HI-TECH PICC-Lite Compiler HI-TECH Software. Copyright (C) 2007 HI-TECH Software. All Rights Reserved. Printed in Australia. PICC-Lite is licensed exclusively to HI-TECH Software by Microchip Technology Inc. Produced on: September 25, 2007 HI-TECH Software Pty. Ltd. ACN 002 724 549 45 Colebard Street West Acacia Ridge QLD 4110 Australia email: hitech@htsoft.com web: http://www.htsoft.com ftp: ftp://www.htsoft.com Contents Table of Contents iii List of Tables xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Typographic conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 PICL Command-line Driver 3 2.1 Long Command Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2.2 Default Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2.3 Standard Runtime Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2.4 PICL Compiler Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.4.1 -C: Compile to Object File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.4.2 -Dmacro: Define Macro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2.4.3 -Efile: Redirect Compiler Errors to a File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2.4.4 -Gfile: Generate Source-level Symbol File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.4.5 -Ipath: Include Search Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.4.6 -Llibrary: Scan Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.4.7 -L-option: Adjust Linker Options Directly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.4.8 -Mfile: Generate Map File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.4.9 -Nsize: Identifier Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.4.10 -Ofile: Specify Output File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.4.11 -P: Preprocess Assembly Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.4.12 -Q: Quiet Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.4.13 -S: Compile to Assembler Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.4.14 -Umacro: Undefine a Macro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.4.15 -V: Verbose Compile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.4.16 -X: Strip Local Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 iii CONTENTS CONTENTS 2.4.17 --ASMLIST: Generate Assembler .LST Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.4.18 --CHAR=type: Make Char Type Signed or Unsigned . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.4.19 --CHECKSUM=start-end@destination<,specs>: Calculate a checksum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.4.20 --CHIP=processor: Define Processor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.4.21 --CHIPINFO: Display List of Supported Processors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.4.22 --CODEOFFSET: Offset Program Code to Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.4.23 --CR=file: Generate Cross Reference Listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.4.24 --DEBUGGER=type: Select Debugger Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.4.25 --DOUBLE=type: Select kind of Double Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.4.26 --ECHO: Echo compiler command line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.4.27 --ERRFORMAT=format: Define Format for Compiler Messages . . . . . . . 16 2.4.27.1 Using the Format Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.4.27.2 Modifying the Standard Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.4.28 --ERRORS=number: Maximum Number of Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.4.29 --FILL=opcode: Fill Unused Program Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.4.30 --GETOPTION=app,file: Get Command-line Options . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.4.31 --HELP<=option>: Display Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.4.32 --IDE=type: Specify the IDE being used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.4.33 --LANG=language: Specify the Language for Messages . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.4.34 --MEMMAP=file: Display Memory Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.4.35 --MSGDISABLE=messagelist: Disable Warning Messages . . . . . . . . 20 2.4.36 --MSGFORMAT=format: Set Advisory Message Format . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.4.37 --NODEL: Do not remove temporary files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.4.38 --NOEXEC: Don't Execute Compiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.4.39 --OPT<=type>: Invoke Compiler Optimizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.4.40 --OUTDIR: Specify a directory for output files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.4.41 --OUTPUT=type: Specify Output File Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.4.42 --PRE: Produce Preprocessed Source Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.4.43 --PROTO: Generate Prototypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.4.44 --RAM=lo-hi,: Specify Additional RAM Ranges . . . . . 23 2.4.45 --ROM=lo-hi,|tag: Specify Additional ROM Ranges . . 24 2.4.46 --RUNTIME=type: Specify Runtime Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.4.47 --SCANDEP: Scan for Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.4.48 --SERIAL=hexcode@address: Store a Value at this Program Memory Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.4.49 --SETOPTION=app,file: Set The Command-line Options for Application 26 2.4.50 --SETUP=dir: Setup the product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.4.51 --STRICT: Strict ANSI Conformance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 iv CONTENTS CONTENTS 2.4.52 --SUMMARY=type: Select Memory Summary Output Type . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.4.53 --TIME: Report time taken for each phase of build process . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.4.54 --VER: Display The Compiler's Version Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.4.55 --WARN=level: Set Warning Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.4.56 --WARNFORMAT=format: Set Warning Message Format . . . . . . . . . . . 28 3 C Language Features 29 3.1 ANSI Standard Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 3.1.1 Implementation-defined behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 3.2 Processor-related Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 3.2.1 Stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 3.2.2 Configuration Fuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 3.2.3 ID Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 3.2.4 Bit Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 3.2.5 EEPROM Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 3.2.5.1 The eeprom variable qualifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 3.2.5.2 The __EEPROM_DATA() macro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3.2.5.3 EEPROM Access Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 3.2.5.4 EEPROM Access Macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 3.2.6 Flash Runtime Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.2.6.1 Flash Access Macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.2.6.2 Flash Access Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.2.7 Baseline PIC special instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.2.7.1 The OPTION instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.2.7.2 The TRIS instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.2.7.3 Calibration Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.2.7.4 Oscillator calibration constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.3 Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.3.1 Source Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.3.2 Symbol Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.3.3 Standard Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.3.4 Runtime startup Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.3.4.1 Initialization of Data psects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.3.4.2 Clearing the Bss Psects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.3.4.3 Linking in the C Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.3.4.4 The powerup Routine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.4 Supported Data Types and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.4.1 Radix Specifiers and Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.4.2 Bit Data Types and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 v CONTENTS CONTENTS 3.4.3 8-Bit Integer Data Types and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 3.4.4 16-Bit Integer Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 3.4.5 32-Bit Integer Data Types and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 3.4.6 Floating Point Types and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.4.7 Structures and Unions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 3.4.7.1 Bit-fields in Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 3.4.7.2 Structure and Union Qualifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.4.8 Standard Type Qualifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.4.8.1 Const and Volatile Type Qualifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.4.9 Special Type Qualifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.4.9.1 Persistent Type Qualifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.4.9.2 Bank1, Bank2 and Bank3 Type Qualifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.4.10 Eeprom Type Qualifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 3.4.11 Pointer Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 3.4.11.1 Baseline Pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 3.4.11.2 Midrange Pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 3.4.11.3 Highend Pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.4.11.4 Qualifiers and Pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.5 Storage Class and Object Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.5.1 Local Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.5.1.1 Auto Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3.5.1.2 Static Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3.5.2 Absolute Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3.6 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 3.6.1 Function Argument Passing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 3.6.2 Function Return Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3.6.2.1 Structure Return Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 3.7 Function Calling Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 3.8 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 3.8.1 Integral Promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 3.8.2 Shifts applied to integral types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.8.3 Division and modulus with integral types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.9 Psects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.9.1 Compiler-generated Psects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 3.10 Interrupt Handling in C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.10.1 Interrupt Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.10.1.1 Midrange Interrupt Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.10.1.2 Highend Interrupt Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.10.1.3 Context Saving on Interrupts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 vi CONTENTS CONTENTS 3.10.1.4 MidRange Context Saving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.10.1.5 High-End Context Saving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.10.1.6 Context Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.10.1.7 Interrupt Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.10.1.8 Multiple Interrupts on High-End PICs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3.10.1.9 Enabling Interrupts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 3.11 Mixing C and Assembler Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 3.11.1 External Assembly Language Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 3.11.2 #asm, #endasm and asm() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.11.3 Accessing C objects from within Assembly Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 3.11.3.1 Equivalent Assembly Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 3.11.3.2 Accessing special function register names from assembler . . . . . 69 3.12 Preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.12.1 Preprocessor Directives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.12.2 Predefined Macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.12.3 Pragma Directives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.12.3.1 The #pragma inline Directive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.12.3.2 The #pragma jis and nojis Directives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 3.12.3.3 The #pragma pack Directive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 3.12.3.4 The #pragma printf_check Directive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 3.12.3.5 The #pragma psect Directive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 3.12.3.6 The #pragma regsused Directive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 3.12.3.7 The #pragma switch Directive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 3.13 Linking Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.13.1 Replacing Library Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.13.2 Signature Checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 3.13.3 Linker-Defined Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 3.14 Standard I/O Functions and Serial I/O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 4 Macro Assembler 81 4.1 Assembler Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4.2 Assembler Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4.3 HI-TECH C Assembly Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 4.3.1 Statement Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 4.3.2 Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 4.3.2.1 Delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 4.3.2.2 Special Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 4.3.3 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 4.3.3.1 Special Comment Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 vii CONTENTS CONTENTS 4.3.4 Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 4.3.4.1 Numeric Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 4.3.4.2 Character Constants and Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 4.3.5 Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 4.3.5.1 Significance of Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 4.3.5.2 Assembler-Generated Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 4.3.5.3 Location Counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 4.3.5.4 Register Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 4.3.5.5 Symbolic Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 4.3.6 Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 4.3.7 Program Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 4.3.8 Assembler Directives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 4.3.8.1 GLOBAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 4.3.8.2 END . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 4.3.8.3 PSECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4.3.8.4 ORG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 4.3.8.5 EQU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 4.3.8.6 SET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 4.3.8.7 DB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 4.3.8.8 DW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 4.3.8.9 DS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 4.3.8.10 FNADDR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 4.3.8.11 FNARG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 4.3.8.12 FNBREAK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 4.3.8.13 FNCALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 4.3.8.14 FNCONF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 4.3.8.15 FNINDIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 4.3.8.16 FNSIZE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 4.3.8.17 FNROOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 4.3.8.18 IF, ELSIF, ELSE and ENDIF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 4.3.8.19 MACRO and ENDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 4.3.8.20 LOCAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 4.3.8.21 ALIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 4.3.8.22 REPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 4.3.8.23 IRP and IRPC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 4.3.8.24 PROCESSOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 4.3.8.25 SIGNAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 4.3.9 Assembler Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 4.3.9.1 COND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 viii CONTENTS CONTENTS 4.3.9.2 EXPAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 4.3.9.3 INCLUDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 4.3.9.4 LIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 4.3.9.5 NOCOND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 4.3.9.6 NOEXPAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 4.3.9.7 NOLIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 4.3.9.8 NOXREF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 4.3.9.9 PAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 4.3.9.10 SPACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 4.3.9.11 SUBTITLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 4.3.9.12 TITLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 4.3.9.13 XREF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 5 Linker and Utilities 107 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 5.2 Relocation and Psects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 5.3 Program Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 5.4 Local Psects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 5.5 Global Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 5.6 Link and load addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 5.7 Compiled Stack Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 5.7.1 Parameters involving Function Calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 5.7.2 Implicit Calls to Assembler Library Routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 5.8 Map Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 5.8.1 Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 5.8.2 Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 5.8.2.1 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 5.8.2.2 Call Graph Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 5.8.2.3 Psect Information listed by Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 5.8.2.4 Psect Information listed by Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 5.8.2.5 Segment Listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 5.8.2.6 Unused Address Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 5.8.2.7 Symbol Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 5.9 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 5.9.1 Numbers in linker options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 5.9.2 -Aclass=low-high,... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 5.9.3 -Cx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 5.9.4 -Cpsect=class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 5.9.5 -Dclass=delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 ix CONTENTS CONTENTS 5.9.6 -Dsymfile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 5.9.7 -Eerrfile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 5.9.8 -F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 5.9.9 -Gspec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 5.9.10 -Hsymfile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 5.9.11 -H+symfile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 5.9.12 -Jerrcount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 5.9.13 -K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 5.9.14 -I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 5.9.15 -L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 5.9.16 -LM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 5.9.17 -Mmapfile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 5.9.18 -N, -Ns and-Nc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 5.9.19 -Ooutfile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 5.9.20 -Pspec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 5.9.21 -Qprocessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 5.9.22 -S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 5.9.23 -Sclass=limit[, bound] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 5.9.24 -Usymbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 5.9.25 -Vavmap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 5.9.26 -Wnum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 5.9.27 -X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 5.9.28 -Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 5.10 Invoking the Linker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 5.11 Map Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 5.11.1 Call Graph Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 5.12 Librarian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 5.12.1 The Library Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 5.12.2 Using the Librarian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 5.12.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 5.12.4 Supplying Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 5.12.5 Listing Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 5.12.6 Ordering of Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 5.12.7 Error Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 5.13 Objtohex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 5.13.1 Checksum Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 5.14 Cref . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 5.14.1 -Fprefix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 5.14.2 -Hheading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 x CONTENTS CONTENTS 5.14.3 -Llen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 5.14.4 -Ooutfile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 5.14.5 -Pwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 5.14.6 -Sstoplist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 5.14.7 -Xprefix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 5.15 Cromwell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 5.15.1 -Pname[,architecture] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 5.15.2 -N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 5.15.3 -D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 5.15.4 -C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 5.15.5 -F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 5.15.6 -Okey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 5.15.7 -Ikey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 5.15.8 -L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 5.15.9 -E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 5.15.10 -B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 5.15.11 -M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 5.15.12 -V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 5.16 Hexmate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 5.16.1 Hexmate Command Line Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 5.16.1.1 specifications,filename.hex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 5.16.1.2 + Prefix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 5.16.1.3 -ADDRESSING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 5.16.1.4 -CK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 5.16.1.5 -FILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 5.16.1.6 -FIND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 5.16.1.7 -FIND...,REPLACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 5.16.1.8 -FORMAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 5.16.1.9 -HELP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 5.16.1.10 -LOGFILE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 5.16.1.11 -Ofile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 5.16.1.12 -SERIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 5.16.1.13 -STRING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 A Library Functions 157 B Error and Warning Messages 275 C Chip Information 403 xi CONTENTS CONTENTS Index 405 xii List of Tables 2.1 PICL file types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.3 Default values for filling unprogrammed code space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.4 Supported Double Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.5 Error format specifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.6 Supported IDEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.7 Supported languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.8 Optimization Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.9 Output file formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.10 Runtime environment suboptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.11 Memory Summary Suboptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 3.1 Basic data types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.2 Radix formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3.3 Floating-point formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.4 Floating-point format example IEEE 754 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 3.5 Integral division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.6 Preprocessor directives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 3.7 Predefined macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.9 Pragma directives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 3.10 Valid Register Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 3.11 switch types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 3.12 Supported standard I/O functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 4.1 ASPIC command-line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4.2 ASPICstatement formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 4.3 ASPIC numbers and bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 4.4 ASPIC operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 xiii LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES 4.5 ASPIC assembler directives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 4.6 PSECT flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4.7 ASPIC assembler controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 4.8 LIST control options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 5.1 Linker command-line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 5.2 Librarian command-line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 5.3 Librarian key letter commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 5.4 OBJTOHEX command-line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 5.5 CREF command-line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 5.6 CROMWELL format types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 5.7 CROMWELL command-line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 5.8 -P option architecture arguments for COFF file output. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 5.9 Hexmate command-line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 5.10 Hexmate Checksum Algorithm Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 5.11 INHX types used in -FORMAT option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 C.1 Devices supported by HI-TECH PICC-Lite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 C.1 Devices supported by HI-TECH PICC-Lite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 xiv Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Typographic conventions Different fonts and styles are used throughout this manual to indicate special words or text. Computer prompts, responses and filenames will be printed in constant-spaced type. When the filename is the name of a standard header file, the name will be enclosed in angle brackets, e.g. . These header files can be found in the INCLUDE directory of your distribution. Samples of code, C keywords or types, assembler instructions and labels will also be printed in a constant-space type. Assembler code is printed in a font similar to that used by C code. Particularly useful points and new terms will be emphasized using italicized type. When part of a term requires substitution, that part should be printed in the appropriate font, but in italics. For example: #include . 