without Appropriate
Reservation
ˆ Arguing Illegitimately from Scientific Authority
ˆ Applying Scientific Theories or Data Too Far from Their Domain:
Stump, Mirror Neurons, and the Paradox of Fiction
ˆ Drawing Philosophical Conclusions Too Quickly from Scientific
Theories or Data:
Harman on Character Traits
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 66 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA jak?
možnosti
(Kingsbury & Dare, 2017)
ˆ Being Explicit About the Role the Scientific Theory or Empirical
Data Are Playing in a Philosophical Argument
ˆ Explicitly Addressing the Credibility of the Scientific Data or
Theory
ˆ Using Review Articles and Metastudies
ˆ Collaborating with Scientists
ˆ Experimental Philosophy?
ˆ Rigorous and Informed Peer Review
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 67 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA praxe v diskuzích
Plandemic
ˆ Plandemic: The Hidden Agenda Behind Covid-19 (2020)
ˆ režisér/producent: Mikki Willis
ˆ hlavní postavy: Judy Anne Mikovits
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 68 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA praxe v diskuzích
Plandemic: Frenkel, Decker, and Alba (2020)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 69 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA praxe v diskuzích
konspirační teorie: van Mulukom et al. (2020)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 70 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA praxe v diskuzích
kosnpirační myšlení
ˆ dvě základní verze (Boudry and Braeckman (2011)):
ˆ postavení důkazu na hlavu
ˆ vysvětlení motivů pro nedůvěru
ˆ útok na podporu (backing, Toulmin (2003))
ˆ motivované usuzování
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 71 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA praxe v diskuzích
Plandemic: The Hidden Agenda Behind Covid-19
(2020)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 72 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA praxe v diskuzích
práce s konspiračním myšlení
ˆ hledání společné podpory (backingu)
ˆ metadiskuze a subdiskuze
ˆ společné hodnoty
ˆ nevědecká dikuze
ˆ sporná účinnost diskuze o faktech (datech)
ˆ časová náročnost
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 73 / 91
PSEUDOVĚDA praxe v diskuzích
Plandemic: další rétorické prvky
ˆ narativ výzkumu (dobro vs. zlo)
ˆ populismus (Eberl, Huber, and Greussing (2021))
ˆ srozumitelnost, práce s pravděpodobností a jistota
ˆ ...
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 74 / 91
DOPLNĚNÍ
Kuhn and Lakatos: criticism
(Lakatos, 1978: 5–4)
Scientists have thick skins. They do not abandon a theory
merely because facts contradict it. They normally either invent
some rescue hypothesis to explain what they then call
a mere anomaly or, if they cannot explain the anomaly, they
ignore it, and direct their attention to other problems. Note
that scientists talk about anomalies, recalcitrant instances,
not refutations.
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 75 / 91
DOPLNĚNÍ
Popper: Revaluation
(K. R. Popper, 2005: 43)
On the other hand, I also realized that we must not exclude
all immunizations, not even all which introduced ad
hoc auxiliary hypotheses. For example the observed motion
of Uranus might have been regarded as a falsification of
Newton’s theory. Instead the auxiliary hypothesis of an outer
planet was introduced ad hoc, thus immunizing the theory.
This turned out to be fortunate; for the auxiliary hypothesis
was a testable one, even if difficult to test, and it stood up to
tests successfully.
All this shows not only that some degree of dogmatism is
fruitful, even in science, but also that logically speaking falsifiability,
or testability, cannot be regarded as a very sharp
criterion.
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 76 / 91
DOPLNĚNÍ
Popper: admissibility of immunizations
ˆ empirical content
ˆ new theory
ˆ reasonableness
ˆ ...
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 77 / 91
DOPLNĚNÍ
Derksen: reprehensibility of immunizations
(Derksen, 1993: 24)
Yet, immunizing is not always reprehensible. In fact, as far
as the argumentation is concerned there is nothing wrong
with immunization. Immunization is nothing but arguing on
the assumed truth of one’s theory. There is nothing against
this, as long as the theory is well-confirmed. Immunization
becomes reprehensible only when it is unfounded.