1 Typographic conventions Introduction 2 Chapter 2 PICL Command-line Driver PICL is the driver invoked from the command line to compile and/or link C programs. PICL has the following basic command format: PICL [options] files [libraries] It is conventional to supply the options (identified by a leading dash "-" or double dash "­") before the filenames. The options are discussed below. The files may be a mixture of source files (C or assembler) and object files. The order of the files is not important, except that it will affect the order in which code or data appears in memory. Libraries are a list of library names, or -L options, see Section 2.4.6. Source files, object files and library files are distinguished by PICL solely by the file type or extension. Recognized file types are listed in Table 2.1. This means, for example, that an assembler file must always have a .as extension (alphabetic case is not important). PICL will check each file argument and perform appropriate actions. C files will be compiled; assembler files will be assembled. At the end, unless suppressed by one of the options discussed later, Table 2.1: PICL file types File Type Meaning .c C source file .as Assembler source file .obj Relocatable object code file .lib Relocatable object library file .hex Intel HEX file 3 Long Command Lines PICL Command-line Driver all object files resulting from compilation or assembly, or those listed explicitly on the command line, will be linked together with the standard runtime code and libraries and any user-specified libraries. Functions in libraries will be linked into the resulting output file only if referenced in the source code. Invoking PICL with only object files specified as the file arguments (i.e. no source files) will mean only the link stage is performed. It is typical in Makefiles to use PICL with a -C option to compile several source files to object files, then to create the final program by invoking PICL again with only the generated object files and appropriate libraries (and appropriate options). If a .lib output file type is selected, the object files will be stored in a library instead of going through to the final link. When a HEX file is given on the command line, PICL will invoke the HEXMATE utility and will merge the named hex file with the hex file currently being generated. This feature can be useful when, for example, a single hex file is desired which contains a bootloader and application program. 2.1 Long Command Lines The PICL driver is capable of processing command lines exceeding any operating system limitation. To do this, the driver may be passed options via a command file. The command file is read by using the @ symbol. For example: PICL @xyz.cmd 2.2 Default Libraries PICL will search the appropriate standard C library by default for symbol definitions. This will always be done last, after any user-specified libraries. The particular library used will be dependent on the processor selected. 2.3 Standard Runtime Code PICL will automatically generate standard runtime start-up code appropriate for the processor and options selected unless you have specified the to disable this via the --RUNTIME option. If you require any special powerup initialization, you should use the powerup routine feature (see Section 3.3.4.4). 4 PICL Command-line Driver PICL Compiler Options 2.4 PICL Compiler Options Most aspects of the compilation can be controlled using the command-line driver, PICL. The driver will configure and execute all required applications, such as the code generator, assembler and linker. PICL recognizes the compiler options listed in the table below. The case of the options is not important, however command shells in UNIX based operating systems are case sensitive when it comes to names of files. PICC Command-line Options Option Meaning -C Compile to object files only -Dmacro Define preprocessor macro -E+file Redirect and optionally append errors to a file -Gfile Generate source-level debugging information -Ipath Specify a directory pathname for include files -Llibrary Specify a library to be scanned by the linker -L-option Specify -option to be passed directly to the linker -Mfile Request generation of a MAP file -Nsize Specify identifier length -Ofile Set basename for output files -P Preprocess assembler files -Q Specify quiet mode -S Compile to assembler source files only -Usymbol Undefine a predefined preprocessor symbol -V Verbose: display compiler pass command lines -X Eliminate local symbols from symbol table --ASMLIST Generate assembler .LST file for each compilation --CHAR=type Make the default char signed or unsigned --CHECKSUM=start-end@dest Calculate a checksum over an address range --CHIP=processor Selects which processor to compile for --CHIPINFO Displays a list of supported processors --CODEOFFSET=address Offset program code to address --CR=file Generate cross-reference listing --DEBUGGER=type Select the debugger that will be used --DOUBLE=type Selects size/kind of double types --ECHO Echo the PICL command line --ERRFORMAT<=format> Format error message strings to the given style continued... 5 PICL Compiler Options PICL Command-line Driver PICC Command-line Options Option Meaning --ERRORS=number Sets the maximun number of errors displayed --FILL=opcode Fill unused program locations with this hexadecimal code --GETOPTION=app,file Get the command line options for the named applica- tion --HELP<=option> Display the compiler's command line options --IDE=ide Configure the compiler for use by the named IDE --LANG=language Specify language for compiler messages --MEMMAP=file Display memory summary information for the map file --MSGFORMAT<=format> Format general message strings to the given style --MSGDISABLE<=numbers> Disable these warning or advisory messages --NODEL Do not remove temporary files generated by the com- piler --NOEXEC Go through the motions of compiling without actually compiling --OPT<=type> Enable general compiler optimizations --OUTDIR Specify output files directory --OUTPUT=type Generate output file type --PRE Produce preprocessed source files --PROTO Generate function prototype information --RAM=lo-hi<,lo-hi,...> Specify and/or reserve RAM ranges --ROM=lo-hi<,lo-hi,...> Specify and/or reserve ROM ranges --RUNTIME=type Configure the C runtime libraries to the specified type --SCANDEP Generate file dependency ".DEP files" --SERIAL=code@address Store this hexadecimal code at an address in program memory --SETOPTION=app,file Set the command line options for the named applica- tion --SETUP=argument Setup the product --STRICT Enable strict ANSI keyword conformance --SUMMARY=type Selects the type of memory summary output --TIME Show execution time in each stage of build process --VER Display the compiler's version number --WARN=level Set the compiler's warning level continued... 6 PICL Command-line Driver PICL Compiler Options PICC Command-line Options Option Meaning --WARNFORMAT=format Format warning message strings to given style All single letter options are identified by a leading dash character, "-", e.g. -C. Some single letter options specify an additional data field which follows the option name immediately and without any whitespace, e.g. -Ddebug. Multi-letter, or word, options have two leading dash characters, e.g. --ASMLIST. (Because of the double dash, you can determine that the option --ASMLIST, for example, is not a -A option followed by the argument SMLIST.) Some of these options define suboptions which typically appear as a comma-separated list following an equal character, =, e.g. --OUTPUT=intel,cof. The exact format of the options varies and are described in detail in the following sections. Some commonly used suboptions include default, which represent the default specification that would be used if this option was absent altogether; all, which indicates that all the available suboptions should be enabled as if they had each been listed; and none, which indicates that all suboptions should be disabled. Some suboptions may be prefixed with a plus character, +, to indicate that they are in addition to the other suboptions present, or a minus character "-", to indicate that they should be excluded. In the following sections, angle brackets, < >, are used to indicate optional parts of the command. 2.4.1 -C: Compile to Object File The -C option is used to halt compilation after generating a relocatable object file. This option is frequently used when compiling multiple source files using a "make" utility. If multiple source files are specified to the compiler each will be compiled to a separate .obj file. The object files will be placed in the directory in which PICL was invoked, to handle situations where source files are located in read-only directories. To compile three source files main.c, module1.c and asmcode.as to object files you could use a command similar to: PICL --CHIP=16F877A -C main.c module1.c asmcode.as The compiler will produce three object files main.obj, module1.obj and asmcode.obj which could then be linked to produce an Intel HEX file using the command: PICL --CHIP=16F877A main.obj module1.obj asmcode.obj 7 PICL Compiler Options PICL Command-line Driver 2.4.2 -Dmacro: Define Macro The -D option is used to define a preprocessor macro on the command line, exactly as if it had been defined using a #define directive in the source code. This option may take one of two forms, -Dmacro which is equivalent to: #define macro 1 placed at the top of each module compiled using this option, or -Dmacro=text which is equivalent to: #define macro text where text is the textual substitution required. Thus, the command: PICL --CHIP=16F877A -Ddebug -Dbuffers=10 test.c will compile test.c with macros defined exactly as if the C source code had included the directives: #define debug 1 #define buffers 10 2.4.3 -Efile: Redirect Compiler Errors to a File This option has two purposes. The first is to change the format of displayed messages. The second is to optionally allow messages to be directed to a file as some editors do not allow the standard command line redirection facilities to be used when invoking the compiler. The gernal form of messages produced with the -E option in force is: filename line_number: (message number) message string (message type) If a filename is specified immediately after -E, it is treated as the name of a file to which all messages (errors, warnings etc) will be printed. For example, to compile x.c and redirect all errors to x.err, use the command: PICL --CHIP=16F877A -Ex.err x.c The -E option also allows errors to be appended to an existing file by specifying an addition character, +, at the start of the error filename, for example: PICL --CHIP=16F877A -E+x.err y.c 8 PICL Command-line Driver PICL Compiler Options If you wish to compile several files and combine all of the errors generated into a single text file, use the -E option to create the file then use -E+ when compiling all the other source files. For example, to compile a number of files with all errors combined into a file called project.err, you could use the -E option as follows: PICL --CHIP=16F877A -Eproject.err -O -C main.c PICL --CHIP=16F877A -E+project.err -O -C part1.c PICL --CHIP=16F877A -E+project.err -C asmcode.as Section 2.4.27.1 has more information regarding this option as well as an overview of the messaging system and other related driver options. 2.4.4 -Gfile: Generate Source-level Symbol File The -G option generates a source-level symbol file (i.e. a file which allows tools to determine which line of source code is associated with machine code instructions, and determine which source-level variable names correspond with areas of memory, etc.) for use with supported debuggers and simulators such as HI-TIDE TM and MPLAB R . If no filename is given, the symbol file will have the same base name as the project name, and an extension of .sym. For example the option -Gtest.sym generates a symbol file called test.sym. Symbol files generated using the -G option include sourcelevel information for use with source-level debuggers. Note that all source files for which source-level debugging is required should be compiled with the -G option. The option is also required at the link stage, if this is performed separately. For example: PICL --CHIP=16F877A -G -C test.c modules1.c PICL --CHIP=16F877A -Gtest.sym test.p1 module1.p1 The --IDE option, see Section 2.4.32 will typically enable the -G option. 2.4.5 -Ipath: Include Search Path Use -I to specify an additional directory to use when searching for header files which have been included using the #include directive. The -I option can be used more than once if multiple directories are to be searched. The default include directory containing all standard header files are always searched even if no -I option is present. The default search path is searched after any user-specified directories have been searched. For example: PICL --CHIP=16F877A -C -Ic:\include -Id:\myapp\include test.c 9 PICL Compiler Options PICL Command-line Driver will search the directories c:\include and d:\myapp\include for any header files included into the source code, then search the default include directory (the include directory where the compiler was installed). This option has no effect for files that are included into assembly source using the INCLUDE directive. See Section 4.3.9.3. 2.4.6 -Llibrary: Scan Library The -L option is used to specify additional libraries which are to be scanned by the linker. Libraries specified using the -L option are scanned before the standard C library, allowing additional versions of standard library functions to be accessed. The argument to -L is a library keyword to which the prefix pic; numbers representing the processor range, number of ROM pages and the number of RAM banks; and the suffix .lib are added. Thus the option -LL when compiling for a 16F877 will, for example, scan the library pic42c-l.lib and the option -Lxx will scan a library called pic42c-xx.lib. All libraries must be located in the LIB subdirectory of the compiler installation directory. As indicated, the argument to the -L option is not a complete library filename. If you wish the linker to scan libraries whose names do not follow the above naming convention or whose locations are not in the LIB subdirectory, simply include the libraries' names on the command line along with your source files. Alternatively, the linker may be invoked directly allowing the user to manually specify all the libraries to be scanned. 2.4.7 -L-option: Adjust Linker Options Directly The -L driver option can also be used to specify an option which will be passed directly to the linker. If -L is followed immediately by text starting with a dash character "-", the text will be passed directly to the linker without being interpreted by PICL. For example, if the option -L-FOO is specified, the -FOO option will be passed on to the linker. The linker will then process this option, when, and if, it is invoked, and perform the appropriate function, or issue an error if the option is invalid. ˇ Take care with command-line options. The linker cannot interpret driver options; similarly the command-line driver cannot interpret linker options. In most situations, it is always the command-line driver, PICL, that is being executed. If you need to add alternate settings in the linker tab in an MPLAB Build options... dialogue, these are the driver options (not linker options), but which are used by the driver to generate the appropriate linker options during the linking process. 10 PICL Command-line Driver PICL Compiler Options The -L option is especially useful when linking code which contains non-standard program sections (or psects), as may be the case if the program contains C code which makes use of the #pragma psect directive or assembly code which contains user-defined psects. See Section 3.12.3.5 for more information. Without this -L option, it would be necessary to invoke the linker manually to allow the linker options to be adjusted. One commonly used linker option is -N, which sorts the symbol table in the map file by address, rather than by name. This would be passed to PICL as the option -L-N. This option can also be used to replace default linker options: If the string starting from the first character after the -L up to the first = character matches first part of a default linker option, then that default linker option is replaced by the option specified by the -L. TUTˇRIAL REPLACING DEFAULT LINKER OPTIONS In a particular project, the psect entry is used, but the programmer needs to ensure that this psect is positioned above the address 800h. This can be achieved by adjusting the default linker option that positions this psect. First, a map file is generated to determine how this psect is normally allocated memory. The Linker command line: in the map file indicates that this psect is normally linked using the linker option: -pentry=CODE Which places entry anywhere in the memory defined by the CODE class. The programmer then re-links the project, but now using the driver option: -L-pentry=CODE+800h to ensure that the psect is placed above 800h. Another map file is generated and the Linker command line: section is checked to ensure that the option was recieved and executed by the linker. Next, the address of the psect entry is noted in the psect lists that appear later in the map file. See Section 5.11 for more information on the contents of the map file. If there are no characters following the first = character in the -L option, then any matching default linker option will be deleted. For example: -L-pfirst= will remove any default linker option that begins with the string -pfirst=. No warning is generated if such a default linker option cannot be found. TUTˇRIAL ADDING AND DELETING DEFAULT LINKER OPTIONS The default linker options for for a project links several psects in the following fashion. -pone=600h,two,three which links one at 600h, then follows this with two, then three. It has been decided 11 PICL Compiler Options PICL Command-line Driver that the psects should be linked so that one follows two, which follows three, and that the highest address of one should be located at 5FFh. This new arragement can be specified issuing the following driver option: -L-pthree=-600h,two,one which creates passes the required linker options to the linker. The existing default option is still present, so this must be removed by use the driver option: -L-pone= which will remove the existing option. The default option that you are deleting or replacing must contain an equal character. 2.4.8 -Mfile: Generate Map File The -M option is used to request the generation of a map file. The map is generated by the linker an includes detailed information about where objects are located in memory, see Section 5.11 for information regarding the content of map files. If no filename is specified with the option, then the name of the map file will have the project name, with the extension .map. 2.4.9 -Nsize: Identifier Length This option allows the C identifier length to be increased from the default value of 31. Valid sizes for this option are from 32 to 255. The option has no effect for all other values. 2.4.10 -Ofile: Specify Output File This option allows the basename of the output file(s) to be specified. If no -O option is given, the output file(s) will be named after the first source or object file on the command line. The files controlled are any produced by the linker or applications run subsequent to that, e.g. CROMWELL. So for instance the HEX file, map file and SYM file are all controlled by the -O option. The -O option can also change the directory in which the output file is located by including the required path before the filename, e.g. -Oc:\project\output\first.hex. This will then also specify the output directory for any files produced by the linker or subsequently run applications. Any relative paths specified are with respect to the current working directory. Any extension supplied with the filename will be ignored. The name and path specified by the -O option will apply to all output files. The options that specify MAP file creation (-M, see 2.4.8), and SYM file creation (-G, see 2.4.4) override any name or path information provided by -O relevant to the MAP and SYM file. 12 PICL Command-line Driver PICL Compiler Options To change the directory in which all output and intermediate files are written, use the --OUTDIR option, see Section ??. Note that if -O specifies a path which is inconsistent with the path specified in the --OUTDIR option, this will result in an error. 2.4.11 -P: Preprocess Assembly Files The -P option causes the assembler files to be preprocessed before they are assembled thus allowing the use of preprocessor directives, such as #include, with assembler code. By default, assembler files are not preprocessed. 2.4.12 -Q: Quiet Mode This option places the compiler in a quiet mode which suppresses the HI-TECH Software copyright notice from being displayed. 2.4.13 -S: Compile to Assembler Code The -S option stops compilation after generating an assembler source file. An assembler file will be generated for each C source file passed on the command line. The command: PICL --CHIP=16F877A -S test.c will produce an assembler file called test.as which contains the code generated from test.c. This option is particularly useful for checking function calling conventions and signature values when attempting to write external assembly language routines. The file produced by this option differs to that produced by the --ASMLIST option in that it does not contain op-codes or addresses and it may be used as a source file and subsequently passed to the assembler to be assembled. 2.4.14 -Umacro: Undefine a Macro The -U option, the inverse of the -D option, is used to undefine predefined macros. This option takes the form -Umacro. The option, -Udraft, for example, is equivalent to: #undef draft placed at the top of each module compiled using this option. 13 PICL Compiler Options PICL Command-line Driver 2.4.15 -V: Verbose Compile The -V is the verbose option. The compiler will display the full command lines used to invoke each of the compiler applications or compiler passes. This option may be useful for determining the exact linker options if you need to directly invoke the HLINK command. 2.4.16 -X: Strip Local Symbols The option -X strips local symbols from any files compiled, assembled or linked. Only global symbols will remain in any object files or symbol files produced. 2.4.17 --ASMLIST: Generate Assembler .LST Files The --ASMLIST option tells PICL to generate an assembler listing file for each module being compiled. The list file shows both the original C code, and the generated assembler code and the corresponding binary op-codes. The listing file will have the same name as the source file, and a file type (extension) of .lst. Provided the link stage has successfully concluded, the listing file will be updated by the linker so that it contains absolute addresses and symbol values. Thus you may use the assembler listing file to determine the position of, and exact op codes corresponding to, instructions. 2.4.18 --CHAR=type: Make Char Type Signed or Unsigned Unless this option is used, the default behaviour of the compiler is to make all undesignated character types, unsigned char, unless explicitly declared or cast to signed char. If --CHAR=signed is used, the default char type will become signed char. The range of a signed character type is -128 to +127 and the range of similar unsigned objects is 0 to 255. 2.4.19 --CHECKSUM=start-end@destination<,specs>: Calculate a checksum This option will perform a checksum over the address range specified and store the result at the destination address specified. Additional specifications can be appended as a comma separated list to this option. Such specifications are: ,width=n select the byte-width of the checksum result. A negative width will store the result in little-endian byte order. Result widths from one to four bytes are permitted. ,offset=nnnn An initial value or offset to be added to this checksum. 14 PICL Command-line Driver PICL Compiler Options Table 2.3: Default values for filling unprogrammed code space Architecture Default value Baseline PIC FFFh Midrange PIC 3FFFh High-end PIC FFFFh ,algorithm=n Select one of the checksum algorithms implemented in hexmate. The selectable algorithms are described in Table 5.10. The start, end and destination attributes can be entered as word addresses as this is the native format for PICL program space. If an accompanying --FILL option has not been specified, unused locations within the specified address range will be filled with a default value for the selected device based on the values in table 2.3. This is to remove any unknown values from the equation and ensure the accuracy of the checksum result. 2.4.20 --CHIP=processor: Define Processor This option defines the processor which is being used. To see a list of supported processors that can be used with this option, use the --CHIPINFO option. The full list of supported devices is also included in Appendix C of this manual. 2.4.21 --CHIPINFO: Display List of Supported Processors The --CHIPINFO option simply displays a list of processors the compiler supports. The names listed are those chips defined in the chipinfo file and which may be used with the --chip option. 2.4.22 --CODEOFFSET: Offset Program Code to Address In some circumstances, such as bootloaders, it is necessary to shift the program image to an alternative address. This option is used to specify a base address for the program code image. With this option, all code psects (including interrupt vectors and constant data) that the linker would ordinarily control the location of, will be adjusted. 2.4.23 --CR=file: Generate Cross Reference Listing The --CR option will produce a cross reference listing. If the file argument is omitted, the "raw" cross reference information will be left in a temporary file, leaving the user to run the CREF utility. If a filename is supplied, for example --CR=test.crf, PICL will invoke CREF to process the cross 15 PICL Compiler Options PICL Command-line Driver Table 2.4: Supported Double Types Suboption Type 24 Truncated IEEE754 24-bit doubles 32 IEEE754 32-bit doubles fast32 Faster implementation of 32-bit doubles reference information into the listing file, in this case test.crf. If multiple source files are to be included in the cross reference listing, all must be compiled and linked with the one PICL command. For example, to generate a cross reference listing which includes the source modules main.c, module1.c and nvram.c, compile and link using the command: PICL --CHIP=16F877A --CR=main.crf main.c module1.c nvram.c 2.4.24 --DEBUGGER=type: Select Debugger Type This option is intended for use for compatibility with debuggers. PICL supports the Microchip ICD1 and ICD2 debuggers and using this option will configure the compiler to conform to the requirements of the ICD (reserving memory addresses, etc.). For example: PICL --CHIP=16F877A --DEBUGGER=icd2 main.c 2.4.25 --DOUBLE=type: Select kind of Double Types This option allows the kind of double types to be selected. By default the compiler will choose the truncated IEEE754 24-bit implementation for double types. With this option, this can be changed to 32-bits. For high-end processors (PIC17Cxxx) a fast implementation, at the cost of code size, is available. 2.4.26 --ECHO: Echo compiler command line The option --ECHO will cause the command given to PICL to be echoed to standard output. This can be useful if the actual invocation of the compiler is concealed or hidden inside a makefile or IDE. 2.4.27 --ERRFORMAT=format: Define Format for Compiler Messages If the --ERRFORMAT option is not used, the default behaviour of the compiler is to display any errors in a "human readable" format line. This standard format is perfectly acceptable to a person 16 PICL Command-line Driver PICL Compiler Options Table 2.5: Error format specifiers Specifier Expands To %f Filename %l Line number %c Column number %s Error string %a Application name %n Message number reading the error output, but is not generally usable with environments which support compiler error handling. The following sections indicate how this option may be used in such situations. This option allows the exact format of printed error messages to be specified using special placeholders embedded within a message template. See Section 2.4.27.1 for full details of the messaging system employed by PICL. This section is also applicable to the --WARNFORMAT and --MSGFORMAT options which adjust the format of warning and advisory messages, respectively. 2.4.27.1 Using the Format Options Using the these option instructs the compiler to generate error, warning and advisory messages in a format which is acceptable to some text editors and development environments. If the same source code as used in the example above were compiled using the --ERRFORMAT option, the error output would be: x.c 4: (192) undefined identifier: xFF indicating that the error number 192 occurred in file x.c at line 4, offset 9 characters into the statement. The second numeric value - the column number - is relative to the left-most non-space character on the source line. If an extra space or tab character were inserted at the start of the source line, the compiler would still report an error at line 4, column 9. 2.4.27.2 Modifying the Standard Format If the message format does not meet your editor's requirement, you can redefine its format by either using the --ERRFORMAT=format, --WARNFORMAT=format or --MSGFORMAT=format option or by setting the environment variables: HTC_ERR_FORMAT, HTC_WARN_FORMAT or HTC_MSG_FORMAT. These options are in the form of a printf-style string in which you can use the specifiers shown in Table 2.5. For example: 17 PICL Compiler Options PICL Command-line Driver --ERRFORMAT="file %f; line %l; column %c; %s" The column number is relative to the left-most non-space character on the source line. To instruct the compiler to use an environment variable to determine the message format, use the option without specifying format. The environment variables can be set in a similar way, for example setting the environment variables from within DOS can be done with the following DOS commands: set HTC_WARN_FORMAT=WARNING: file %f; line %l; column %c; %s set HTC_ERR_FORMAT=ERROR: %a: file %f; line %l; column %c; %n %s Using the previous source code, the output from the compiler when using the above environment variables would be: ERROR: parser: file x.c; line 4; column 6; (192) undefined identifier: xFF Remember that if these environment variables are set in a batch file, you must prepend the specifiers with an additional percent character to stop the specifiers being interpreted immediately by DOS, e.g. the filename specifier would become %%f. 2.4.28 --ERRORS=number: Maximum Number of Errors This option sets the maximum number of errors each compiler application, as well as the driver, will display before stopping. By default, up to 20 error messages will be displayed. See Section 2.4.27.1 for full details of the messaging system employed by PICL. 2.4.29 --FILL=opcode: Fill Unused Program Memory This option allows specification of a hexadecimal opcode that can be used to fill all unused program memory locations with a known code sequence. Multi-byte codes should be entered in little endian byte order. If the fill value is only to be applied to a restricted address range, the restriction can be specified by using --FILL=opcode@start_address-end_address. This facility also makes it possible to allow a fill value to be applied to address ranges outside of program memory (as addressed in the hex file), for example EEPROM. If an address restriction is not specified, the fill value will be applied to all of the device's program memory. Optionally the ,data flag can be added to this option to specify to only use this fill value to pad out data records within this address range to the default length. 18 PICL Command-line Driver PICL Compiler Options Table 2.6: Supported IDEs Suboption IDE hitide HI-TECH Software's HI-TIDE mplab Microchip's MPLAB Table 2.7: Supported languages Suboption Language en, english English fr, french,francais French de, german, deutsch German 2.4.30 --GETOPTION=app,file: Get Command-line Options This option is used to retrieve the command line options which are used for named compiler application. The options are then saved into the given file. This option is not required for most projects. 2.4.31 --HELP<=option>: Display Help The --HELP option displays information on the PICL compiler options. To find out more about a particular option, use the option's name as a parameter. For example: PICL --help=warn This will display more detailed information about the --WARN option. 2.4.32 --IDE=type: Specify the IDE being used This option is used to automatically configure the compiler for use by the named Integrated Development Environment (IDE). The supported IDE's are shown in Table 2.6. 2.4.33 --LANG=language: Specify the Language for Messages This option allows the compiler to be configured to produce error, warning and some advisory messages in languages other than English. English is the default language and some messages are only ever printed in English regardless of the language specified with this option. Table 2.7 shows those langauges currently supported. See Section 2.4.27.1 for full details of the messaging system employed by PICL. 19 PICL Compiler Options PICL Command-line Driver 2.4.34 --MEMMAP=file: Display Memory Map This option will display a memory map for the specified map file. This option is seldom required, but would be useful if the linker is being driven explicitly, i.e. instead of in the normal way through the driver. This command would display the memory summary which is normally produced at the end of compilation by the driver. 2.4.35 --MSGDISABLE=messagelist: Disable Warning Messages This option allows warning or advisory messages to be disabled during compilation of all modules within the project, and during all stages of compilation. Warning mesasges can also be disabled using pragma directives. For full information on the compiler's messaging system, see Section 2.4.27. The messagelist is a comma-separated list of warning numbers that are to be disabled. If the number of an error is specified, it will be ignored by this option. If the message list is specified as 0, then all warnings are disabled. 2.4.36 --MSGFORMAT=format: Set Advisory Message Format This option sets the format of advisory messages produced by the compiler. See Section 2.4.27 for full information. 2.4.37 --NODEL: Do not remove temporary files Specifying --NODEL when building will instruct PICLnot to remove the intermediate and temporary files that were created during the build process. 2.4.38 --NOEXEC: Don't Execute Compiler The --NOEXEC option causes the compiler to go through all the compilation steps, but without actually performing any compilation or producing any output. This may be useful when used in conjunction with the -V (verbose) option in order to see all of the command lines the compiler uses to drive the compiler applications. 2.4.39 --OPT<=type>: Invoke Compiler Optimizations The --OPT option allows control of all the compiler optimizers. By default, without this option, all optimizations are enabled with a preference for space optimization over speed. All optimizations may be disabled by using --OPT=none, or individual optimizers may be controlled, e.g. --OPT=asm will only enable the assembler optimizer. Table 2.8 lists the available optimization types. 20 PICL Command-line Driver PICL Compiler Options Table 2.8: Optimization Options Option name File format 1..9 Select code generation level 1 through 9 asm Select assembler optimizations speed Favor code generation for speed over space space Favor code generation for space over speed debug Favor accurate debugging over optimization none Do not use any compiler optimizations 2.4.40 --OUTDIR: Specify a directory for output files This option allows a directory to be nominated in for PICLto locate its output files. If this option is omitted, output files will be created in the current working directory. This option will not set the location of intermediate files. 2.4.41 --OUTPUT=type: Specify Output File Type This option allows the type of the output file(s) to be specified. If no --OUTPUT option is specified, the output file's name will be derived from the first source or object file specified on the command line. The available output file format are shown in Table 2.9. More than one output format may be specified by supplying a comma-separated list of tags. Those output file types which specify library formats stop the compilation process before the final stages of compilation are executed. Hence specifying an output file format list containing, e.g. lib or all will over-ride the non-library output types, and only the library file will be created. 2.4.42 --PRE: Produce Preprocessed Source Code The --PRE option is used to generate preprocessed C source files with an extension .pre. This may be useful to ensure that preprocessor macros have expanded to what you think they should. Use of this option can also create C source files which do not require any separate header files. This is useful when sending files for technical support. 2.4.43 --PROTO: Generate Prototypes The --PROTO option is used to generate .pro files containing both ANSI and K&R style function declarations for all functions within the specified source files. Each .pro file produced will have 21 PICL Compiler Options PICL Command-line Driver Table 2.9: Output file formats Option name File format lib Library File intel Intel HEX tek Tektronic aahex American Automation symbolic HEX file mot Motorola S19 HEX file ubrof UBROF format bin Binary file mcof Microchip PIC COFF cof Common Object File Format cod Bytecraft COD file format elf ELF/DWARF file format the same base name as the corresponding source file. Prototype files contain both ANSI C-style prototypes and old-style C function declarations within conditional compilation blocks. The extern declarations from each .pro file should be edited into a global header file which is included in all the source files comprising a project. The .pro files may also contain static declarations for functions which are local to a source file. These static declarations should be edited into the start of the source file. To demonstrate the operation of the --PROTO option, enter the following source code as file test.c: #include add(arg1, arg2) int * arg1; int * arg2; { return *arg1 + *arg2; } void printlist(int * list, int count) { while (count--) printf("%d ", *list++); putchar('\n'); } If compiled with the command: 22 PICL Command-line Driver PICL Compiler Options PICL --CHIP=16F877A --PROTO test.c PICL will produce test.pro containing the following declarations which may then be edited as necessary: /* Prototypes from test.c */ /* extern functions - include these in a header file */ #if PROTOTYPES extern int add(int *, int *); extern void printlist(int *, int); #else /* PROTOTYPES */ extern int add(); extern void printlist(); #endif /* PROTOTYPES */ 2.4.44 --RAM=lo-hi,: Specify Additional RAM Ranges This option is used to specify memory, in addition to any RAM specified in the chipinfo file, which should be treated as available RAM space. Strictly speaking, this option specifies the areas of memory that may be used by writable (RAM-based) objects, and not necessarily those areas of memory which contain physical RAM. The output that will be placed in the ranges specified by this option are typically variables that a program defines. Some chips have an area of RAM that can be remapped in terms of its location in the memory space. This, along with any fixed RAM memory defined in the chipinfo file, are grouped an made available for RAM-based objects. For example, to specify an additional range of memory to that present on-chip, use: --RAM=default,+100-1ff for example. To only use an external range and ignore any on-chip memory, use: --RAM=0-ff This option may also be used to reserve memory ranges already defined as on-chip memory in the chipinfo file. To do this supply a range prefixed with a minus character, -, for example: --RAM=default,-100-103 will use all the defined on-chip memory, but not use the addresses in the range from 100h to 103h for allocation of RAM objects. 23 PICL Compiler Options PICL Command-line Driver 2.4.45 --ROM=lo-hi,|tag: Specify Additional ROM Ran- ges This option is used to specify memory, in addition to any ROM specified in the chip configuration file, which should be treated as available ROM space. Strictly speaking, this option specifies the areas of memory that may be used by read-only (ROM-based) objects, and not necessarily those areas of memory which contain physical ROM. The output that will be placed in the ranges specified by this option are typically executable code and any data variables that are qualified as const. When producing code that may be downloaded into a system via a bootloader the destination memory may indeed be some sort of (volatile) RAM. To only use on-chip ROM memory, this option is not required. For example, to specify an additional range of memory to that on-chip, use: --ROM=default,+100-2ff for example. To only use an external range and ignore any on-chip memory, use: --ROM=100-2ff This option may also be used to reserve memory ranges already defined as on-chip memory in the chip configuration file. To do this supply a range prefixed with a minus character, -, for example: --ROM=default,-100-1ff will use all the defined on-chip memory, but not use the addresses in the range from 100h to 1ffh for allocation of ROM objects. 2.4.46 --RUNTIME=type: Specify Runtime Environment The --RUNTIME option is used to control what is included as part of the runtime environment. The runtime environment encapsulates any code that is present at runtime which has not been defined by the user, instead supplied by the compiler, typically as library code. This option is not required for normal compilation. The usable suboptions include those shown in Table 2.10. 2.4.47 --SCANDEP: Scan for Dependencies When this option is used, a .dep (dependency) file is generated. The dependency file lists those files on which the source file is dependant. Dependencies result when one file is #included into another. 24 PICL Command-line Driver PICL Compiler Options Table 2.10: Runtime environment suboptions Suboption Controls On (+) implies clear The code present in the startup module that clears the rbss psects. The rbss psects are cleared. clib The inclusion of library files into the output code by the linker. Library files are linked into the output. download Conditions the application and the generated hex file for download via a bootloader. The first four program words only contain code to jump to the next part of the program and will end in a GOTO (this may take less than 4 instructions). Data records in the hex file will align on 16 byte address boundaries. Short data records will be padded to 16 bytes in length with default values from table 2.3. init The code present in the startup module that copies the idata psect's ROM-image to RAM. The idata psect's ROM image is copied into RAM. keep Whether the start-up module source file is deleted after compilation. The start-up module is not deleted. osccal Oscillator initialization. For chips that have an oscillator constant, initialize the oscillator with the constant at start-up. ramtest Perform a RAM integrity test before clearing/initializing memory. Generated start up code will loop through every location of general purpose RAM and call library routine, __ram_cell_test. Variables qualified as persistent are backed up during cell testing. resetbits Power-down and time-out status bits preservation. At start-up, the power-down and time-out status bits are copied into the variables __powerdown and __timeout respectively. 25 PICL Compiler Options PICL Command-line Driver 2.4.48 --SERIAL=hexcode@address: Store a Value at this Program Memory Address This option allows a hexadecimal code to be stored at a particular address in program memory. A typical application for this option might be to position a serial number in program memory. The bytewidth of data to store is determined by the byte-width of the hexcode parameter in the option. For example to store a one byte value, zero, at program memory address 1000h, use --SERIAL=00@1000. To store the same value as a four byte quantity use --SERIAL=00000000@1000. This option is functionally identical to the corresponding hexmate option. For more detailed information and advanced controls that can be used with this option, refer to Section 5.16.1.12 of this manual. If this value is expected to be read from program memory at runtime and the selected device cannot read from its own program memory, each byte value within the serial number should be encoded within a retlw instruction so that the serial number can be retrieved using call instructions instead. 2.4.49 --SETOPTION=app,file: Set The Command-line Options for Ap- plication This option is used to supply alternative command line options for the named application when compiling. The app component specifies the application that will recieve the new options. The file component specifies the name of the file that contains the additional options that will be passed to the application. This option is not required for most projects. If specifying more than one option to a component, each option must be entered on a new line in the option file. This option can also be used to remove an application from the build sequence. If the file parameter is specified as off, execution of the named application will be skipped. In most cases this is not desirable as almost all applications are critical to the success of the build process. Disabling a critical application will result in catastrophic failure. However it is permissible to skip a non-critical application such as clist or hexmate if the final results are not reliant on their function. 2.4.50 --SETUP=dir: Setup the product This option sets up the compiler after installation. Parameter, dir identifies the directory where the compiler has been installed. 2.4.51 --STRICT: Strict ANSI Conformance The --STRICT option is used to enable strict ANSI conformance of all special keywords. HITECH C supports various special keywords (for example the persistent type qualifier). If the --STRICT option is used, these keywords are changed to include two underscore characters at 26 PICL Command-line Driver PICL Compiler Options Table 2.11: Memory Summary Suboptions Suboption Controls On (+) implies psect Summary of psect usage. A summary of psect names and the addresses they were linked at will be shown. mem General summary of memory used. A general summary of memories used will be shown. hex Summary of address used within the hex file. A summary of addresses and hex files which make up the final output file will be shown. file Whether summary information is shown on the screen or shown and saved to a file. Summary information will be shown on screen and saved to a file. the beginning of the keyword (e.g. __persistent) so as to strictly conform to the ANSI standard. Be warned that use of this option may cause problems with some standard header files (e.g. ). 2.4.52 --SUMMARY=type: Select Memory Summary Output Type Use this option to select the type of memory summary that is displayed after compilation. By default, or if the mem suboption is selected, a memory summary is shown. This shows the memory usage for all available linker classes. A psect summary may be shown by enabling the psect suboption. This shows individual psects, after they have been grouped by the linker, and the memory ranges they cover. Table 2.11 shows what summary types are available. 2.4.53 --TIME: Report time taken for each phase of build process Adding --TIME when building generate a summary which shows how much time each stage of the build process took to complete. 2.4.54 --VER: Display The Compiler's Version Information The --VER option will display what version of the compiler is running. 27 PICL Compiler Options PICL Command-line Driver 2.4.55 --WARN=level: Set Warning Level The --WARN option is used to set the compiler warning level. Allowable warning levels range from -9 to 9. The warning level determines how pedantic the compiler is about dubious type conversions and constructs. The higher the warning level, the more important the warning message. The default warning level is 0 and will allow all normal warning messages. Use this option with care as some warning messages indicate code that is likely to fail during execution, or compromise portability. Warning message can be individually disabled with the --MSGDISABLE option, see 2.4.35. See also Section 2.4.27.1 for full information on the compiler's messaging system. 2.4.56 --WARNFORMAT=format: Set Warning Message Format This option sets the format of warning messages produced by the compiler. See Section 2.4.27 for more information on this option. 28 Chapter 3 C Language Features HI-TECH PICC-Lite supports a number of special features and extensions to the C language which are designed to ease the task of producing ROM-based applications. This chapter documents the compiler options and special language features which are specific to these devices. 3.1 ANSI Standard Issues 3.1.1 Implementation-defined behaviour Certain sections of the ANSI standard have implementation-defined behaviour. This means that the exact behaviour of some C code can vary from compiler to compiler. Throughout this manual are sections describing how the HI-TECH C compiler behaves in such situations. 3.2 Processor-related Features HI-TECH C has several features which relate directly to the PIC architecture and instruction set. These detailed in the following sections. 3.2.1 Stack The stack on PIC processors is limited in depth and cannot be manipulated directly. It is left up to the programmer to ensure that the maximum stack dept is not exceeded. A call graph is provided by the linker when generating a MAP file. This will indicate the stack levels at each function call. 29 Processor-related Features C Language Features 3.2.2 Configuration Fuses The PIC processor's configuration fuses (or configuration bits) may be set using the __CONFIG macro as follows: __CONFIG(x); Note there are two leading underscore characters and x is the value that is to be in the configuration word. The macro is defined in , so be sure to include this into the module that uses this macro. Specially named quantities are defined in the header file appropriate for the processor you are using to help you set the required features. These names usually follow the same names as used in the datasheet. Refer to your processor's header file for details. For devices that have more than one configuration word, each subsequent invocation of __CONFIG will modify the next configuration word in sequence. 3.2.3 ID Locations Some PIC devices have location outside the addressable memory area that can be used for storing program information, such as an ID number. The __IDLOC macro may be used to place data into these locations. The macro is used in a manner similar to: #include __IDLOC(x); where x is a list of nibbles which are to be positioned into the ID locations. Only the lower four bits of each ID location is programmed, so the following: __IDLOC(15F0); will attempt to fill ID locations which the values: 1, 5, F, 0. The base address of the ID locations is specified by the idloc psect which will be automatically assigned as appropriate address based on the type of processor selected. Some devices will permit programming up to seven bits within each ID location. To program the full seven bits, the regular __IDLOC macro is not suitable. For this situation the __IDLOC7(a,b,c,d) macro is available. The parameters a to d are a comma separated list of values. The values can be entered as either decimal or hexadecimal format such as: __IDLOC7(0x7f,1,70,0x5a); It is not appropriate to use the __IDLOC7 macro on a device that does not permit seven bit programming of ID locations. 30 C Language Features Processor-related Features 3.2.4 Bit Instructions Wherever possible, HI-TECH C will attempt to use the PIC bit instructions. For example, when using a bitwise operator and a mask to alter a bit within an integral type, the compiler will check the mask value to determine if a bit instruction can achieve the same functionality. unsigned int foo; foo |= 0x40; will produce the instruction: bsf _foo,6 To set or clear individual bits within integral type, the following macros could be used: #define bitset(var,bitno) ((var) |= 1UL < < (bitno)) #define bitclr(var,bitno) ((var) &= ~(1UL < < (bitno))) To perform the same operation as above, the bitset macro could be employed as follows: bitset(foo,6); 3.2.5 EEPROM Access For most devices that come with on-chip EEPROM, the compiler offers several methods of accessing this memory. The EEPROM access methods are described in the following sections. 3.2.5.1 The eeprom variable qualifier The compiler provides the eeprom qualifier as a very simple and efficient method to configure and access EEPROM. This feature allows initialization of EEPROM memory and allows the simplest mechanism for runtime access. The eeprom qualifier may only be applied to global and/or static variables and this indicates to the compiler that the object should reside in EEPROM memory. For example: eeprom unsigned int serial_number = 0x1234; This will create an eeprom "variable" which is predefined with the value 0x1234. This would be equivalent to using the __EEPROM_DATA macro with 0x12 and 0x34 as two of its parameters. This variable may be read or written to at runtime: serial_number = 0xAA55; 31 Processor-related Features C Language Features The compiler will produce the appropriate code to access EEPROM and is particularly efficient when accessing multi-byte variables. Unlike conventional RAM variables, if an initialized EEPROM variable is modified during runtime, next time the processor is reset the variable will contain the updated value, not the original initialization value. So in the above example, the first time the processor starts up, serial_number will contain 0x1234, however after this is changed to 0xAA55, serial_number will never revert back to the original 0x1234 value, even after reset, unless explicitly programmed to do so. Note the compiler only support basic assignment operations on eeprom qualified objects. If a complex expression involving an eeprom qualified object is used, the compiler will generated a "can't generate code" error. In this case you should try and simplify the expression, perhaps by using a temporary variable. ˇ As the location of eeprom qualified variables is managed by the toolsuite, it is not necessary to access EEPROM by specific address, in fact this should be avoided. For this reason it is not recommended to combine the use of eeprom qualified variables with any other EEPROM access method. 3.2.5.2 The __EEPROM_DATA() macro For those PIC devices that support external programming of their EEPROM data area, the __EEPROM_DATA() macro can be used to place the initial EEPROM data values into the HEX file ready for programming. The macro is used as follows. #include __EEPROM_DATA(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7); The macro accepts eight parameters, being eight data values. Each value should be a byte in size. Unused values should be specified as a parameter of zero. The macro may be called multiple times to define the required amount of EEPROM data. It is recommended that the macro be placed outside any function definitions. The macro defines, and places the data within, a psect called eeprom_data. This psect is positioned by a linker option in the usual way. This macro is not used to write to EEPROM locations during run-time, it is to be used for preloading EEPROM contents at program time only. Using eeprom qualified variables provides a more flexible approach to pre-loading of EEPROM as they do not require initialization of eight bytes at a time and they also come with built-in runtime access as discussed in section 3.2.5.1. 