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 78 / 91
ZÁVĚR A SHRNUTÍ
science as a tool
(Sagan, 2006)
My deeply held belief is that if a god of anything like the
traditional sort exists, then our curiosity and intelligence are
provided by such a god. We would be unappreciative of those
gifts if we suppressed our passion to explore the universe
and ourselves. On the other hand, if such a traditional god
does not exist, then our curiosity and our intelligence are
the essential tools for managing our survival in an extremely
dangerous time. In either case the enterprise of knowledge
is consistent surely with science; it should be with religion,
and it is essential for the welfare of the human species.
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 79 / 91
ZÁVĚR A SHRNUTÍ
ethics
A Brief History of Philosophical Skepticism (2019)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 80 / 91
ZÁVĚR A SHRNUTÍ
Co si odnést?
Teorie potřebuje praxi.
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 81 / 91
ZÁVĚR A SHRNUTÍ
důležité pojmy a koncepty I
POJMY A KONCEPTY
ˆ dělení vědy
ˆ problém indukce
ˆ povaha tvrzení
ˆ existenciální, non-existenciální
ˆ singulární, universální
ˆ empirická báze
ˆ Friesovo trilema
ˆ verifikace
ˆ falsifikace
ˆ naivní, metodologická
ˆ asymetrie verifikace a falsifikace
ˆ ad-hoc hypotézy
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 82 / 91
ZÁVĚR A SHRNUTÍ
důležité pojmy a koncepty II
ˆ paradigma / disciplinární matice
ˆ vědecká období
ˆ předparadigmatické období
ˆ období normální vědy
ˆ období ne-normální vědy
ˆ výzkumný program
ˆ degenerativní a progresivní
ˆ tvrdé jádro, ochranný pás, heuristiky
ˆ demarkace vědy
ˆ falsifikovatelnost
ˆ řešení hádanek
ˆ výzkumné programy
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 83 / 91
ZÁVĚR A SHRNUTÍ
důležité pojmy a koncepty III
PROBLÉMY
ˆ Jak lze rozlišit vědu a ne-vědu?
ˆ Proč potřebujeme vědu?
ˆ K čemu vede asymetrie mezi verifikací a falsifikací?
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 84 / 91
ZÁVĚR A SHRNUTÍ
Frauds in Philosophy?
“Saul Kripke resigned yesterday from his position [...] a team of
philosophers from Oxford University [...] were systematically unable
to reproduce the results of thought experiments reported by Kripke in
his groundbreaking Naming and Necessity. The team, led by Timothy
Williamson, first became suspicious of Naming and Necessity after
preliminary results raised questions about related work by Hilary
Putnam. While the group was initially unable to confirm that water is
H2O on Twin Earth, the results turned out to be due to contaminated
research materials—one of the researchers’ minds had been
contaminated by Chomskyan internalist semantics.”
(Fauxphilnews, 2012)
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 85 / 91
ZÁVĚR A SHRNUTÍ
OVERVIEW
ÚVOD
VĚDECKÉ PROHŘEŠKY
druhy & typy
praktické provedení
problémy
VĚDECKÉ PUBLIKOVÁNÍ
problémy
snižující se důvěryhodnost
predátoři
co?
Derksen
immunizations
imunizace
proč?
zdroje a náklady
bezpečnost
rozhodování
příkladyOndráček ·ZAFI ·2023 86 / 91
ZÁVĚR A SHRNUTÍ
bibliography I
Aktuálně.cz. (2018). Z čeho má Kim Čong-un strach, proč má soukromý záchod? A umí plavat? Zkuste si, co
víte o KLDR. https://zpravy.aktualne.cz/zahranici/kviz-korea-kldr-summit-kim/
r~8bcf26484a0c11e8aca5ac1f6b220ee8/.