32 C Language Features Processor-related Features 3.2.5.3 EEPROM Access Functions The library functions eeprom_read() and eeprom_write(), can be called to read from, and write to the EEPROM during program execution. For example, to write a byte-size value to an address in EEPROM and retrieve it using these fuctions would be: #include void eetest(void){ unsigned char value = 1; unsigned char address = 0; eeprom_write(address,value); // Initiate writing value to address value = eeprom_read(address); // read from EEPROM at address } These functions test and wait for any concurrent writes to EEPROM to conclude before performing their required operation. The eeprom_write() function will initiate the process of writing to EEPROM and this process will not have completed by the time that eeprom_write() returns. The new data written to EEPROM will become valid approximately four milliseconds later. In the above example, the new value will not yet be ready at the time when eeprom_read() is called, however because this function waits for any concurrent writes to complete before initiating the read, the correct value will be read. ˇ It may also be convenient to use the preprocessor symbol, _EEPROMSIZE in conjunction with some of these access methods. This symbol defines the number of EEPROM bytes available for the selected chip. 3.2.5.4 EEPROM Access Macros Although these macros perform much the same service as their library function conterparts, these should only be employed in specific circumstances. It is appropriate to select EEPROM_READ or EEPROM_WRITE in favour of the library equivalents if any of the following conditions are true: * You cannot afford the extra level of stack depth required to make a function call * You cannot afford the added code overhead to pass parameters and perform a call/return * You cannot afford the added processor cycles to execute the function call overhead 33 Processor-related Features C Language Features Be aware that if a program contains multiple instances of either macro, any code space saving will be negated as the full content of the macro is now duplicated in code space. In the case of EEPROM_READ(), there is another very important detail to note. Unlike eeprom_read(), this macro does not wait for any concurrent EEPROM writes to complete before proceeding to select and read EEPROM. Had the previous example used the EEPROM_READ() macro in place of eeprom_read() the operation would have failed. If it cannot be guarenteed that all writes to EEPROM have completed at the time of calling EEPROM_READ(), the appropriate flag should be polled prior to executing EEPROM_READ(). For example: #include void eetest(void){ unsigned char value = 1; unsigned char address = 0; EEPROM_WRITE(address,value); // Initiate writing value to address while(WR) continue; // wait for end-of-write before EEPROM_READ value = EEPROM_READ(address); // read from EEPROM at address } 3.2.6 Flash Runtime Access HI-TECH PICC-Lite provides a number of methods to access the contents of program memory at runtime. Particular care must be taken when modifying the contents of program memory. If the location being modified is that which is currently being executed or you've accidentally selected a region of your executable code for use as non-volatile storage, the result could be disaterous so take care. For those devices requiring a flash erasure operation be performed prior to writing to flash, this step will be performed internally by the compiler within the access routine and does not need to be implemented as a separate stage. Data within the same flash erasure block that is unrelated to the write operation will be backed up before the block is erased and restored after the erasure. 3.2.6.1 Flash Access Macros Similar to the EEPROM read/write routines described above, there are equivalent Flash memory routines. For example, to write a byte-sized value to an address in flash memory: FLASH_WRITE(address,value); To read a byte of data from an address in flash memory, and store it in a variable: variable=FLASH_READ(address); 34 C Language Features Processor-related Features 3.2.6.2 Flash Access Functions The flash_read() function provides the same functionality as the FLASH_READ() macro but will potentially cost less in code space if multiple invocations are required. The flash_copy() function allows duplication of a block of memory at a location in flash memory. The block of data being duplicated can be sourced from either RAM or program memory. This routine is only available for those devices which support writing to flash memory in sizes greater than one word at a time. For the small subset of devices which allow independant control over a flash block erasure process, the flash_erase() function provides this service if required. 3.2.7 Baseline PIC special instructions The PIC baseline (12-bit instruction word) devices have some registers which are not in the normal SFR area and cannot be accessed using an ordinary move instruction. The HI-TECH C compiler can be instructed to automatically use the special instructions intended for such cases when pre-defined symbols are accessed. The definition of the special symbols make use of the control keyword. This keyword informs the compiler that the registers are outside of the normal address space and that a different access method is required. 3.2.7.1 The OPTION instruction Some baseline PIC devices use an option instruction to load the OPTION register. The appropriate header files contain a special definition for a C object called OPTION and macros for the bit symbols which are stored in this register. PICC will automatically use the option instruction when an appropriate processor is selected and the OPTION object is accessed. For example, to set the prescaler assignment bit so that prescaler is assigned to the watch dog timer, the following code can be used after including pic.h. OPTION = PSA; This will load the appropriate value into the W register and then call the option instruction. 3.2.7.2 The TRIS instructions Some PIC devices use a tris instruction to load the TRIS register. The appropriate header files contain a special definition for a C object called TRIS. PICC will automatically use the tris instruction when an appropriate processor is selected and the TRIS object is accessed. For example, to make all the bits on the output port high impedance, the following code can be used after including pic.h. 35 Processor-related Features C Language Features TRIS = 0xFF; This will load the appropriate value into the W register and then call the tris instruction. Those PIC devices which have more than one output port may have definitions for objects: TRISA, TRISB and TRISC, depending on the exact number of ports available. This objects are used in the same manner as described above. 3.2.7.3 Calibration Space The Microchip-modified IEEE754 32-bit floating point format parameters in the calibration space in the PIC14000 processor may be accessed using the get_cal_data() function. The byte parameters may be accessed directly using the identifiers defined in the header file. 3.2.7.4 Oscillator calibration constants Some PIC devices come with an oscillator calibration constant which is pre-programmed into the devices program memory. This constant can be read and written to the OSCCAL register to calibrate the internal RC oscillator. On some baseline PIC devices the calibration constant is stored as a movlw instruction at the top of program memory, e.g. the 12C50X and 16C505 parts. On reset the program counter is made to point to this instruction and it is executed first before the program counter wraps around to 0x0000 which is the effective reset vector for the device. The PICC compiler default startup routine will automatically include code to load the OSCCAL register with the value contained in the W register after reset on such devices. No other code is required by the programmer. For other chips, such as 12C67X chips, the oscillator constant is also stored at the top of program memory, but as a retlw instruction. The compiler's startup code will automatically generate code to retrieve this value and do the configuration. This feature can be turned off via the ­RUNTIME option. At runtime this value may be read using the macro _READ_OSCCAL_DATA(). To be able to use this macro, make sure that is included into the relevant modules of your program. This macro returns the calibration constant which can then be stored into the OSCCAL register, as follows: OSCCAL = _READ_OSCCAL_DATA(); The location which stores the calibration constant is never code protected and will be lost if you reprogram the device. Thus, if you are using a windowed or flash device, the calibration constant must be saved from the last ROM location before it is erased. The constant must then be reprogrammed at the same location along with the new program and data. If you are using an in-circuit emulator (ICE), the location used by the calibration retlw instruction may not be programmed and would be executed as some other instruction. Calling the _READ_OSCCAL_DATA() macro will not work and will almost certainly not return correctly. If you wish to test code that includes this macro on an ICE, you will have to program a retlw instruction at 36 C Language Features Files the appropriate location in program memory. Remember to remove this instruction when programming the actual part so you do not destroy the calibration value. 3.3 Files 3.3.1 Source Files The extension used with source files is important as it is used by the compiler drivers to determine their content. Source files containing C code should have the extension .c, assembler files should have extensions of .as, relocatable object files require the .obj extension, and library files should be named with a .lib extension. 3.3.2 Symbol Files The PICC -G option tells the compiler to produce several symbol files which can be used by debuggers and simulators to perform symbolic and source-level debugging. Using the --IDE option may also enable symbol file generation as well. The -G option produces an absolute symbol files which contain both assembler- and C-level information. This file is produced by the linker after the linking process has been completed. If no symbol filename is specified, a default filename of file.sym will be used, where file is the basename of the first source file specified on the command line. For example, to produce a symbol file called test.sym which includes C source-level information: PICL ­CHIP=16F877A -Gtest.sym test.c init.c This option will also generate other symbol files for each module compiled. These files are produced by the code generator and do not contain absolute address. These files have the extension .sdb. The base name will be the same as the base name of the module being compiled. Thus the above command line would also generate symbols files with the names test.sdb and init.sdb. 3.3.3 Standard Libraries HI-TECH C includes a number of standard libraries, each with the range of functions described in Appendix A. Figure 3.1 illustrates the naming convention used for standard libraries. The meaning of each field is described here: * Processor Type is always pic * Processor Range is 2 for Baseline PICs, 4 for Midrange PICs and 7 for High-End PIC micro- processors. * # of ROM Pages is 2n. 37 Files C Language Features Figure 3.1: Library Naming Convention * # if RAM Banks is 2m. For Midrange processors that have common memory, a letter is used rather than a number. For example, where '0', '1' or '2' might have been used for processors with no common memory, 'a', 'b', and 'c' would be used for processors that do have common memory. * Double Type is - for 24-bit doubles, and d for 32-bit doubles. * Library Type is c for the standard library, l for the library which contains only printf-related functions with additional support for longs, and f for the library which contains onlyConvention printf-related functions with additional support for longs and floats. Library files have the extensions .lib. Some compiler options affect the name and number of library files which are required, however the appropriate libraries are automatically linked when using the command-line driver, PICL. 3.3.4 Runtime startup Modules A C program requires certain objects to be initialised and the processor to be in a particular state before it can begin execution of its function main(). It is the job of the runtime startup code to perform these tasks. Traditionally, runtime startup code is a generic, precompiled routine which is always linked into a user's program. Even if a user's program does not need all aspects of the runtime startup code, redundant code is linked in which, albeit not harmful, takes up memory and slows execution. For example, if a program does not use any uninitialized variables, then no routine is required to clear the bss psects. HI-TECH PICC-Lite differs from other compilers by using a novel method to determine exactly what runtime startup code is required and links this into the program automatically. It does this by performing an additional link step which does not produce any usable output, but which can be used to determine the requirements of the program. From this information PICL then "writes" the assembler code which will perform the runtime startup. This code is stored into a file which can then be assembled and linked into the remainder of the program in the usual way. 38 C Language Features Files Since the runtime startup code is generated automatically on every compilation, the generated files associated with this process are deleted after they have been used. If required, the assembler file which contains the runtime startup code can be kept after compilation and linking by using the driver option --RUNTIME=default,+keep. The residual file will be called startup.as and will be located in the current working directory. If you are using an IDE to perform the compilation the destination directory is dictated by the IDE itself, however you may use the --OUTDIR option to specify an explicit output directory to the compiler. This is an automatic process which does not require any user interaction, however some aspects of the runtime code can be controlled, if required, using the --RUNTIME option. These are described in the sections below. 3.3.4.1 Initialization of Data psects One job of the runtime startup code is ensure that any initialized variables contain their initial value before the program begins execution. Initialized variables are those which are not auto objects and which are assigned an initial value in their definition, for example input in the following example. int input = 88; void main(void) { ... Since auto objects are dynamically created, they require code to be positioned in the function in which they are defined to perform their initialization. It is also possible that their initial value changes on each instance of the function. As a result, initialized auto objects do not use the data psects. Such initialized objects have two components and are placed within the data psects. The actual initial values are placed in a psect called idata. The other component is where the variables will reside, and be accessed, at runtime. Space is reserved for the runtime location of initialized variables in a psect called rdata. This psect does not contribute to the output file. The runtime startup code performs a block copy of the values from the idata to the rdata psect so that the RAM variables will contain their initial values before main() is executed. Each location in the idata psect is copied to appropriate placed in the rdata psect. The block copy of the data psects may be omitted by disabling the init suboption of --RUNTIME. For example: ­RUNTIME=default,-init With this part of the runtime startup code absent, the contents of initialized variables will be unpredictable when the program begins execution. Code relying on variables containing their initial value will fail. Variables whose contents should be preserved over a reset, or even power off, should be qualified with persistent, see Section 3.4.9.1. Such variables are linked at a different area of memory and are not altered by the runtime startup code in any way. 39 Files C Language Features 3.3.4.2 Clearing the Bss Psects The ANSI standard dictates that those non-auto objects which are not initialized must be cleared before execution of the program begins. The compiler does this by grouping all such uninitialized objects into a bss psect. This psect is then cleared as a block by the runtime startup code. The abbreviation "bss" stands for Block Started by Symbol and was an assembler pseudo-op used in IBM systems back in the days when computers were coal-fired. The continued usage of this term is still appropriate. The name of the bss psect is rbss. The block clear of the bss psect may be omitted by disabling the clear suboption of --RUNTIME. For example: ­RUNTIME=default,-clear With this part of the runtime startup code absent, the contents of uninitialized variables will be unpredictable when the program begins execution. Variables whose contents should be preserved over a reset, or even power off, should be qualified with persistent, see Section 3.4.9.1. Such variables are linked at a different area of memory and are not altered by the runtime startup code in anyway. 3.3.4.3 Linking in the C Libraries By default, a set of libraries are automatically passed to the linker to be linked in with user's program. The libraries can be omitted by disabling the clib suboption of --RUNTIME. For example: ­RUNTIME=default,-clib With this part of the runtime startup code absent, the user must provide alternative library or source files to allow calls to library routines. This suboption may be useful if alternative library or source files are available and you wish to ensure that no HI-TECH C library routines are present in the final output. Some C statements produce assembler code that call library routines even though no library function was called by the C code. These calls perform such operations as division or floating-point arithmetic. If the C libraries have been excluded from the code output, these implicit library calls will also require substitutes. 3.3.4.4 The powerup Routine Some hardware configurations require special initialization, often within the first few cycles of execution after reset. To achieve this there is a hook to the reset vector provided via the powerup routine. This is a user-supplied assembler module that will be executed immediately on reset. Often this can be embedded in a C module as embedded assembler code. A "dummy" powerup routine is included in the file powerup.as. The file can be copied, modified and included into your project. No special linking options or jumps to the powerup routine are required, the compiler will detect if 40 C Language Features Supported Data Types and Variables Table 3.1: Basic data types Type Size (bits) Arithmetic Type bit 1 unsigned integer char 8 signed or unsigned integer1 unsigned char 8 unsigned integer short 16 signed integer unsigned short 16 unsigned integer int 16 signed integer unsigned int 16 unsigned integer long 32 signed integer unsigned long 32 unsigned integer float 24 real double 24 or 32 real you are using a powerup routine and will automatically generate code to jump to it after reset. If you use a powerup routine, you will, however, need to add a jump to start after your initializations. Refer to comments in the powerup source file for details about this. The powerup.as source file can be found in the compilers SOURCES directory. 3.4 Supported Data Types and Variables The HI-TECH PICC-Lite compiler supports basic data types with 1, 2, 3 and 4 byte sizes. Table 3.1 shows the data types and their corresponding size and arithmetic type. 3.4.1 Radix Specifiers and Constants The format of integral constants specifies their radix. HI-TECH C supports the ANSI standard radix specifiers as well as ones which enables binary constants to specified in C code. The format used to specify the radices are given in Table 3.2. The letters used to specify binary or hexadecimal radices are case insensitive, as are the letters used to specify the hexadecimal digits. Any integral constant will have a type which is the smallest type that can hold the value without overflow. The suffix l or L may be used with the constant to indicate that it must be assigned either a signed long or unsigned long type, and the suffix u or U may be used with the constant to indicate that it must be assigned an unsigned type, and both l or L and u or U may be used to indicate unsigned long int type. Floating-point constants have double type unless suffixed by f or F, in which case it is a float constant. The suffixes l or L specify a long double type which is considered an identical type to 41 Supported Data Types and Variables C Language Features Table 3.2: Radix formats Radix Format Example binary 0bnumber or 0Bnumber 0b10011010 octal 0number 0763 decimal number 129 hexadecimal 0xnumber or 0Xnumber 0x2F double by HI-TECH C. Character constants are enclosed by single quote characters ', for example 'a'. A character constant has char type. Multi-byte character constants are not supported. String constants or string literals are enclosed by double quote characters ", for example "hello world". The type of string constants is const char * and the strings are stored in the program memory. Assigning a string constant to a non-const char pointer will generate a warning from the compiler. For example: char * cp= "one"; // "one" in ROM, produces warning const char * ccp= "two"; // "two" in ROM, correct Defining and initializing a non-const array (i.e. not a pointer definition) with a string, for example: char ca[]= "two"; // "two" different to the above produces an array in data space which is initialised at startup with the string "two" (copied from program space), whereas a constant string used in other contexts represents an unnamed constqualified array, accessed directly in program space. HI-TECH C will use the same storage location and label for strings that have identical character sequences, except where the strings are used to initialise an array residing in the data space as shown in the last statement in the previous example. Two adjacent string constants (i.e. two strings separated only by white space) are concatenated by the compiler. Thus: const char * cp = "hello " "world"; assigned the pointer with the string "hello world". 3.4.2 Bit Data Types and Variables HI-TECH PICC-Litesupports bit integral types which can hold the values 0 or 1. Single bit variables may be declared using the keyword bit. bit objects declared within a function, for example: 42 C Language Features Supported Data Types and Variables static bit init_flag; will be allocated in the bit-addressable psect rbit, and will be visible only in that function. When the following declaration is used outside any function: bit init_flag; init_flag will be globally visible, but located within the same psect. Bit variables cannot be auto or parameters to a function. A function may return a bit object by using the bit keyword in the functions prototype in the usual way. The bit return value will be returning in the carry flag in the status register. Bit variables behave in most respects like normal unsigned char variables, but they may only contain the values 0 and 1, and therefore provide a convenient and efficient method of storing boolean flags without consuming large amounts of internal RAM. It is, however, not possible to declared pointers to bit variables or statically initialise bit variables. Operations on bit objects are performed using the single bit instructions (bsf and bcf) wherever possible, thus the generated code to access bit objects is very efficient. Note that when assigning a larger integral type to a bit variable, only the least-significant bit is used. For example, if the bit variable bitvar was assigned as in the following: int data = 0x54; bit bitvar; bitvar = data; it will be cleared by the assignment since the least significant bit of data is zero. If you want to set a bit variable to be 0 or 1 depending on whether the larger integral type is zero (false) or non-zero (true), use the form: bitvar = data != 0; The psects in which bit objects are allocated storage are declared using the bit PSECT directive flag. Eight bit objects will take up one byte of storage space which is indicated by the psect's scale value of 8 in the map file. The length given in the map file for bit psects is in units of bits, not bytes. All addresses specified for bit objects are also bit addresses. The bit psects are cleared on startup, but are not initialised. To create a bit object which has a non-zero initial value, explicitly initialise it at the beginning of your code. If the PICL flag --STRICT is used, the bit keyword becomes unavailable. 43 Supported Data Types and Variables C Language Features 3.4.3 8-Bit Integer Data Types and Variables HI-TECH PICC-Lite supports both signed char and unsigned char 8-bit integral types. If the signed or unsigned keyword is absent from the variable's definition, the default type is unsigned char unless the PICC --CHAR=signed option is used, in which case the default type is signed char. The signed char type is an 8-bit two's complement signed integer type, representing integral values from -128 to +127 inclusive. The unsigned char is an 8-bit unsigned integer type, representing integral values from 0 to 255 inclusive. It is a common misconception that the C char types are intended purely for ASCII character manipulation. This is not true, indeed the C language makes no guarantee that the default character representation is even ASCII. The char types are simply the smallest of up to four possible integer sizes, and behave in all respects like integers. The reason for the name "char" is historical and does not mean that char can only be used to represent characters. It is possible to freely mix char values with short, int and long values in C expressions. With HI-TECH C the char types will commonly be used for a number of purposes, as 8-bit integers, as storage for ASCII characters, and for access to I/O locations. Variables may be declared using the signed char and unsigned char keywords, respectively, to hold values of these types. Where only char is used in the declaration, the type will be signed char unless the option, mentioned above, to specify unsigned char as default is used. 3.4.4 16-Bit Integer Data Types HI-TECH PICC-Lite supports four 16-bit integer types. short and int are 16-bit two's complement signed integer types, representing integral values from -32,768 to +32,767 inclusive. Unsigned short and unsigned int are 16-bit unsigned integer types, representing integral values from 0 to 65,535 inclusive. All 16-bit integer values are represented in little endian format with the least significant byte at the lower address. Variables may be declared using the signed short int and unsigned short int keyword sequences, respectively, to hold values of these types. When specifying a short int type, the keyword int may be omitted. Thus a variable declared as short will contain a signed short int and a variable declared as unsigned short will contain an unsigned short int. 3.4.5 32-Bit Integer Data Types and Variables HI-TECH PICC-Litesupports two 32-bit integer types. Long is a 32-bit two's complement signed integer type, representing integral values from -2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647 inclusive. Unsigned long is a 32-bit unsigned integer type, representing integral values from 0 to 4,294,967,295 inclusive. All 32-bit integer values are represented in little endian format with the least significant word and least significant byte at the lowest address. Long and unsigned long occupy 32 bits as this is the smallest long integer size allowed by the ANSI standard for C. 44 C Language Features Supported Data Types and Variables Table 3.3: Floating-point formats Format Sign biased exponent mantissa IEEE 754 32-bit x xxxx xxxx xxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx modified IEEE 754 24-bit x xxxx xxxx xxx xxxx xxxx xxxx Variables may be declared using the signed long int and unsigned long int keyword sequences, respectively, to hold values of these types. Where only long int is used in the declaration, the type will be signed long. When specifying this type, the keyword int may be omitted. Thus a variable declared as long will contain a signed long int and a variable declared as unsigned long will contain an unsigned long int. 3.4.6 Floating Point Types and Variables Floating point is implemented using either a IEEE 754 32-bit format or a modified (truncated) 24-bit form of this. The 24-bit format is used for all float values. For double values, the 24-bit format is the default, or if the --double=24 option is used. The 32-bit format is used for double values if the --double=32 option is used. This format is described in 3.3, where: * sign is the sign bit * The exponent is 8-bits which is stored as excess 127 (i.e. an exponent of 0 is stored as 127). * mantissa is the mantissa, which is to the right of the radix point. There is an implied bit to the left of the radix point which is always 1 except for a zero value, where the implied bit is zero. A zero value is indicated by a zero exponent. The value of this number is (-1)sign x 2(exponent-127) x 1.mantissa. Here are some examples of the IEEE 754 32-bit formats: Note that the most significant bit of the mantissa column in 3.4 (that is the bit to the left of the radix point) is the implied bit, which is assumed to be 1 unless the exponent is zero (in which case the float is zero). The 32-bit example in 3.4 can be calculated manually as follows. The sign bit is zero; the biased exponent is 251, so the exponent is 251-127=124. Take the binary number to the right of the decimal point in the mantissa. Convert this to decimal and divide it by 223 where 23 is the number of bits taken up by the mantissa, to give 0.302447676659. Add one to this fraction. The floating-point number is then given by: -10 ×2124 ×1.302447676659 = 1×2.126764793256e+37×1.302447676659 2.77000e+37 45 Supported Data Types and Variables C Language Features Table 3.4: Floating-point format example IEEE 754 Format Number biased expo- nent 1.mantissa decimal 32-bit 7DA6B69Bh 11111011b 1.01001101011011010011011b 2.77000e+37 (251) (1.302447676659) 24-bit 42123Ah 10000100b 1.001001000111010b 36.557 (132) (1.142395019531) Variables may be declared using the float and double keywords, respectively, to hold values of these types. Floating point types are always signed and the unsigned keyword is illegal when specifying a floating point type. Types declared as long double will use the same format as types declared as double. For High-End processors there is a fast implementation available for 32-bit doubles. Fast 32-bit doubles can be selected via the ­double=fast32 command line option. Although selecting this offers an improvement in speed when doing calculations on 32-bit doubles, this comes at a cost of code size. 3.4.7 Structures and Unions HI-TECH PICC-Lite supports struct and union types of any size from one byte upwards. Structures and unions only differ in the memory offset applied for each member. The members of structures and unions may not be objects of type bit, but bit-fields are fully supported. Structures and unions may be passed freely as function arguments and return values. Pointers to structures and unions are fully supported. 3.4.7.1 Bit-fields in Structures HI-TECH PICC-Lite fully supports bit-fields in structures. Bit-fields are always allocated within 8-bit words. The first bit defined will be the least significant bit of the word in which it will be stored. When a bit-field is declared, it is allocated within the current 8-bit unit if it will fit, otherwise a new byte is allocated within the structure. Bit-fields can never cross the boundary between 8-bit allocation units. For example, the declaration: struct { unsigned lo : 1; unsigned dummy : 6; unsigned hi : 1; } foo; 46 C Language Features Supported Data Types and Variables will produce a structure occupying 1 bytes. If foo was ultimately linked at address 10H, the field lo will be bit 0 of address 10H, hi will be bit 7 of address 10H. The least significant bit of dummy will be bit 1 of address 10H and the most significant bit of dummy will be bit 6 of address 10h. Unnamed bit-fields may be declared to pad out unused space between active bits in control registers. For example, if dummy is never used the structure above could have been declared as: struct { unsigned lo : 1; unsigned : 6; unsigned hi : 1; } foo; If a bit-field is declared in a structure that is assigned an absolute address, no storage will be allocated for the structure. Absolute structures would be used when mapping a structure over a register to allow a portable method of accessing individual bits within the register. A structure with bit-fields may be initialised by supplying a comma-separated list of initial values for each field. For example: struct { unsigned lo : 1; unsigned mid : 6; unsigned hi : 1; } foo = {1, 8, 0}; 3.4.7.2 Structure and Union Qualifiers HI-TECH C supports the use of type qualifiers on structures. When a qualifier is applied to a structure, all of its members will inherit this qualification. In the following example the structure is qualified const. const struct { int number; int *ptr; } record = { 0x55, &i}; In this case, the structure will be placed into the program space and each member will, obviously, be read-only. Remember that all members must be initialized if a structure is const as they cannot be initialized at runtime. If the members of the structure were individually qualified const but the structure was not, then the structure would be positioned into RAM, but each member would be read-only. Compare the following structure with the above. 47 Supported Data Types and Variables C Language Features struct { const int number; int * const ptr; } record = { 0x55, &i}; 3.4.8 Standard Type Qualifiers Type qualifiers provide information regarding how an object may be used, in addition to its type which defines it storage size and format. HI-TECH C supports both ANSI qualifiers and additional special qualifiers which are useful for embedded applications and which take advantage of the PIC architecture. 3.4.8.1 Const and Volatile Type Qualifiers HI-TECH C supports the use of the ANSI type qualifiers const and volatile. The const type qualifier is used to tell the compiler that an object is read only and will not be modified. If any attempt is made to modify an object declared const, the compiler will issue a warning. User-defined objects declared const are placed in a special psects in the program space. Obviously, a const object must be initialised when it is declared as it cannot be assigned a value at any point at runtime. For example: const int version = 3; The volatile type qualifier is used to tell the compiler that an object cannot be guaranteed to retain its value between successive accesses. This prevents the optimizer from eliminating apparently redundant references to objects declared volatile because it may alter the behaviour of the program to do so. All Input/Output ports and any variables which may be modified by interrupt routines should be declared volatile, for example: volatile static unsigned int TACTL @ 0x160; Volatile objects may be accessed using different generated code to non-volatile objects. 3.4.9 Special Type Qualifiers HI-TECH PICC-Litesupports the special type qualifiers to allow the user to control placement of static and extern class variables into particular address spaces. 48 C Language Features Supported Data Types and Variables 3.4.9.1 Persistent Type Qualifier By default, any C variables that are not explicitly initialised are cleared to zero on startup. This is consistent with the definition of the C language. However, there are occasions where it is desired for some data to be preserved across resets or even power cycles (on-off-on). The persistent type qualifier is used to qualify variables that should not be cleared on startup. In addition, any persistent variables will be stored in a different area of memory to other variables. persistent objects are placed within the psect nvram. This type qualifier may not be used on variables of class auto; if used on variables local to a function they must be combined with the static keyword. For example, you may not write: void test(void) { persistent int intvar; /* WRONG! */ .. other code .. } because intvar is of class auto. To declare intvar as a persistent variable local to function test(), write: static persistent int intvar; If the PICL option, --STRICT is used, this type qualifier is changed to __persistent. There are some library routines provided to check and initialise persistent data - see A for more information, and for an example of using persistent data. 3.4.9.2 Bank1, Bank2 and Bank3 Type Qualifiers The bank1, bank2 and bank3 type qualifiers are used to place static variables in RAM bank 1, RAM bank2 and RAM bank 3 respectively. Note that there is no bank0 qualifier. Objects default to being in bank0 if no other bank qualifier is used. All auto objects are positioned into bank0, along with function parameters. Examples of bank qualifier usage: An unsigned char in bank3: static bank3 unsigned char fred; A pointer to an unsigned char in bank2: bank2 unsigned char * ptr; A pointer to an unsigned char in bank3 with the pointer itself residing in bank2: bank3 unsigned char * bank2 ptr2; 49 Supported Data Types and Variables C Language Features 3.4.10 Eeprom Type Qualifier The eeprom qualifier is used to to place static variables into EEPROM. Since accessing EEPROM memory is a lot less efficient than accessing RAM, only very basic C expressions are supported. This qualifier is provided as a convenient way to store and access the EEPROM available on some processors. Examples of use: An int stored in eeprom: eeprom int number = 0x1234; A double in eeprom: eeprom double pi = 3.14; A RAM pointer to an eeprom int: eeprom int * nptr; EEPROM access is described in further detail in section 3.2.5.2. 3.4.11 Pointer Types The format and use of pointers depend upon the range of processor selected. This is described in the following sections. 3.4.11.1 Baseline Pointers All pointers in the Baseline (12-bit PICs) range are 8-bits. * RAM pointers point to RAM using the FSR index register. * Const pointers point to ROM via a RETLW table. * Function Pointers reference functions. A function is jumped to rather than called. A jump table is used to return control to the calling function. 3.4.11.2 Midrange Pointers All pointers for Midrange processors (14-bit PICs) are the same as for Baseline processors with the following exceptions: 50 C Language Features Supported Data Types and Variables * RAM pointers are 8-bits and therefore can only access 256 bytes. A pointer which is unqualified or has a bank 1 qualifier can point to any object in bank 0 or bank 1. If the pointer is qualified as bank 2 or bank 3, then it can access any object in banks 2 or 3. At present, there is no general purpose pointer that can read and write to all four banks. * Const pointers are 16-bits wide. They can be used to access either ROM or RAM. If the upper bit of the const pointer is non-zero, it is a pointer into RAM. A const pointer may be used to read from any RAM location in any bank, but writing to such locations is not permitted. If upper bit is zero, it is a pointer able to access the entire ROM space. The ability of this pointer to access both ROM and RAM is very useful in string-related functions where a pointer passed to the function may point to a string in ROM or RAM. * Function pointers reference functions. A function is called using the address assigned to the pointer. 3.4.11.3 Highend Pointers Highend processors (17Cxxx processors) differ in many ways from baseline and midrange processors and this effects the way pointers have been implemented. * RAM banks in highend processors are 0xFF bytes long, so an 8-bit RAM pointer can only access objects in one bank. Thus a bank 0 RAM pointer can only access bank 0; a bank 1 RAM pointer can only access bank 1, etc... * Const pointers for highend processors are 16-bits wide. Const pointers on highend processors work in the same way as they do for midrange processors. * Far pointers are 16-bits wide and can be used to access objects in any available bank of RAM. These pointers are similar to const pointers; they differ in that they may be used to indirectly read from, or write to, RAM locations. Far pointers can also access ROM locations as per const pointers. The far qualifier is used to specify the larger pointer size. * Function pointers reference function. A function is called using the address assigned to the pointer. 3.4.11.4 Qualifiers and Pointers Pointers can be qualified like any other C objects, but care must be taken when doing so as there are two quantities associated with pointers. The first is the actual pointer itself, which is treated like any ordinary C variable and has memory reserved for it. The second is the object that the pointer references, or to which the pointer points. The general form of an initialized pointer definition looks like the following. 51 Storage Class and Object Placement C Language Features object's_type_&_qualifiers * pointer's_qualifiers pointer's_name = value; The rule is as follows: if the modifier is to the left of the * in the pointer declaration, it applies to the object which the pointer references. If the modifier is to the right of the *( next to the pointer's name), it applies to the pointer variable itself. Any data variable qualifier may be applied to pointers in the above manner. Here are some examples of pointers, initialized with the address of the variables: const int ci = 0x55aa; int i; const int * cip = &ci ; int * const icp = &i ; const int * const cicp = &ci ; The first example is a pointer called cip. It contains the address of an int object (in this case ci) that is qualified const, however the pointer itself is not qualified. The pointer may be used to read, but not write, the object to which it references. The contents of the pointer may be read and written by the program. The second example is a pointer called icp which contains the address of an int object (in this case i). Since this object is not qualified, it is a data space object which is referenced by the pointer and this object can be both read and written using the pointer. However, the pointer is qualified const and so can only be read by the program -- it cannot be made to point to any other object other than the object whose address initializes the pointer (in this case i). The last example is of a pointer called cicp which is itself qualified const and which also holds the address of an object that is also qualified const. Thus the pointer can only be used to read the object to which it references and the pointer itself cannot be modified so it will always reference the same object during the program (in this case ci). 3.5 Storage Class and Object Placement Objects are positioned in different memory areas dependant on their storage class and declaration. This is discussed in the following sections. 3.5.1 Local Variables A local variable is one which only has scope within the block in which it was defined. That is, it may only be referenced within that block. C supports two classes of local variables in functions: auto variables which are normally allocated in the function's stack frame, and static variables which are always given a fixed memory location and have permanent duration. 52 C Language Features Storage Class and Object Placement 3.5.1.1 Auto Variables Auto (short for automatic) variables are the default type of local variable. Unless explicitly declared to be static a local variable will be made auto, however the auto keyword may be used if desired. Auto variables are allocated in the auto-variable block and referenced by indexing off the symbol that represents that block. The variables will not necessarily be allocated in the order declared - in contrast to parameters which are always in lexical order. Note that most type qualifiers cannot be used with auto variables, since there is no control over the storage location. The exceptions are const and volatile. All auto variables are allocated memory in bank 0. The bank qualifiers cannot be used with objects of type auto. The auto-variable blocks for a number of functions are overlapped by the linker if those functions are never called at the same time. Auto objects are referenced with a symbol that consists of a question mark, ?, concatenated with a_function plus some offset, where function is the name of the function in which the object is defined. For example, if the int object test is the first object placed in main's auto-variable block it will be accessed using the addresses ?a_main and ?a_main+1 since an int is two bytes long. 3.5.1.2 Static Variables Uninitialized static variables are allocated in the rbss_n psect and occupy fixed memory location which will not be overlapped by storage for other functions. Static variables are local in scope to the function in which they are declared, but may be accessed by other functions via pointers since they have permanent duration. Static variables are guaranteed to retain their value between calls to a function, unless explicitly modified via a pointer. Static variables are not subject to any architectural limitations on the PIC. Static variables which are initialised are only done so once during the programs execution. Thus, they may be preferable over initialised auto objects which are assigned a value every time the block in which the definition is placed is executed. 3.5.2 Absolute Variables A global or static variable can be located at an absolute address by following its declaration with the construct @ address, for example: volatile unsigned char Portvar @ 0x06; will declare a variable called Portvar located at 06h. Note that the compiler does not reserve any storage, but merely equates the variable to that address, the compiler-generated assembler will include a line of the form: 53 Functions C Language Features _Portvar EQU 06h This construct is primarily intended for equating the address of a C identifier with a microprocessor special function register. To place a user-defined variable at an absolute address, define it in a separate psect and instruct the linker to place this psect at the required address as specified in Section 3.12.3.5. Absolute variables are accessed using the address specified with their definition, thus there are no symbols associated with them. Because the linker never sees any symbols for these objects it is not aware that they have been allocated space and it cannot make any checks for overlap of absolute variables with other objects. It is entirely the programmer's responsibility to ensure that absolute variables are allocated memory that is not already in use. 3.6 Functions 3.6.1 Function Argument Passing The method used to pass function arguments depends on the size of the argument or arguments. If there is only one argument, and it is one byte in size, it is passed in the W register. If there is only one argument, and it is greater than one byte in size, it is passed in the argument area of the called function. If there are subsequent arguments, these arguments are also passed in the argument area of the called function. The argument area is referenced by an offset from the symbol ?_function, where function is the name of the function concerned. If there is more than one argument, and the first argument is one byte in size, it is passed in the W register, with subsequent arguments being passed in the argument area of the called function. In the case of a variable argument list, which is defined by the ellipsis symbol ..., the calling function builds up the variable argument list and passes a pointer to the variable part of the argument list in btemp. Btemp is the label at the start of the temp psect (the psect used for temporary data). Take, for example, the following ANSI-style function: void test(char a, int b) { } The function test() will receive the parameter b in its function argument block and a in the W register. A call: test( a, 8); would generate code similar to: 54 C Language Features Functions movlw 08h movwf ?_test clrf ?_test+1 movf _a,w call (_test) In this example, the parameter b is held in the memory locations ?_test and ?_test+1. If you need to determine, for assembler code for example, the exact entry or exit code within a function or the code used to call a function, it is often helpful to write a dummy C function with the same argument types as your assembler function, and compile to assembler code with the PICC -S option, allowing you to examine the assembler code. 3.6.2 Function Return Values Function return values are passed to the calling function as follows: 8-Bit Return Values Eight-bit values are returned from a function in the W register. For example, the function: char return_8(void) { return 0; } will exit with the following code: retlw 0 16-bit and 32-bit values are returned in temporary memory locations, with the least significant word in the lowest memory location. For example, the function: int return_16(void) { return 0x1234; } will exit with the following code: movlw 34h movwf btemp movlw 12h movwf btemp+1 return 55 Function Calling Convention C Language Features 3.6.2.1 Structure Return Values Composite return values (struct and union) of size 4 bytes or smaller are returned in memory as with 16-bit and 32-bit return values. For composite return values of greater than 4 bytes in size, the structure or union is copied into the struct psect. Data is copied using a library routine which uses FSR for the source address, btemp for the destination address and W for the structure size. For example: struct fred { int ace[4]; } ; struct fred return_struct(void) { struct fred wow; return wow; } will exit with the following code: movlw ?a_return_struct+0 movwf fsr movlw structret movwf btemp movlw 8 global structbank call structbank 3.7 Function Calling Convention The baseline PIC devices have a two-level deep hardware stack which is used to store the return address of a subroutine call. Typically, PICC uses a call instruction to transfer control to a C function when it is called, however on baseline processors, the size of the stack severely limits the level of nested C function calls possible. By default, function calls on baseline PICs are implemented using a method involving an assembly jump instruction and a lookup table, or jump table. A function is called by jumping directly to its address after storing the address of a jump table instruction which will be able to return control back to the calling function. The address is stored as an object local to the function being called. The 56 C Language Features Operators lookup table is accessed after the function called has finished executing. This method allows functions to be nested without overflowing the stack, however it does come at the expense of memory and program speed. To disable the lookup-table mode of operation, a function definition can be qualified as fastcall, so that calls to this function are performed using the usual call assembly instruction. Extreme care must be used when functions are declared as fastcall, since the each nested fastcall will use one word of available stack space. Check the call graph in the map file to ensure that the stack will not overflow. The function prototype for a baseline fastcall function might look something like: fastcall void my_function(int a); The midrange and high end PIC devices have larger stacks and are thus allow a higher degree of function nesting. These devices do not use the lookup table method when calling functions. The compiler assumes that bank zero will be selected after returning from any function call. The compiler inserts the appropriate instructions to ensure this is true if required. Any functions callable from C code that are written in assembler must also ensure that bank zero is selected before the return. 3.8 Operators HI-TECH C supports all the ANSI operators. The exact results of some of these are implementation defined. The following sections illustrate code produced by the compiler. 3.8.1 Integral Promotion When there is more than one operand to an operator, they typically must be of exactly the same type. The compiler will automatically convert the operands, if necessary, so they have the same type. The conversion is to a "larger" type so there is no loss of information. Even if the operands have the same type, in some situations they are converted to a different type before the operation. This conversion is called integral promotion. HI-TECH C performs these integral promotions where required. If you are not aware that these changes of type have taken place, the results of some expressions are not what would normally be expected. Integral promotion is the implicit conversion of enumerated types, signed or unsigned varieties of char, short int or bit-field types to either signed int or unsigned int. If the result of the conversion can be represented by an signed int, then that is the destination type, otherwise the conversion is to unsigned int. Consider the following example. 57 Operators C Language Features unsigned char count, a=0, b=50; if(a - b < 10) count++; The unsigned char result of a - b is 206 (which is not less than 10), but both a and b are converted to signed int via integral promotion before the subtraction takes place. The result of the subtraction with these data types is -50 (which is less than 10) and hence the body of the if() statement is executed. If the result of the subtraction is to be an unsigned quantity, then apply a cast. For example: if((unsigned int)(a - b) < 10) count++; The comparison is then done using unsigned int, in this case, and the body of the if() would not be executed. Another problem that frequently occurs is with the bitwise compliment operator, "~". This operator toggles each bit within a value. Consider the following code. unsigned char count, c; c = 0x55; if( ~c == 0xAA) count++; If c contains the value 55h, it often assumed that ~c will produce AAh, however the result is FFAAh and so the comparison in the above example would fail. The compiler may be able to issue a mismatched comparison error to this effect in some circumstances. Again, a cast could be used to change this behaviour. The consequence of integral promotion as illustrated above is that operations are not performed with char-type operands, but with int-type operands. However there are circumstances when the result of an operation is identical regardless of whether the operands are of type char or int. In these cases, HI-TECH C will not perform the integral promotion so as to increase the code efficiency. Consider the following example. unsigned char a, b, c; a = b + c; Strictly speaking, this statement requires that the values of b and c should be promoted to unsigned int, the addition performed, the result of the addition cast to the type of a, and then the assignment can take place. Even if the result of the unsigned int addition of the promoted values of b and c was different to the result of the unsigned char addition of these values without promotion, after 58 C Language Features Psects Table 3.5: Integral division Operand 1 Operand 2 Quotient Remainder + + + + - + - + - - + - - + the unsigned int result was converted back to unsigned char, the final result would be the same. If an 8-bit addition is more efficient than a 16-bit addition, the compiler will encode the former. If, in the above example, the type of a was unsigned int, then integral promotion would have to be performed to comply with the ANSI standard. 3.8.2 Shifts applied to integral types The ANSI standard states that the result of right shifting (> > operator) signed integral types is implementation defined when the operand is negative. Typically, the possible actions that can be taken are that when an object is shifted right by one bit, the bit value shifted into the most significant bit of the result can either be zero, or a copy of the most significant bit before the shift took place. The latter case amounts to a sign extension of the number. HI-TECH PICC-Lite performs a sign extension of any signed integral type (for example signed char, signed int or signed long). Thus an object with the signed int value 0x0124 shifted right one bit will yield the value 0x0092 and the value 0x8024 shifted right one bit will yield the value 0xC012. Right shifts of unsigned integral values always clear the most significant bit of the result. Left shifts (< < operator), signed or unsigned, always clear the least significant bit of the result. 3.8.3 Division and modulus with integral types The sign of the result of division with integers when either operand is negative is implementation specific. Table 3.5 shows the expected sign of the result of the division of operand 1 with operand 2 when compiled with HI-TECH C. In the case where the second operand is zero (division by zero), the result will always be zero. 3.9 Psects The compiler splits code and data objects into a number of standard program sections referred to as psects. The HI-TECH assembler allows an arbitrary number of named psects to be included in 59 Psects C Language Features assembler code. The linker will group all data for a particular psect into a single segment. If you are using PICL to invoke the linker, you don't need to worry about the information documented here, except as background knowledge. If you want to run the linker manually (this is not recommended), or write your own assembly language subroutines, you should read this section carefully. A psect can be created in assembler code by using the PSECT assembler directive (see Section 4.3.8.3). In C, user-defined psects can be created by using the #pragma psect preprocessor directive, see Section 3.12.3.5. 