Beall, J. (2015). Beall’s list: potential, possible, or probable predatory scholarly open-access publishers.
Scholarly Open Access. Retrieved from
https://scholarlyoa.com/2016/01/05/bealls-list-of-predatory-publishers-2016/
Behe, M. J. (1996). Darwin’s black box: The biochemical challenge to evolution. Simon and Schuster.
Beloff, J. (1994). Lessons of history. The Journal ofthe American Society for Psychical Research, 88(7), 7–22.
Bonewitz, I. (1989). Real magic. Samuel Weiser.
Boudry, M., & Braeckman, J. (2011). Immunizing strategies and epistemic defense mechanisms. Philosophia,
39(1), 145–161.
Boyer, P. (1994). The naturalness ofreligious ideas: A cognitive theory ofreligion. University of California press.
A Brief History of Philosophical Skepticism. (2019, October). Existential Comics. Retrieved from
http://existentialcomics.com/comic/310
Cioffi, F. (1998). Freud and the question ofpseudoscience. Open Court.
Crews, F. C. (1986). Skeptical engagements. Oxford University Press.
Derksen, A. A. (1993). The seven sins of pseudo-science. Journal for General Philosophy of Science, 24(1),
17–42.
Derksen, A. A. (2001). The Seven Strategies of the Sophisticated Pseudo-Scientist: a look into Freud’s
rhetorical tool box. Journal for general philosophy of science, 32(2), 329–350.
Eberl, J.-M., Huber, R. A., & Greussing, E. (2021). From populism to the “plandemic”: why populists believe in
covid-19 conspiracies. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 31(sup1), 272–284.
Esterson, A. (1993). Seductive mirage: An exploration of the work of sigmund freud. Open Court.
Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (1937). Witchcraft, oracles and magic among the Azande (Vol. 12). Oxford London.
Fanelli, D. (2009). How many scientists fabricate and falsify research? a systematic review and meta-analysis
of survey data. PloS one, 4(5), 5738.
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 87 / 91
ZÁVĚR A SHRNUTÍ
bibliography II
Fanelli, D. (2011). The black, the white and the grey areas: Towards an international and interdisciplinary
definition of scientific misconduct. In T. Mayer & N. Steneck (Eds.), Promoting research integrity in a
global environment (pp. 79–90). World Scientific Publishing Company.
Fanelli, D. (2013). Redefine misconduct as distorted reporting. Nature, 494(7436), 149–149.
Fauxphilnews. (2012). Kripke resigns as report alleges he faked results of thought experiments. Retrieved
from https://fauxphilnews.wordpress.com/2012/02/22/
kripke-resigns-after-allegations-of-academic-fraud/
Foster, J. G. (1971). Enquiry into the practice and effects of scientology. Her Majesty’s Stationery Office.
Frenkel, S., Decker, B., & Alba, D. (2020). How the ‘plandemic’movie and its falsehoods spread widely online.
The New York Times, 20.
Freud, S. (1924). Collected papers, vol. 2. The Hogarth Press.
Freud, S. (1957). The standard edition of the complete psychological works of sigmund freud. , 11.
Fusfield, W. D. (1993). Some pseudoscientific features of transcendental-pragmatic grounding projects.
Mensch und Gesellschaft aus der Sicht des kritischen Rationalismus.
Gardner, M. (1957). Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science. Courier Corporation.
Gellner, E. (1985). The psychoanalytic movement: The cunning of unreason. Paladin.
Gilovich, T. (1991). How we know what isn’t so: The fallibility of human reason in everyday life. Free press.
Gordon, J. S. (1996). Manifesto for a new medicine. Addison-Wesley.
Gosse, P. H. (1857). Omphalos: An attempt to untie the geological knot. J. Van Voorst.
Gould, S. J. (1996). The Mismeasure of Man. WW Norton & Company.
Guttentag, O. E. (1940). Trends toward homeopathy: Present and past. Bulletin of the History ofMedicine, 8,
1172–1193.