3.9.1 Compiler-generated Psects The code generator places code and data into psects with standard names which are subsequent positioned by the default linker options. These psects are described below. The compiler-generated psects which are placed in the program space are: clrtext Used by some startup routines for clearing the rbss_n psects. checksum If a checksum has been requested, the result will be stored in this psect. config Used to store the configuration word. cstrings High-End processors use the cstrings psect to store const objects and string literals. ROM on these devices is 16 bits wide so two characters can be stored in the one ROM word. eeprom_data Used to store data into EEPROM memory. end_init Used by initialisation code which, for example, clears RAM. float_textn Used by some library routines, and in particular by arithmetic routines.It is possible that this psect will have a non-zero length even if no floating point operations are included in a program. idata_n These psects (where n is the bank number) contain the ROM image of any initialised variables. These psects are copied into the rdata_n psects at startup. idloc Used to store the ID location words. init Used by initialisation code which, for example, clears RAM. intcode Is the psect which contains the executable code for the interrupt service routine. intentry Contains the entry code for the interrupt service routine. This code saves the necessary registers and parts of the temp psect. 60 C Language Features Psects intret Is the psect which contains the executable code responsible for restoring saved registers and objects after an interrupt routine has completed executing. jmp_tab Only for the Baseline processors, this is another strings psect used to store jump addresses and function return values. maintext This psect will contain the main() function. It is used so that main() can be directly linked. powerup Contains executable code for a user-supplied power-up routine. pstrings For processors that support string packing, this psect will contain the packed strings. reset_vec The reset vector. reset_wrap For baseline PICs, this psect contains code which appears after the reset vector has wrapped around to address 0x0. strings The strings psect is used for some const objects. Const objects whose size exceeds 256 bytes, for example const arrays, are positioned in this psect. It also includes all unnamed string constants, such as string constants passed as arguments to routines like printf() and puts(). This psect is linked into ROM, since it does not need to be modifiable. stringtable The stringtable psect contains the string table which is used to access objects in the strings psect. This psect will only be generated if there is a strings or baseline jmp_tab psect. text Is a global psect used for executable code for some library functions. textn These psects (where n is a number) contain all executable code for the Midrange and Highend processors. They also contains any executable code after the first goto instruction which can never be skipped for the Baseline processors. The compiler-generated psects which are placed in the data space are: intsave Holds the W register saved by the interrupt service routine. If necessary, the W register will also be saved in the intsave_n psects. intsave_n May also hold the W register saved by the interrupt service routine. (See the description of the intsave psect.) nvbit_n These psects are used to store persistent bit variables. They are not cleared or otherwise modified at startup. nvram_n These psects are used to store persistent variables. They are not cleared or otherwise modified at startup. 61 Interrupt Handling in C C Language Features rbit_n These psects are used to store all bit variables except those declared at absolute locations. rbss_n These psects contain any uninitialized variables. rdata_n These psects contain any initialised variables. struct Contains any structure which is returned from a function. temp Is used to store scratch variables used by the compiler. These include function return values larger than a char and values passed to and returned from library routines. If possible, this will be positioned in the common area of the processor. xtemp Is used to store scratch variables used by the compiler and to pass values to and from the library routines. 3.10 Interrupt Handling in C The compiler incorporates features allowing interrupts to be handled from C code. Interrupt functions are often called interrupt service routines (ISR). Interrupts are also known as exceptions. 3.10.1 Interrupt Functions The function qualifier interrupt may be applied to any number of C function definitions to allow them to be called directly from the hardware interrupts. The compiler will process the interrupt function differently to any other functions, generating code to save and restore any registers used and exit using the appropriate instruction. If the PICL option --STRICT is used, the interrupt keyword becomes __interrupt. An interrupt function must be declared as type void interrupt and may not have parameters. This is the only function prototype that makes sense for an interrupt function. interrupt functions may not be called directly from C code (due to the different return instruction that is used), but they may call other functions itself. 3.10.1.1 Midrange Interrupt Functions An example of an interrupt function for a midrange PIC processor is shown here. int tick_count; void interrupt tc_int(void) { if (T0IE && T0IF) { T0IF=0; 62 C Language Features Interrupt Handling in C ++tick_count; } } As there is a maximum of one interrupt vector in the midrange PIC series, only one interrupt function may be defined. The interrupt vector will automatically be set to point to this function. 3.10.1.2 Highend Interrupt Functions As there is more than one vector location usable with highend processors, an indicator is required with the function definition to specify the interrupt vector to which the function should associated. This takes the form of a @ symbol followed by the vector address at the end of the function prototype. An example of an interrupt function for a high-end processor is shown here. int tick_count; void interrupt tc_int(void) @ 0x10 { if (TMR0IE && T0IF) { T0IF = 0; ++tick_count; } } 3.10.1.3 Context Saving on Interrupts The PIC processor only saves the PC on its stack whenever an interrupt occurs. Other registers and objects must be saved in software. The PICC compiler determines which registers and objects are used by an interrupt function and saves these appropriately. If the interrupt routine calls other functions and these functions are defined before the interrupt code in the same module, then any registers used by these functions will be saved as well. If the called functions have not been seen by the compiler, a worst case scenario is assumed and all registers and objects will be saved. PICC does not scan assembly code which is placed in-line within the interrupt function for register usage. Thus, if you include in-line assembly code into an interrupt function, you may have to add extra assembly code to save and restore any registers or locations used. 3.10.1.4 MidRange Context Saving The code associated with interrupt functions that do not require registers or objects is placed directly at the interrupt vector in a psect called intcode. 63 Interrupt Handling in C C Language Features If context saving is required, this is performed by code placed in to a psect called intentry which will be placed at the interrupt vector. Any registers or objects to be saved are done so to areas of memory especially reserved for this purpose. If the W register is to be saved, it is stored to memory reserved in the intsave_0 psect which is located in Bank 0. If the processor for which the code is written has more than one RAM bank, it is impossible to swap to Bank 0 without corrupting W, so an intsave_n psect is allocated to each RAM bank (where n represents the bank number). The addresses of these memory areas are identical in the lower seven bits.When the interrupt occurs, W will be saved into one of these memory areas depending on the bank in which the processor was in before the interrupt occurred. If the STATUS register is to be saved, it is stored into memory reserved in the intsave psect which resides in Bank 0. Some C code, for example division, may call an assembly routine which used temporary RAM locations. If these are used during the interrupt function, they too will be saved by separate routines which are automatically linked. 3.10.1.5 High-End Context Saving The ALUSTA, BSR and PCLATH registers are automatically saved by code in a psect called intcode. This code is placed at the interrupt vector. This code includes a jump to the users interrupt code. If the interrupt function uses the W register, this will also be saved before the jump is taken. These registers are saved to an unbanked area of RAM so that it does not matter which RAM bank is selected when the interrupt occurs. 3.10.1.6 Context Restoration Any objects saved by the compiler are automatically restored before the interrupt function returns. 3.10.1.7 Interrupt Levels Normally it is assumed by the compiler that any interrupt may occur at any time, and an error will be issued by the linker if a function appears to be called by an interrupt and by main-line code, or another interrupt. Since it is often possible for the user to guarantee this will not happen for a specific routine, the compiler supports an interrupt level feature. This is achieved with the #pragma interrupt_level directive. There are two interrupt levels available, and any interrupt functions at the same level will be assumed by the compiler to be mutually exclusive. (Since the midrange PIC devices only support one active interrupt there is no value in using more than one interrupt level when these processors are selected.) This exclusion must be guaranteed by the user - the compiler is not able to control interrupt priorities. Each interrupt routine may be assigned a single level, either 0 or 1. 64 C Language Features Interrupt Handling in C In addition, any non-interrupt functions that are called from an interrupt function and also from main-line code may also use the #pragma interrupt_level directive to specify that they will never be called by interrupt functions of one or more levels. This will prevent linker from issuing an error message because the function was included in more than one call graph. Note that it is entirely up to the user to ensure that the function is NOT called by both main-line and interrupt code at the same time. This will normally be ensured by disabling interrupts before calling the function. It is not sufficient to disable interrupts inside the function after it has been called. An example of using the interrupt levels is given below. Note that the #pragma directive applies to only the immediately following function. Multiple #pragma interrupt_level directives may precede a non-interrupt function to specify that it will be protected from multiple interrupt levels. /* non-interrupt function called by interrupt and by main-line code */ #pragma interrupt_level 1 void bill(){ int i; i = 23; } /* two interrupt functions calling the same non-interrupt function */ #pragma interrupt_level 1 void interrupt fred(void) { bill(); } #pragma interrupt_level 1 void interrupt joh() { bill(); } main() { bill(); } 3.10.1.8 Multiple Interrupts on High-End PICs On High-End devices, the compiler allows a maximum of two interrupt routines to be active at any given time. This is handled by the #pragma interrupt_level directive. The only available interrupt levels are levels 0 and 1. Interrupts are level 0 by default. All level 0 interrupts share the same memory for saving context when the interrupt occurs. Level 1 interrupts use a separate memory area. Thus only one interrupt of each level may be active at any given time. It is up to the user to ensure that this is the case. Interrupts may be re-enabled during an interrupt routine as long as the only possible interrupt will be of a different level. 65 Mixing C and Assembler Code C Language Features 3.10.1.9 Enabling Interrupts Two macros are available in which control the masking of all available interrupts. These macros are ei(), which enable or unmask all interrupts, and di(), which disable or mask all interrupts. On High-End PIC devices, these macros affect the GLINTD bit in the CPUSTA register; in midrange PIC devices, they affect the GIE bit in the INTCON register. These macros should be used once the appropriate interrupt enable bits for the interrupts that are required in a program have been enabled. For example: ADIE = 1; // A/D interrupts will be used PEIE = 1; // all peripheral interrupts are enabled ei(); // enable all interrupts di(); // disable all interrupts 3.11 Mixing C and Assembler Code Assembly language code can be mixed with C code using two different techniques: writing assembly code and placing it into a separate assembler module, or including it as in-line assembler in a C module. For the latter, there are two formats in which this can be done. 3.11.1 External Assembly Language Functions Entire functions may be coded in assembly language as separate .as source files, assembled and combined into the output image using the linker. This technique allows arguments and return values to be passed between C and assembler code. The following are guidelines that must be adhered to when writing a routine in assembly code that is callable from C code. * select, or define, a suitable psect for the executable assembly code * select a name (label) for the routine so that its corresponding C identifier is valid * ensure that the routine's label is globally accessible from other modules * select an appropriate equivalent C prototype for the routine on which argument passing can be modelled * ensure any symbol used to hold arguments to the routine is globally accessible * ensure any symbol used to hold a return value is globally accessible * optionally, use a signature value to enable type checking when the function is called 66 C Language Features Mixing C and Assembler Code * write the routine ensuring arguments are read from the correct location, the return value is loaded to the correct storage location before returning * ensure any local variables required by the routine have space reserved by the appropriate directive A mapping is performed on the names of all C functions and non-static global variables. See Section 3.11.3.1 for a complete description of mappings between C and assembly identifiers. An assembly routine is required which can add two 16-bit values together. The routine must be callable from C code. Both the values are passed in as arguments when the routine is called from the C code. The assembly routine should return the result of the addition as a 16-bit quantity. Most compiler-generated executable code is placed in a psect called textn (see Section 3.9.1). As we do not need to have this assembly routine linked at any particular location, we can use this psect so the code is bundled with other executable code and stored somewhere in the program space. This way we do not need to use any additional linker options. So we use an ordinary looking psect that you would see in assembly code produced by the compiler. The psect's name is text0, will be linked in the CODE class, which will reside in a memory space that has 2 bytes per addressable location: PSECT text0,local,class=CODE,delta=2 Now we would like to call this routine add. However in assembly we must choose the name _add as this then maps to the C identifier add since the compiler prepends an underscore to all C identifiers when it creates assembly labels. If the name add was chosen for the assembler routine the it could never be called from C code. The name of the assembly routine is the label that we will associate with the assembly code: _add: We need to be able to call this from other modules, some make this label globally accessible: GLOBAL _add By compiling a dummy C function with a similar prototype to how we will be calling this assembly routine, we can determine the signature value. We add a assembler directive to make this signature value known: SIGNAT _add,8298 When writing the function, you can find that the parameters will be loaded into the function's parameter area by the calling function, and the result should be placed in btemp. To call an assembly routine from C code, a declaration for the routine must be provided. This ensures that the compiler knows how to encode the function call in terms of parameters and return values, however no other code is necessary. If a signature value is present in the assembly code routine, its value will be checked by the linker when the calling and called routines' signatures can be compared. To continue the previous example, here is a code snippet that declares the operation of the assembler routine, then calls the routine. 67 Mixing C and Assembler Code C Language Features extern unsigned int add(unsigned a, unsigned b); void main(void) { int a, result; a = read_port(); result = add(5, a); } 3.11.2 #asm, #endasm and asm() PIC instructions may also be directly embedded "in-line" into C code using the directives #asm, #endasm or the statement asm(). The #asm and #endasm directives are used to start and end a block of assembly instructions which are to be embedded into the assembly output of the code generator. The #asm and #endasm construct is not syntactically part of the C program, and thus it does not obey normal C flow-of-control rules, however you can easily include multiple instructions with this form of in-line assembly. The asm() statement is used to embed a single assembler instruction. This form looks and behaves like a C statement, however each instruction must be encapsulated within an asm() statement. You should not use a #asm block within any C constructs such as if, while, do etc. In these cases, use only the asm("") form, which is a C statement and will correctly interact with all C flow-of-control structures. The following example shows both methods used: unsigned int var; void main(void) { var = 1; // like this... #asm bcf 0,3 rlf _var rlf _var+1 #endasm // or like this asm("bcf 0,3"); asm("rlf _var"); asm("rlf _var+1"); } 68 C Language Features Mixing C and Assembler Code When using in-line assembler code, great care must be taken to avoid interacting with compilergenerated code. The code generator cannot scan the assembler code for register usage and so will remain unaware if registers are clobbered or used by the code. If in doubt, compile your program with the PICL -S option and examine the assembler code generated by the compiler. 3.11.3 Accessing C objects from within Assembly Code The following applies regardless of whether the assembly is part of a separate assembly module, or in-line with C code. For any non-local assembly symbol, the GLOBAL directive must be used to link in with the symbol if it was defined elsewhere. If it is a local symbol, then it may be used immediately. 3.11.3.1 Equivalent Assembly Symbols The assembler equivalent identifier to an identifier in C code follows a form that is dependent on the scope and type of the C identifier. The different forms are discussed below. Accessing the C identifier in C code and its assembly equivalent in assembly code implies accessing the same object. Here, "global" implies defined outside a function; "local" defined within a function. C identifiers are assigned different symbols in the output assembly code so that an assembly identifier cannot conflict with an identifier defined in C code. If assembly programmers choose identifier names that do not begin with an underscore, these identifiers will never conflict with C identifiers. Importantly, this implies that the assembly identifier, i, and the C identifier i relate to different objects at different memory locations. 3.11.3.2 Accessing special function register names from assembler If writing separate assembly modules, SFR definitions will not automatically be present. If writing assembler code from within a C module, SFRs may be accessed by referring to the symbols defined by the chip-specific C header files. Whenever you include into a C module, all the available SFRs are defined as absolute C variables. As the contents of this file is C code, it cannot be included into an assembler module, but assembler code can uses these definitions. To use a SFR in in-line assembler code from within the same C module that includes , simply use the symbol with an underscore character prepended to the name. For example: #include void main(void) { PORTA = 0x55; asm("movlw #0xAA"); asm("movwf _PORTA); 69 Preprocessing C Language Features 3.12 Preprocessing All C source files are preprocessed before compilation. Assembler files can also be preprocessed if the -P command-line option is issued. 3.12.1 Preprocessor Directives HI-TECH PICC-Lite accepts several specialised preprocessor directives in addition to the standard directives. All of these are listed in Table 3.6. Macro expansion using arguments can use the # character to convert an argument to a string, and the ## sequence to concatenate tokens. 3.12.2 Predefined Macros The compiler drivers define certain symbols to the preprocessor (CPP), allowing conditional compilation based on chip type etc. The symbols listed in Table 3.7 show the more common symbols defined by the drivers. Each symbol, if defined, is equated to 1 unless otherwise stated. 3.12.3 Pragma Directives There are certain compile-time directives that can be used to modify the behaviour of the compiler. These are implemented through the use of the ANSI standard #pragma facility. The format of a pragma is: #pragma keyword options where keyword is one of a set of keywords, some of which are followed by certain options. A list of the keywords is given in Table 3.9. Those keywords not discussed elsewhere are detailed below. 3.12.3.1 The #pragma inline Directive The #pragma inline directive is used to indicate to the compiler that a function is to be inlined. The directive is only able to be used on functions that are hard coded in the code generator of the compiler. User defined and library function are not able to be inlinded. This directive should be placed directly before the function prototype of the inline function. Below is example usage #pragma inline(__va_start) extern void * __va_start(void); 70 C Language Features Preprocessing Table 3.6: Preprocessor directives Directive Meaning Example # preprocessor null directive, do nothing # #assert generate error if condition false #assert SIZE > 10 #asm signifies the beginning of in-line assembly #asm movlw FFh #endasm #define define preprocessor macro #define SIZE 5 #define FLAG #define add(a,b) ((a)+(b)) #elif short for #else #if see #ifdef #else conditionally include source lines see #if #endasm terminate in-line assembly see #asm #endif terminate conditional source inclusion see #if #error generate an error message #error Size too big #if include source lines if constant expression true #if SIZE < 10 c = process(10) #else skip(); #endif #ifdef include source lines if preprocessor symbol defined #ifdef FLAG do_loop(); #elif SIZE == 5 skip_loop(); #endif #ifndef include source lines if preprocessor symbol not defined #ifndef FLAG jump(); #endif #include include text file into source #include #include "project.h" #line specify line number and filename for listing #line 3 final #nn (where nn is a number) short for #line nn #20 #pragma compiler specific options Refer to section 3.12.3 #undef undefines preprocessor symbol #undef FLAG #warning generate a warning message #warning Length not set 71 Preprocessing C Language Features Table 3.7: Predefined macros Symbol When set Usage HI_TECH_C Always To indicate that the compiler in use is HI-TECH C. _HTC_VER_MAJOR_ Always To indicate the integer component of the compiler's version number. _HTC_VER_MINOR_ Always To indicate the decimal component of the compiler's version number. _HTC_VER_PATCH_ Always To indicate the patch level of the compiler's version number. _HTC_EDITION_ Always Indicates which of PRO, Standard or Lite compiler is in use. Values of 2, 1 or 0 are assigned respectively. __PICC__ Always Indicates HI-TECH PICC compiler in use. _MPC_ Always Indicates compiling for Microchip PIC family. _PIC12 If 12-bit device To indicate selected device is a baseline PIC. _PIC14 If 14-bit device To indicate selected device is a midrange PIC. _PIC16 If 16-bit device To indicate selected device is a highend PIC. _COMMON_ If common RAM present To indicate whether device has common RAM area. _BANKBITS_ Always Assigned 0, 1 or 2 to indicate 1, 2 or 4 available banks or RAM. _GPRBITS_ Always Assigned 0, 1 or 2 to indicate 1, 2 or 4 available banks or general purpose RAM. __MPLAB_ICD__ If compiling for MPLAB ICD or ICD2 debugger Assigned 1 to indicate that the code is generated for use with the Microchip MPLAB ICD1. Assigned 2 for ICD2. _ROMSIZE Always To indicate how many words of program memory are available. _EEPROMSIZE Always To indicate how many bytes of EEPROM are available. _chipname When chip selected To indicate the specific chip type selected __FILE__ Always To indicate this source file being preprocessed. __LINE__ Always To indicate this source line number. __DATE__ Always To indicate the current date, e.g. May 21 2004 __TIME__ Always To indicate the current time, e.g. 08:06:31. 72 C Language Features Preprocessing Table 3.9: Pragma directives Directive Meaning Example inline Specify function as inline #pragma inline(fabs) jis Enable JIS character handling in strings #pragma jis nojis Disable JIS character handling (de- fault) #pragma nojis pack Specify structure packing #pragma pack 1 printf_check Enable printf-style format string checking #pragma printf_check(printf) const psect Rename compiler-defined psect #pragma psect text=mytext regsused Specify additional registers to save when interrupt context switching #pragma regsused w,fsr switch Specify code generation for switch statements #pragma switch direct 3.12.3.2 The #pragma jis and nojis Directives If your code includes strings with two-byte characters in the JIS encoding for Japanese and other national characters, the #pragma jis directive will enable proper handling of these characters, specifically not interpreting a backslash, \, character when it appears as the second half of a two byte character. The nojis directive disables this special handling. JIS character handling is disabled by default. 3.12.3.3 The #pragma pack Directive Some MCUs requires word accesses to be aligned on word boundaries. Consequently the compiler will align all word or larger quantities onto a word boundary, including structure members. This can lead to "holes" in structures, where a member has been aligned onto the next word boundary. This behaviour can be altered with this directive. Use of the directive #pragma pack 1 will prevent any padding or alignment within structures. Use this directive with caution - in general if you must access data that is not aligned on a word boundary you should do so by extracting individual bytes and re-assembling the data. This will result in portable code. Note that this directive must not appear before any system header file, as these must be consistent with the libraries supplied. PICs can only perform byte accesses to memory and so do not require any alignment of memory objects. This pragma will have no effect when used. 73 Preprocessing C Language Features 3.12.3.4 The #pragma printf_check Directive Certain library functions accept a format string followed by a variable number of arguments in the manner of printf(). Although the format string is interpreted at runtime, it can be compile-time checked for consistency with the remaining arguments. This directive enables this checking for the named function, e.g. the system header file includes the directive #pragma printf_check(printf) const to enable this checking for printf(). You may also use this for any user-defined function that accepts printf-style format strings. The qualifier following the function name is to allow automatic conversion of pointers in variable argument lists. The above example would cast any pointers to strings in RAM to be pointers of the type (const char *) Note that the warning level must be set to -1 or below for this option to have any visible effect. See Section 2.4.55. 3.12.3.5 The #pragma psect Directive Normally the object code generated by the compiler is broken into the standard psects as described in Section 3.9.1. This is fine for most applications, but sometimes it is necessary to redirect variables or code into different psects when a special memory configuration is desired. Code and data for any of the standard C psects may be redirected using a #pragma psect directive. The general form of this pragma looks like: #pragma psect default_psect=new_psect and instructs the code generator that anything that would normally appear in the compiler-generated psect default_psect, will now appear in a new psect called new_psect. This psect will be identical to default_psect in terms of its options, however will have a different name. Thus, this new psect can be explicitly positioned by the linker without affect the original psect's location. If the name of the default psect that is being redirected contains a counter, e.g. text0, text1, text2, then the placeholder %%u should be used in the name of the psect at the position of the counter, e.g. text%%u. Any default psect, regardless of the counter value, will match such a psect name. This pragma remains in force until the end of the module and any given psect should only be redirected once in a particular module. All psect redirections for a particular module should be placed at the top of the source file, below any #include statements and above any other declarations. A particular function, called read_port(), needs to be located at the absolute address 0x400 in a program. Using the #pragma psect directive in the source code, and adding a new linker option can do this. First write the function in the usual way. Place the function definition in a separate module. There is obviously something special about this function so a module all to itself is probably a good idea anyway. 74 C Language Features Preprocessing unsigned char read_port(void) { return PORTA; } Now, how do we know in which psect the code associated with the function will be placed? Compile you program, including this new module and generate an assembly list file, see Section 2.4.17. Look for the definition of the function. A function starts with an assembly label which is the name of the function prepended with an underscore. In this example, the label appears on line 37. 36 psect text 37 0002 _read_port: Look above this to see the first PSECT directive you encounter. This will indicate the name of the psect in which the code is located. In this case it is the psect called text. So let us redirect this psect into one with a unique and more meaningful name. In the C module that contains the definition for read_port() place the following pragma: #pragma psect text=readport at the top of the module, before the function definition. With this, the read_port() function will be placed in the psect called readport. Confirm this in the new assembly list file. Now we can tell the linker where we would like this psect positioned. Issue an additional option to the command-line driver to place this psect at address 0x400. -L-preadport=0400h The generate an check the map file, see Section 2.4.8. You should see the additional linker command (minus the leading -L part of the option) present in the section after Linker command line:. You should also see the remapped psect name appear in the source file list of psects, e.g.: Name Link Load Length Selector Space Scale /tmp/cgt9e31jr.obj main.obj maintext 0 0 2 0 0 portread 400 400 2 800 0 Check the link address to ensure it is that requested, in this case, 0x400. 3.12.3.6 The #pragma regsused Directive HI-TECH C will automatically save context when an interrupt occurs. The compiler will determine only those registers and objects which need to be saved for the particular interrupt function defined. The #pragma regsused directive allows the programmer to indicate register usage for functions that will not be "seen" by the code generator, for example if they were written in assembly code. The general form of the pragma is: #pragma regsused register_list 75 Preprocessing C Language Features Table 3.10: Valid Register Names Register Name Description btemp, btemp+1...btemp+11 btemp temporary area fsr indirect data pointer tablreg highend processor's table pointer w the working register Table 3.11: switch types switch type description auto use smallest code size method (default) direct table lookup (fixed delay) where register_list is a comma-separated list of registers names. Those registers not listed are assumed to be unused by the function or routine. The code generator may use the unlisted registers to hold values across a function call. Hence, if the routine does in fact use these registers, unreliable program execution may eventuate. The list of registers to be saved will apply to the first interrupt qualified function defined after the pragma's usage. The register names are not case sensitive and a warning will be produced if the register name is not recognised. A blank list indicates that the specified function or routine uses no registers. 3.12.3.7 The #pragma switch Directive Normally the compiler decides the code generation method for switch statements which results in the smallest possible code size. The #pragma switch directive can be used to force the compiler to use one particular method. The general form of the switch pragma is: #pragma switch switch_type where switch_type is one of the available switch methods listed in Table . Specifying the direct option to the #pragma switch directive forces the compiler to generate the table look-up style switch method. This is mostly useful where timing is an issue for switch statements (i.e.: state machines). This pragma affects all code generated onward. The auto option may be used to revert to the default behaviour. 76 C Language Features Linking Programs 3.13 Linking Programs The compiler will automatically invoke the linker unless requested to stop after producing assembler code (PICC -S option) or object code (PICC -C option). HI-TECH C, by default, generates Intel HEX. Use the --OUTPUT= option to specify a different output format. After linking, the compiler will automatically generate a memory usage map which shows the address used by, and the total sizes of, all the psects which are used by the compiled code. The program statistics shown after the summary provides more concise information based on each memory area of the device. This can be used as a guide to the available space left in the device. More detailed memory usage information, listed in ascending order of individual psects, may be obtained by using the PICC --SUMMARY=psect option. Generate a map file for the complete memory specification of the program. 3.13.1 Replacing Library Modules Although HI-TECH C comes with a librarian (LIBR) which allows you to unpack a library files and replace modules with your own modified versions, you can easily replace a library module that is linked into your program without having to do this. If you add the source file which contains the library routine you wish to replace on the command-line list of source files then the routine will replace the routine in the library file with the same name. This method works due to the way the linker scans source and library file. When trying to resolve a symbol (in this instance a function name) the linker first scans all source modules for the definition. Only if it cannot resolve the symbol in these files does it then search the library files. Even though the symbol may be defined in a source file and a library file, the linker will not search the libraries and no multiply defined symbol error will result. This is not true if a symbol is defined twice in source files. For example, if you wished to make changes to the library function max() which resides in the file max.c in the SOURCES directory, you could make a copy of this source file, make the appropriate changes and then compile and use it as follows. PICL ­chip=16F877A main.c init.c max.c The code for max() in max.c will be linked into the program rather than the max() function contained in the standard libraries. Note, that if you replace an assembler module, you may need the -P option to preprocess assembler files as the library assembler files often contain C preprocessor directives. 77 Linking Programs C Language Features 3.13.2 Signature Checking The compiler automatically produces signatures for all functions. A signature is a 16-bit value computed from a combination of the function's return data type, the number of its parameters and other information affecting the calling sequence for the function. This signature is output in the object code of any function referencing or defining the function. At link time the linker will report any mismatch of signatures. HI-TECH PICC-Lite is only likely to issue a mismatch error from the linker when the routine is either a precompiled object file or an assembly routine. Other function mismatches are reported by the code generator. It is sometimes necessary to write assembly language routines which are called from C using an extern declaration. Such assembly language functions should include a signature which is compatible with the C prototype used to call them. The simplest method of determining the correct signature for a function is to write a dummy C function with the same prototype and compile it to assembly language using the PICL -S option. For example, suppose you have an assembly language routine called _widget which takes two int arguments and returns a char value. The prototype used to call this function from C would be: extern char widget(int, int); Where a call to _widget is made in the C code, the signature for a function with two int arguments and a char return value would be generated. In order to match the correct signature the source code for widget needs to contain an assembler SIGNAT pseudo-op which defines the same signature value. To determine the correct value, you would write the following code: char widget(int arg1, int arg2) { } and compile it to assembler code using PICL -S x.c The resultant assembler code includes the following line: SIGNAT _widget,8249 The SIGNAT pseudo-op tells the assembler to include a record in the .obj file which associates the value 8249 with symbol _widget. The value 8249 is the correct signature for a function with two int arguments and a char return value. If this line is copied into the .as file where _widget is defined, it will associate the correct signature with the function and the linker will be able to check for correct argument passing. For example, if another .c file contains the declaration: extern char widget(long); then a different signature will be generated and the linker will report a signature mis-match which will alert you to the possible existence of incompatible calling conventions. 78 C Language Features Standard I/O Functions and Serial I/O Table 3.12: Supported standard I/O functions Function name Purpose printf(const char * s, ...) Formatted printing to stdout sprintf(char * buf, const char * s, ...) Writes formatted text to buf 3.13.3 Linker-Defined Symbols The link address of a psect can be obtained from the value of a global symbol with name __Lname where name is the name of the psect. For example, __Lbss is the low bound of the bss psect. The highest address of a psect (i.e. the link address plus the size) is symbol __Hname. If the psect has different load and link addresses the load start address is specified as __Bname. 3.14 Standard I/O Functions and Serial I/O A number of the standard I/O functions are provided in the C library with the compiler, specifically those functions intended to read and write formatted text on standard output and input. A list of the available functions is in Table 3.12. More details of these functions can be found in Appendix A. Before any characters can be written or read using these functions, the putch() and getch() functions must be written. Other routines which may be required include getche() and kbhit(). 79 Standard I/O Functions and Serial I/O C Language Features 80 Chapter 4 Macro Assembler The Macro Assembler included with HI-TECH PICC-Lite assembles source files for PIC MCUs. This chapter describes the usage of the assembler and the directives (assembler pseudo-ops and controls) accepted by the assembler in the source files. The HI-TECH C Macro Assembler package includes a linker, librarian, cross reference generator and an object code converter. ˇ Athough the term "assembler" is almost universally used to decribe the tool which converts human-readable mnemonics into machine code, both "assembler" and "assembly" are used to describe the source code which such a tool reads. The latter is more common and is used in this manual to describe the language. Thus you will see the terms assembly language (or just assembly), assembly listing and etc, but assembler options, assembler directive and assembler optimizer. 4.1 Assembler Usage The assembler is called ASPIC and is available to run on Windows, Linux and Mac OS systems. Note that the assembler will not produce any messages unless there are errors or warnings -- there are no "assembly completed" messages. Typically the command-line driver, PICL, is used to envoke the assembler as it can be passed assembler source files as input, however the options for the assembler are supplied here for instances 81 Assembler Options Macro Assembler where the assembler is being called directly, or when they are specified using the command-line driver option --SETOPTION, see Section 2.4.49. The usage of the assembler is similar under all of available operating systems. All command-line options are recognised in either upper or lower case. The basic command format is shown: ASPIC [ options ] files files is a space-separated list of one or more assembler source files. Where more than one source file is specified the assembler treats them as a single module, i.e. a single assembly will be performed on the concatenation of all the source files specified. The files must be specified in full, no default extensions or suffixes are assumed. options is an optional space-separated list of assembler options, each with a minus sign - as the first character. A full list of possible options is given in Table 4.1, and a full description of each option follows. Table 4.1: ASPIC command-line options Option Meaning Default -A Produce assembler output Produce object code -C Produce cross-reference file No cross reference -Cchipinfo Define the chipinfo file dat\picc.ini -E[file|digit] Set error destination/format -Flength Specify listing form length 66 -H Output hex values for constants Decimal values -I List macro expansions Don't list macros -L[listfile] Produce listing No listing -O Perform optimization No optimization -Ooutfile Specify object name srcfile.obj -Pprocessor Define the processor -R Specify non-standard ROM -Twidth Specify listing page width 80 -V Produce line number info No line numbers -Wlevel Set warning level threshold 0 -X No local symbols in OBJ file 4.2 Assembler Options The command line options recognised by ASPIC are as follows: 82 Macro Assembler Assembler Options -A An assembler file with an extension .opt will be produced if this option is used. This is useful when checking the optimized assembler produced using the -O option. -C A cross reference file will be produced when this option is used. This file, called srcfile.crf, where srcfile is the base portion of the first source file name, will contain raw cross reference information. The cross reference utility CREF must then be run to produce the formatted cross reference listing. See Section 4.7 for more information. -Cchipinfo Specify the chipinfo file to use. The chipinfo file is called picc.ini and can be found in the DAT directory of the compiler distribution. -E[file|digit] The default format for an error message is in the form: filename: line: message where the error of type message occurred on line line of the file filename. The -E option with no argument will make the assembler use an alternate format for error and warning messages. Specifying a digit as argument has a similar effect, only it allows selection of any of the available message formats. Specifying a filename as argument will force the assembler to direct error and warning messages to a file with the name specified. -Flength By default the listing format is pageless, i.e. the assembler listing output is continuous. The output may be formatted into pages of varying lengths. Each page will begin with a header and title, if specified. The -F option allows a page length to be specified. A zero value of length implies pageless output. The length is specified in a number of lines. -H Particularly useful in conjunction with the -A or -L ASPIC options, this option specifies that output constants should be shown as hexadecimal values rather than decimal values. -I This option forces listing of macro expansions and unassembled conditionals which would otherwise be suppressed by a NOLIST assembler control. The -L option is still necessary to produce a listing. -Llistfile This option requests the generation of an assembly listing file. If listfile is specified then the listing will be written to that file, otherwise it will be written to the standard output. -O This requests the assembler to perform optimization on the assembly code. Note that the use of this option slows the assembly process down, as the assembler must make an additional pass over the input code. Debug information for assembler code generated from C source code may become unreliable. 83 HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler -Ooutfile By default the assembler determines the name of the object file to be created by stripping any suffix or extension (i.e. the portion after the last dot) from the first source filename and appending .obj. The -O option allows the user to override the default filename and specify a new name for the object file. -Pprocessor This option defines the processor which is being used. The processor type can also be indicated by use of the PROCESSOR directive in the assembler source file, see Section 4.3.8.24. You can also add your own processors to the compiler via the compiler's chipinfo file. -V This option will include line number and filename information in the object file produced by the assembler. Such information may be used by debuggers. Note that the line numbers will correspond with assembler code lines in the assembler file. This option should not be used when assembling an assembler file produced by the code generator from a C source file. -Twidth This option allows specification of the listfile paper width, in characters. width should be a decimal number greater than 41. The default width is 80 characters. -X The object file created by the assembler contains symbol information, including local symbols, i.e. symbols that are neither public or external. The -X option will prevent the local symbols from being included in the object file, thereby reducing the file size. 4.3 HI-TECH C Assembly Language The source language accepted by the macro assembler, ASPIC, is described below. All opcode mnemonics and operand syntax are strictly PIC assembly language. Additional mnemonics and assembler directives are documented in this section. 4.3.1 Statement Formats Legal statement formats are shown in Table 4.2. The label field is optional and, if present, should contain one identifier. A label may appear on a line of its own, or precede a mnemonic as shown in the second format. The third format is only legal with certain assembler directives, such as MACRO, SET and EQU. The name field is mandatory and should also contain one identifier. If the assembly file is first processed by the C preprocessor, see Section 2.4.11, then it may also contain lines that form valid preprocessor directives. See Section 3.12.1 for more information on the format for these directives. There is no limitation on what column or part of the line in which any part of the statement should appear. 84 Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language Table 4.2: ASPICstatement formats Format 1 label: Format 2 label: mnemonic operands ; comment Format 3 name pseudo-op operands ; comment Format 4 ; comment only Format 5 4.3.2 Characters The character set used is standard 7 bit ASCII. Alphabetic case is significant for identifiers, but not mnemonics and reserved words. Tabs are treated as equivalent to spaces. 4.3.2.1 Delimiters All numbers and identifiers must be delimited by white space, non-alphanumeric characters or the end of a line. 4.3.2.2 Special Characters There are a few characters that are special in certain contexts. Within a macro body, the character & is used for token concatenation. To use the bitwise & operator within a macro body, escape it by using && instead. In a macro argument list, the angle brackets < and > are used to quote macro arguments. 4.3.3 Comments An assembly comment is initiated with a semicolon that is not part of a string or character constant. If the assembly file is first processed by the C preprocessor, see Section 2.4.11, then it may also contain C or C++ style comments using the standard /* ... */ and // syntax. 4.3.3.1 Special Comment Strings Several comment strings are appended to assembler instructions by the code generator. These are typically used by the assembler optimizer. The comment string ;volatile is used to indicate that the memory location being accessed in the commented instruction is associated with a variable that was declared as volatile in the C source code. Accesses to this location which appear to be redundant will not be removed by the assembler optimizer if this string is present. This comment string may also be used in assembler source to achive the same effect for locations defined and accessed in assembly code. 85 HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler Table 4.3: ASPIC numbers and bases Radix Format Binary digits 0 and 1 followed by B Octal digits 0 to 7 followed by O, Q, o or q Decimal digits 0 to 9 followed by D, d or nothing Hexadecimal digits 0 to 9, A to F preceded by Ox or followed by H or h 4.3.4 Constants 4.3.4.1 Numeric Constants The assembler performs all arithmetic with signed 32-bit precision. The default radix for all numbers is 10. Other radices may be specified by a trailing base specifier as given in Table 4.3. Hexadecimal numbers must have a leading digit (e.g. 0ffffh) to differentiate them from identifiers. Hexadecimal digits are accepted in either upper or lower case. Note that a binary constant must have an upper case B following it, as a lower case b is used for temporary (numeric) label backward references. In expressions, real numbers are accepted in the usual format, and are interpreted as IEEE 32-bit format. 4.3.4.2 Character Constants and Strings A character constant is a single character enclosed in single quotes '. Multi-character constants, or strings, are a sequence of characters, not including carriage return or newline characters, enclosed within matching quotes. Either single quotes ' or double quotes " maybe used, but the opening and closing quotes must be the same. 4.3.5 Identifiers Assembly identifiers are user-defined symbols representing memory locations or numbers. A symbol may contain any number of characters drawn from the alphabetics, numerics and the special characters dollar, $, question mark, ? and underscore, _. The first character of an identifier may not be numeric. The case of alphabetics is significant, e.g. Fred is not the same symbol as fred. Some examples of identifiers are shown here: An_identifier an_identifier an_identifier1 86 Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language $ ?$_12345 4.3.5.1 Significance of Identifiers Users of other assemblers that attempt to implement forms of data typing for identifiers should note that this assembler attaches no significance to any symbol, and places no restrictions or expectations on the usage of a symbol. The names of psects (program sections) and ordinary symbols occupy separate, overlapping name spaces, but other than this, the assembler does not care whether a symbol is used to represent bytes, words or sports cars. No special syntax is needed or provided to define the addresses of bits or any other data type, nor will the assembler issue any warnings if a symbol is used in more than one context. The instruction and addressing mode syntax provide all the information necessary for the assembler to generate correct code. 4.3.5.2 Assembler-Generated Identifiers Where a LOCAL directive is used in a macro block, the assembler will generate a unique symbol to replace each specified identifier in each expansion of that macro. These unique symbols will have the form ??nnnn where nnnn is a 4 digit number. The user should avoid defining symbols with the same form. 4.3.5.3 Location Counter The current location within the active program section is accessible via the symbol $. This symbol expands to the address of the currently executing instruction. Thus: goto $ will represent code that will jump to itself and form an endless loop. By using this symbol and an offset, a relative jump destination to be specified. The address represented by $ is a word address and thus any offset to this symbol represents a number of instructions. For example: goto $+1 movlw 8 movwf _foo will skip one instruction. 87 HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler 4.3.5.4 Register Symbols Code in assembly modules may gain access to the special function registers by including pre-defined assembly header files. The appropriate file can be included by add the line: #include to the assembler source file. Note that the file must be included using a C pre-processor directive and hence the option to pre-process assembly files must be enabled when compiling, see Section 2.4.11. This header file contains appropriate commands to ensure that the header file specific for the target device is included into the souce file. These header files contain EQU declarations for all byte or multi-byte sized registers and #define macros for named bits within byte registers. 4.3.5.5 Symbolic Labels A label is symbolic alias which is assigned a value equal to its offset within the current psect. A label definition consists of any valid assembly identifier and optionally followed by a colon, :. The definition may appear on a line by itself or be positioned before a statement. Here are two examples of legitimate labels interspersed with assembly code. frank: movlw 1 goto fin simon44: clrf _input Here, the label frank will ultimately be assigned the address of the mov instruction, and simon44 the address of the clrf instruction. Regardless of how they are defined, the assembler list file produced by the assembler will always show labels on a line by themselves. Note that the colon following the label is optional, therefore symbols which are not interpreted in any other way are assumed to be labels. Thus the code: mowlv 23h bananas movf 37h defined a symbol called bananas. Mis-typed assembler instructions can sometimes be treated as labels without an error message being issuesd. Labels may be used (and are prefered) in assembly code rather than using an absolute address. Thus they can be used as the target location for jump-type instructions or to load an address into a register. Like variables, labels have scope. By default, they may be used anywhere in the module in which they are defined. They may be used by code above their definition. To make a label accessable in other modules, use the GLOBAL directive. See Section 4.3.8.1 for more information. 