Henry, J. S. (2019, May). How corruption in forensic science is harming the criminal justice system. Retrieved
from https://theconversation.com/
how-corruption-in-forensic-science-is-harming-the-criminal-justice-system-108975
Hines, T. (2003). Pseudoscience and the paranormal (2nd ed.). Amherst: Prometheus Books.
Humphrey, N. (1996). Soul searching: Human nature and supernatural belief. Vintage.
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 88 / 91
ZÁVĚR A SHRNUTÍ
bibliography III
Jacobs, D. M. (1998). The threat: The secret agenda: What the aliens really want ... and how they plan to get it.
Simon & Schuster.
Keeley, B. L. (1999). Of conspiracy theories. The Journal of Philosophy, 96(3), 109–126.
Kennedy, J. E. (2001). Why is psi so elusive? a review and proposed model. The Journal of Parapsychology,
65(3), 219–246.
Kennedy, J. E. (2003). The capricious, actively evasive, unsustainable nature of psi: A summary and
hypotheses. The Journal of Parapsychology, 67(1), 53–75.
Kingsbury, J., & Dare, T. (2017). The philosophical use and misuse of science. Metaphilosophy, 48(4), 449–466.
Koubek, V. (2018). Propagátor teorie o placaté Zemi „vzlétl do kosmu“: Tvrdé přistání ale přežil.
https://www.stoplusjednicka.cz/
propagator-teorie-o-placate-zemi-vzletl-do-kosmu-tvrde-pristani-ale-prezil.
Kukla, A., & NetLibrary, Inc. (2000). Social constructivism and the philosophy of science. Routledge.
Lakatos, I. (1978). The methodology of scientific research programmes (Vol. 1; J. Worrall & G. Currie, Eds.).
Cambridge university press.
Le Trionnaire, S., Perry, A., Szczesny, B., Szabo, C., Winyard, P. G., Whatmore, J. L., ... Whiteman, M. (2014). The
synthesis and functional evaluation of a mitochondria-targeted hydrogen sulfide
donor,(10-oxo-10-(4-(3-thioxo-3 h-1, 2-dithiol-5-yl) phenoxy) decyl) triphenylphosphonium bromide
(Ap39). MedChemComm, 5(6), 728–736.
Lindner, T. (2017). VÍRA VE SPIKLENECKÉ TEORIE OPĚT ROSTE. STAČÍ PÁR KLIKNUTÍ.
https://www.respekt.cz/denni-menu/vira-ve-spiklenecke-teorie-opet-roste-diky
-internetu-jedinym-lekem-je-medialni-gramotnost.
Lugg, A. (1987). Bunkum, Flim & Flam and Quackery: Pseudoscience as a Philosophical Problem. Dialectica,
41(3), 221–230.
Mack, J. E. (1995). Abduction: Human encounters with aliens. Simon and Schuster.
Mackay, C. (1974 (1841)). Extraordinary popular delusions and the madness of crowds. Barnes & Noble
Publishing.
Mahner, M. (2007). Demarcating science from non-science. General philosophy of science: Focal issues,
515–575.
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 89 / 91
ZÁVĚR A SHRNUTÍ
bibliography IV
Marks, D. (2000). The psychology of the psychic. Prometheus books.
Morris, H. M. (1963). Twilight of evolution. Baker Pub Group.
National Science Foundation. (2002). Misconduct in Science and Engineering: Final Rule, 45 CFR Part 689.
Retrieved from https://www.nsf.gov/oig/{_}pdf/cfr/45-CFR-689.pdf (NSF = National Science
Foundation, 10-1-2)
Ondráček, T. (2020). Co jsou to imunizační strategie? (Disertační práce, Masarykova univerzita, Filozofická
fakulta, Brno). Retrieved from DostupnézWWW<https://is.muni.cz/th/q11v4/>
PDOS, r. (2016). SCIgen - An Automatic CS Paper Generator. Retrieved from
https://pdos.csail.mit.edu/archive/scigen/#people
Perakh, M. (2004). Unintelligent design. Prometheus books.
Plandemic: The hidden agenda behind covid-19. (2020). Elevate Films.
Popper, K. (2005). The logic of scientific discovery. Routledge.
Popper, K. R. (2005). Unended Quest: An Intellectual Autobiography. Routledge.
Project Implicit. (2016). Project Implicit. Retrieved from https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/
Randi, J. (1981). Selective test selection. Skeptical Inquirer, 5, 12–13.
Rosling, H. (2016). The Ignorance Project. GapMinder Foundation. Retrieved from
https://www.gapminder.org/ignorance/
Rushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R. (2005). Wanted: More race realism, less moralistic fallacy. Psychology, Public
Policy, and Law, 11(2), 328.
Sagan, C. (2006). The varieties of scientific experience: A personal view of the search for God. Penguin.
Shackel, N. (2005). The vacuity of postmodernist methodology. Metaphilosophy, 36(3), 295–320.
Sheldrake, R. (1995). Seven experiments that could change the world: A do-it-yourself guide to revolutionary
science. Putnam Publishing Group.
Sokal, A. D. (1996). Transgressing the boundaries: Toward a transformative hermeneutics of quantum gravity.
Social text(46/47), 217–252.
Stroebe, W., Postmes, T., & Spears, R. (2012). Scientific Misconduct and the Myth of Self-Correction in Science.
Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(6), 670–688.
Toulmin, S. E. (2003). The uses of argument. Cambridge university press.
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 90 / 91
ZÁVĚR A SHRNUTÍ
bibliography V
van Eemeren, F. H., Grootendorst, R., & Eemeren, F. H. (2004). A systematic theory of argumentation: The
pragma-dialectical approach (Vol. 14). Cambridge University Press.
van Mulukom, V., Pummerer, L., Alper, S., Cavojova, V., Farias, J. E. M., Kay, C. S., ... others (2020). Antecedents
and consequences of covid-19 conspiracy theories: a rapid review of the evidence. PsyArXiv.
Van Noorden, R. (2011). The trouble with retractions. Nature, 478(7367), 26–28.
Volfová, T. (2018). Rodiče věří mýtům o očkování, roste výskyt spalniček. V Praze už je epidemie.
http://www.ceskatelevize.cz/ct24/domaci/
2445079-rodice-veri-mytum-o-ockovani-roste-vyskyt-spalnicek-v-praze-uz-je-epidemie.
Voyager 2. (2018, August). Face on mars illusion: Space amino. AminoApps. Retrieved from
https://aminoapps.com/c/space/page/blog/face-on-mars-illusion/
3WYz_0xrcBuo5Y2p0G7w6Ex2adnakE7JnQ
Ward, C. A. (2007). Oracles of nostradamus. Cosimo, Inc.
Williams, R. J. (1980). Biochemical individuality. University of Texas Press.
Wiseman, R. (2010). Heads i win, tails you lose. how parapsychologists nullify null results. Skeptical Inquirer,
34(1), 36–39.
Zuefle, D. M. (1999). Tracking bigfoot on the internet. Skeptical Inquirer, 23, 26–29.
Zygmunt, J. F. (1970). Prophetic failure and chiliastic identity: The case of jehovah’s witnesses. The American
Journal of Sociology, 75(6), 926–948.
Česká televize. (n.d.). Máte slovo s m. jílkovou. Retrieved from https://www.ceskatelevize.cz/porady/
10175540660-mate-slovo-s-m-jilkovou/215411030520035
ČTK. (2018). Nevyléčitelně nemocný britský chlapec Alfie Evans zemřel. Převoz a léčbu zakázal soud.
https://www.irozhlas.cz/zivotni-styl/spolecnost/
alfie-evans-smrt-velka-britanie-soud_1804281144_sam.
Ondráček ·ZAFI ·2023 91 / 91