88 Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language 4.3.6 Expressions The operands to instructions and directives are comprised of expressions. Expressions can be made up of numbers, identifiers, strings and operators. Operators can be unary (one operand, e.g. not) or binary (two operands, e.g. +). The operators allowable in expressions are listed in Table 4.4. The usual rules governing the syntax of expressions apply. The operators listed may all be freely combined in both constant and relocatable expressions. The HI-TECH linker permits relocation of complex expressions, so the results of expressions involving relocatable identifiers may not be resolved until link time. 4.3.7 Program Sections Program sections, or psects, are simply a section of code or data. They are a way of grouping together parts of a program (via the psect's name) even though the source code may not be physically adjacent in the source file, or even where spread over several source files. ˇ The concept of a program section is not a HI-TECH-only feature. Often referred to as blocks or segments in other compilers, these grouping of code and data have long used the names text, bss and data. A psect is identified by a name and has several attributes. The PSECT assembler directive is used to define a psect. It takes as arguments a name and an optional comma-separated list of flags. See Section 4.3.8.3 for full information on psect definitions. Chapter 5 has more information on the operation of the linker and on optins that can be used to control psect placement in memory. The assembler associates no significance to the name of a psect and the linker is also not aware of which are compiler-generated or user-defined psects. Unless defined as abs (absolute), psects are relocatable. The following is an example showing some executable instructions being placed in the text psect, and some data being placed in the rbss psect. PSECT text0,class=CODE,delta=2 adjust goto clear_fred increment incf _fred PSECT rbss_0,class=BANK0,space=1 fred 89 HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler Table 4.4: ASPIC operators Operator Purpose Example * Multiplication movlw 4*33,W + Addition bra $+1 - Subtraction DB 5-2 / Division movlw 100/4 = or eq Equality IF inp eq 66 > or gt Signed greater than IF inp > 40 >= or ge Signed greater than or equal to IF inp ge 66 < or lt Signed less than IF inp < 40 <= or le Signed less than or equal to IF inp le 66 <> or ne Signed not equal to IF inp <> 40 low Low byte of operand movlw low(inp) high High byte of operand movlw high(1008h) highword High 16 bits of operand DW highword(inp) mod Modulus movlw 77mod4 & Bitwise AND clrf inp&0ffh ^ Bitwise XOR (exclusive or) movf inp^80,W | Bitwise OR movf inp!1,W not Bitwise complement movlw not 055h,W < < or shl Shift left DB inp> >8 > > or shr Shift right movlw inp shr 2,W rol Rotate left DB inp rol 1 ror Rotate right DB inp ror 1 float24 24-bit version of real operand DW float24(3.3) nul Tests if macro argument is null 90 Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language DS 2 PSECT text0,class=CODE,delta=2 clear_fred clrf _fred return Note that even though the two blocks of code in the text psect are separated by a block in the rbss psect, the two text psect blocks will be contiguous when loaded by the linker. In other words, the incf _fred instruction will be followed by the clrf instruction in the final ouptut. The actual location in memory of the text and rbss psects will be determined by the linker. Code or data that is not explicitly placed into a psect will become part of the default (unnamed) psect. 4.3.8 Assembler Directives Assembler directives, or pseudo-ops, are used in a similar way to instruction mnemonicss, but either do not generate code, or generate non-executable code, i.e. data bytes. The directives are listed in Table 4.5, and are detailed below. 4.3.8.1 GLOBAL GLOBAL declares a list of symbols which, if defined within the current module, are made public. If the symbols are not defined in the current module, it is a reference to symbols in external modules. Example: GLOBAL lab1,lab2,lab3 4.3.8.2 END END is optional, but if present should be at the very end of the program. It will terminate the assembly and not even blank lines should follow this directive. If an expression is supplied as an argument, that expression will be used to define the start address of the program. Whether this is of any use will depend on the linker. Example: END start_label 91 HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler Table 4.5: ASPIC assembler directives Directive Purpose GLOBAL Make symbols accessible to other modules or allow reference to other modules' symbols END End assembly PSECT Declare or resume program section ORG Set location counter EQU Define symbol value SET Define or re-define symbol value DB Define constant byte(s) DW Define constant word(s) DS Reserve storage IF Conditional assembly ELSIF Alternate conditional assembly ELSE Alternate conditional assembly ENDIF End conditional assembly FNADDR Inform the linker that a function may be indirectly called FNARG Inform the linker that evaluation of arguments for one function requires calling another FNBREAK Break call graph links FNCALL Inform the linker that one function calls another FNCONF Supply call graph configuration information for the linker FNINDIR Inform the linker that all functions with a particular signature may be indirectly called FNROOT Inform the linker that a function is the "root" of a call grpah FNSIZE Inform the linker of argument and local variable for a function MACRO Macro definition ENDM End macro definition LOCAL Define local tabs ALIGN Align output to the specified boundary PAGESEL Generate set/reset instruction to set PCLATH for this page PROCESSOR Define the particular chip for which this file is to be assembled. REPT Repeat a block of code n times IRP Repeat a block of code with a list IRPC Repeat a block of code with a character list SIGNAT Define function signature 92 Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language Table 4.6: PSECT flags Flag Meaning abs Psect is absolute bit Psect holds bit objects class=name Specify class name for psect delta=size Size of an addressing unit global Psect is global (default) limit=address Upper address limit of psect local Psect is not global ovrld Psect will overlap same psect in other modules pure Psect is to be read-only reloc=boundary Start psect on specified boundary size=max Maximum size of psect space=area Represents area in which psect will reside with=psect Place psect in the same page as specified psect 4.3.8.3 PSECT The PSECT directive declares or resumes a program section. It takes as arguments a name and, optionally, a comma-separated list of flags. The allowed flags are listed in Table 4.6, below. Once a psect has been declared it may be resumed later by another PSECT directive, however the flags need not be repeated. * abs defines the current psect as being absolute, i.e. it is to start at location 0. This does not mean that this module's contribution to the psect will start at 0, since other modules may contribute to the same psect. * The bit flag specifies that a psect hold objects that are 1 bit long. Such psects have a scale value of 8 to indicate that there are 8 addressable units to each byte of storage. * The class flag specifies a class name for this psect. Class names are used to allow local psects to be referred to by a class name at link time, since they cannot be referred to by their own name. Class names are also useful where psects need only be positioned anywhere within a range of addresses rather than at one specific address. * The delta flag defines the size of an addressing unit. In other words, the number of bytes covered for an increment in the address. 93 HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler * A psect defined as global will be combined with other global psects of the same name from other modules at link time. This is the default behaviour for psects, unless the local flag is used. * The limit flag specifies a limit on the highest address to which a psect may extend. * A psect defined as local will not be combined with other local psects at link time, even if there are others with the same name. Where there are two local psects in the one module, they reference the same psect. A local psect may not have the same name as any global psect, even one in another module. * A psect defined as ovrld will have the contribution from each module overlaid, rather than concatenated at runtime. ovrld in combination with abs defines a truly absolute psect, i.e. a psect within which any symbols defined are absolute. * The pure flag instructs the linker that this psect will not be modified at runtime and may therefore, for example, be placed in ROM. This flag is of limited usefulness since it depends on the linker and target system enforcing it. * The reloc flag allows specification of a requirement for alignment of the psect on a particular boundary, e.g. reloc=100h would specify that this psect must start on an address that is a multiple of 100h. * The size flag allows a maximum size to be specified for the psect, e.g. size=100h. This will be checked by the linker after psects have been combined from all modules. * The space flag is used to differentiate areas of memory which have overlapping addresses, but which are distinct. Psects which are positioned in program memory and data memory may have a different space value to indicate that the program space address zero, for example, is a different location to the data memory address zero. Devices which use banked RAM data memory typically have the same space value as their full addresses (including bank information) are unique. * The with flag allows a psect to be placed in the same page with a specified psect. For example with=text will specify that this psect should be placed in the same page as the text psect. Some examples of the use of the PSECT directive follow: PSECT fred PSECT bill,size=100h,global PSECT joh,abs,ovrld,class=CODE,delta=2 94 Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language 4.3.8.4 ORG The ORG directive changes the value of the location counter within the current psect. This means that the addresses set with ORG are relative to the base address of the psect, which is not determined until link time. ˇ The much-abused ORG directive does not necessarily move the location counter to the absolute address you specify as the operand. This directive is rarely needed in programs. The argument to ORG must be either an absolute value, or a value referencing the current psect. In either case the current location counter is set to the value determined by the argument. It is not possible to move the location counter backward. For example: ORG 100h will move the location counter to the beginning of the current psect plus 100h. The actual location will not be known until link time. In order to use the ORG directive to set the location counter to an absolute value, the directive must be used from within an absolute, overlaid psect. For example: PSECT absdata,abs,ovrld ORG 50h 4.3.8.5 EQU This pseudo-op defines a symbol and equates its value to an expression. For example thomas EQU 123h The identifier thomas will be given the value 123h. EQU is legal only when the symbol has not previously been defined. See also Section 4.3.8.6. 4.3.8.6 SET This pseudo-op is equivalent to EQU except that allows a symbol to be re-defined. For example thomas SET 0h 95 HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler 4.3.8.7 DB DB is used to initialize storage as bytes. The argument is a list of expressions, each of which will be assembled into one byte. Each character of the string will be assembled into one memory location. Examples: alabel: DB 'X',1,2,3,4, Note that because the size of an address unit in ROM is 2 bytes, the DB pseudo-op will initialise a word with the upper byte set to zero. 4.3.8.8 DW DW operates in a similar fashion to DB, except that it assembles expressions into words. Example: DW -1, 3664h, `A', 3777Q 4.3.8.9 DS This directive reserves, but does not initialize, memory locations. The single argument is the number of bytes to be reserved. Examples: alabel: DS 23 ;Reserve 23 bytes of memory xlabel: DS 2+3 ;Reserve 5 bytes of memory 4.3.8.10 FNADDR This directive tells the linker that a function has its address taken, and thus could be called indirectly through a function pointer. For example FNADDR _func1 tells the linker that func1() has its address taken. 4.3.8.11 FNARG The directive FNARG fun1,fun2 tells the linker that evaluation of the arguments to function fun1 involves a call to fun2, thus the memory argument memory allocated for the two functions should not overlap. For example, the C function calls 96 Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language fred(var1, bill(), 2); will generate the assembler directive FNARG _fred,_bill thereby telling the linker that bill() is called while evaluating the arguments for a call to fred(). 4.3.8.12 FNBREAK This directive is used to break links in the call graph information. The form of this directive is as follows: FNBREAK fun1,fun2 and is automatically generated when the interrupt_level pragma is used. It states that any calls to fun1 in trees other than the one rooted at fun2 should not be considered when checking for functions that appear in multiple call graphs. Fun2() is typically intlevel0 or intlevel1 in compiler-generated code when the interrupt_level pragma is used. Memory for the auto/parameter area for a fun1 will only be assigned in the tree rooted at fun2. 4.3.8.13 FNCALL This directive takes the form: FNCALL fun1,fun2 FNCALL is usually used in compiler generated code. It tells the linker that function fun1 calls function fun2. This information is used by the linker when performing call graph analysis. If you write assembler code which calls a C function, use the FNCALL directive to ensure that your assembler function is taken into account. For example, if you have an assembler routine called _fred which calls a C routine called foo(), in your assembler code you should write: FNCALL _fred,_foo 4.3.8.14 FNCONF The FNCONF directive is used to supply the linker with configuration information for a call graph. FNCONF is written as follows: FNCONF psect,auto,args 97 HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler where psect is the psect containing the call graph, auto is the prefix on all auto variable symbol names and args is the prefix on all function argument symbol names. This directive normally appears in only one place: the runtime startup code used by C compiler generated code. For the HI-TECH PICC Compiler the startup routine will include the directive: FNCONF rbss,?a,? telling the linker that the call graph is in the rbss psect, auto variable blocks start with ?a and function argument blocks start with ?. 4.3.8.15 FNINDIR This directive tells the linker that a function performs an indirect call to another function with a particular signature (see the SIGNAT directive). The linker must assume worst case that the function could call any other function which has the same signature and has had its address taken (see the FNADDR directive). For example, if a function called fred() performs an indirect call to a function with signature 8249, the compiler will produce the directive: FNINDIR _fred,8249 4.3.8.16 FNSIZE The FNSIZE directive informs the linker of the size of the local variable and argument area associated with a function. These values are used by the linker when building the call graph and assigning addresses to the variable and argument areas. This directive takes the form: FNSIZE func,local,args The named function has a local variable area and argument area as specified, for example FNSIZE _fred, 10, 5 means the function fred() has 10 bytes of local variables and 5 bytes of arguments. The function name arguments to any of the call graph associated directives may be local or global. Local functions are of course defined in the current module, but most be used in the call graph construction in the same manner as global names. 4.3.8.17 FNROOT This directive tells the assembler that a function is a root function and thus forms the root of a call graph. It could either be the C main() function or an interrupt function. For example, the C main module produce the directive: FNROOT _main 98 Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language 4.3.8.18 IF, ELSIF, ELSE and ENDIF These directives implement conditional assembly. The argument to IF and ELSIF should be an absolute expression. If it is non-zero, then the code following it up to the next matching ELSE, ELSIF or ENDIF will be assembled. If the expression is zero then the code up to the next matching ELSE or ENDIF will be skipped. At an ELSE the sense of the conditional compilation will be inverted, while an ENDIF will terminate the conditional assembly block. Example: IF ABC goto aardvark ELSIF DEF goto denver ELSE goto grapes ENDIF In this example, if ABC is non-zero, the first jmp instruction will be assembled but not the second or third. If ABC is zero and DEF is non-zero, the second jmp will be assembled but the first and third will not. If both ABC and DEF are zero, the third jmp will be assembled. Conditional assembly blocks may be nested. 4.3.8.19 MACRO and ENDM These directives provide for the definition of macros. The MACRO directive should be preceded by the macro name and optionally followed by a comma-separated list of formal parameters. When the macro is used, the macro name should be used in the same manner as a machine opcode, followed by a list of arguments to be substituted for the formal parameters. For example: ;macro: movlf ;args: arg1 - the literal value to load ; arg2 - the NAME of the source variable ;descr: Move a literal value into a nominated file register: movlf MACRO arg1,arg2 movlw arg1 movwf arg2 mod 080h ENDM When used, this macro will expand to the 2 instructions in the body of the macro, with the formal parameters substituted by the arguments. Thus: 99 HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler movlf 2,tempvar expands to: movlw 2 movwf tempvar mod 080h A point to note in the above example: the & character is used to permit the concatenation of macro parameters with other text, but is removed in the actual expansion. A comment may be suppressed within the expansion of a macro (thus saving space in the macro storage) by opening the comment with a double semicolon, ;;. When invoking a macro, the argument list must be comma-separated. If it is desired to include a comma (or other delimiter such as a space) in an argument then angle brackets < and > may be used to quote the argument. In addition the exclamation mark, ! may be used to quote a single character. The character immediately following the exclamation mark will be passed into the macro argument even if it is normally a comment indicator. If an argument is preceded by a percent sign %, that argument will be evaluated as an expression and passed as a decimal number, rather than as a string. This is useful if evaluation of the argument inside the macro body would yield a different result. The nul operator may be used within a macro to test a macro argument, for example: IF nul arg3 ; argument was not supplied. ... ELSE ; argument was supplied ... ENDIF By default, the assembly list file will show macro in an unexpanded format, i.e. as the macro was invoked. Expansion of the macro in the listing file can be shown by using the EXPAND assembler control, see Section 4.3.9.2, 4.3.8.20 LOCAL The LOCAL directive allows unique labels to be defined for each expansion of a given macro. Any symbols listed after the LOCAL directive will have a unique assembler generated symbol substituted for them when the macro is expanded. For example: down MACRO count LOCAL more more: decfsz count goto more ENDM 100 Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language when expanded will include a unique assembler generated label in place of more. For example: down foobar expands to: ??0001 decfsz foobar goto ??0001 if invoked a second time, the label more would expand to ??0002. 4.3.8.21 ALIGN The ALIGN directive aligns whatever is following, data storage or code etc., to the specified boundary in the psect in which the directive is found. The boundary is specified by a number following the directive and it specifies a number of bytes. For example, to align output to a 2 byte (even) address within a psect, the following could be used. ALIGN 2 Note, however, that what follows will only begin on an even absolute address if the psect begins on an even address. The ALIGN directive can also be used to ensure that a psect's length is a multiple of a certain number. For example, if the above ALIGN directive was placed at the end of a psect, the psect would have a length that was always an even number of bytes long. 4.3.8.22 REPT The REPT directive temporarily defines an unnamed macro, then expands it a number of times as determined by its argument. For example: REPT 3 addwf fred,w ENDM will expand to addwf fred,w addwf fred,w addwf fred,w 101 HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler 4.3.8.23 IRP and IRPC The IRP and IRPC directives operate similarly to REPT, however instead of repeating the block a fixed number of times, it is repeated once for each member of an argument list. In the case of IRP the list is a conventional macro argument list, in the case or IRPC it is each character in one argument. For each repetition the argument is substituted for one formal parameter. For example: PSECT idata_0 IRP number,4865h,6C6Ch,6F00h DW number ENDM PSECT text0 would expand to: PSECT idata_0 DW 4865h DW 6C6Ch DW 6F00h PSECT text0 Note that you can use local labels and angle brackets in the same manner as with conventional macros. The IRPC directive is similar, except it substitutes one character at a time from a string of nonspace characters. For example: PSECT romdata,class=CODE,delta=2 IRPC char,ABC DB 'char' ENDM PSECT text will expand to: PSECT romdata,class=CODE,delta=2 DB 'A' DB 'B' DB 'C' PSECT text 102 Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language 4.3.8.24 PROCESSOR The output of the assembler may vary depending on the target device. The device name is typically set using the --CHIP option to the command-line driver PICL, see Section 2.4.20, or using the assembler -P option, see Table 4.1, but can also be set with this directive, e.g. PROCESSOR 16F877 4.3.8.25 SIGNAT This directive is used to associate a 16-bit signature value with a label. At link time the linker checks that all signatures defined for a particular label are the same and produces an error if they are not. The SIGNAT directive is used by the HI-TECH C compiler to enforce link time checking of C function prototypes and calling conventions. Use the SIGNAT directive if you want to write assembly language routines which are called from C. For example: SIGNAT _fred,8192 will associate the signature value 8192 with the symbol _fred. If a different signature value for _fred is present in any object file, the linker will report an error. 4.3.9 Assembler Controls Assembler controls may be included in the assembler source to control assembler operation such as listing format. These keywords have no significance anywhere else in the program. The control is invoked by the directive OPT followed by the control name. Some keywords are followed by one or more parameters. For example: OPT EXPAND A list of keywords is given in Table 4.7, and each is described further below. 4.3.9.1 COND Any conditional code will be included in the listing output. See also the NOCOND control in Section 4.3.9.5. 4.3.9.2 EXPAND When EXPAND is in effect, the code generated by macro expansions will appear in the listing output. See also the NOEXPAND control in Section 4.3.9.6. 103 HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler Table 4.7: ASPIC assembler controls Control1 Meaning Format COND* Include conditional code in the listing COND EXPAND Expand macros in the listing output EXPAND INCLUDE Textually include another source file INCLUDE LIST* Define options for listing output LIST [, ..., ] NOCOND Leave conditional code out of the listing NOCOND NOEXPAND* Disable macro expansion NOEXPAND NOLIST Disable listing output NOLIST PAGE Start a new page in the listing output PAGE SUBTITLE Specify the subtitle of the program SUBTITLE "" TITLE Specify the title of the program TITLE "" 4.3.9.3 INCLUDE This control causes the file specified by pathname to be textually included at that point in the assembly file. The INCLUDE control must be the last control keyword on the line, for example: OPT INCLUDE "options.h" The driver does not pass any search paths to the assembler, so if the include file is not located in the working directory, the pathname must specify the exact location. See also the driver option -P in Section 2.4.11 which forces the C preprocessor to preprocess assembly file, thus allowing use of preprocessor directives, such as #include (see Section 3.12.1). 4.3.9.4 LIST If the listing was previously turned off using the NOLIST control, the LIST control on its own will turn the listing on. Alternatively, the LIST control may includes options to control the assembly and the listing. The options are listed in Table 4.8. See also the NOLIST control in Section 4.3.9.7. 4.3.9.5 NOCOND Using this control will prevent conditional code from being included in the listing output. See also the COND control in Section 4.3.9.1. 104 Macro Assembler HI-TECH C Assembly Language Table 4.8: LIST control options List Option Default Description c=nnn 80 Set the page (i.e. column) width. n=nnn 59 Set the page length. t=ON|OFF OFF Truncate listing output lines. The default wraps lines. p=<processor> n/a Set the processor type. r=<radix> hex Set the default radix to hex, dec or oct. x=ON|OFF OFF Turn macro expansion on or off. 4.3.9.6 NOEXPAND NOEXPAND disables macro expansion in the listing file. The macro call will be listed instead. See also the EXPAND control in Section 4.3.9.2. Assembly macro are discussed in Section 4.3.8.19. 4.3.9.7 NOLIST This control turns the listing output off from this point onward. See also the LIST control in Section 4.3.9.4. 4.3.9.8 NOXREF NOXREF will disable generation of the raw cross reference file. See also the XREF control in Section 4.3.9.13. 4.3.9.9 PAGE PAGE causes a new page to be started in the listing output. A Control-L (form feed) character will also cause a new page when encountered in the source. 4.3.9.10 SPACE The SPACE control will place a number of blank lines in the listing output as specified by its param- eter. 4.3.9.11 SUBTITLE SUBTITLE defines a subtitle to appear at the top of every listing page, but under the title. The string should be enclosed in single or double quotes. See also the TITLE control in Section 4.3.9.12. 105 HI-TECH C Assembly Language Macro Assembler 4.3.9.12 TITLE This control keyword defines a title to appear at the top of every listing page. The string should be enclosed in single or double quotes. See also the SUBTITLE control in Section 4.3.9.11. 4.3.9.13 XREF XREF is equivalent to the driver command line option --CR (see Section 2.4.23). It causes the assembler to produce a raw cross reference file. The utility CREF should be used to actually generate the formatted cross-reference listing. 106 Chapter 5 Linker and Utilities 5.1 Introduction HI-TECH C incorporates a relocating assembler and linker to permit separate compilation of C source files. This means that a program may be divided into several source files, each of which may be kept to a manageable size for ease of editing and compilation, then each source file may be compiled separately and finally all the object files linked together into a single executable program. This chapter describes the theory behind and the usage of the linker. Note however that in most instances it will not be necessary to use the linker directly, as the compiler driver will automatically invoke the linker with all necessary arguments. Using the linker directly is not simple, and should be attempted only by those with a sound knowledge of the compiler and linking in general. If it is absolutely necessary to use the linker directly, the best way to start is to copy the linker arguments constructed by the compiler driver, and modify them as appropriate. This will ensure that the necessary startup module and arguments are present. Note also that the linker supplied with HI-TECH C is generic to a wide variety of compilers for several different processors. Not all features described in this chapter are applicable to all compilers. 5.2 Relocation and Psects The fundamental task of the linker is to combine several relocatable object files into one. The object files are said to be relocatable since the files have sufficient information in them so that any references to program or data addresses (e.g. the address of a function) within the file may be adjusted according to where the file is ultimately located in memory after the linkage process. Thus the file is said to be relocatable. Relocation may take two basic forms; relocation by name, i.e. 107 Program Sections Linker and Utilities relocation by the ultimate value of a global symbol, or relocation by psect, i.e. relocation by the base address of a particular section of code, for example the section of code containing the actual executable instructions. 5.3 Program Sections Any object file may contain bytes to be stored in memory in one or more program sections, which will be referred to as psects. These psects represent logical groupings of certain types of code bytes in the program. In general the compiler will produce code in three basic types of psects, although there will be several different types of each. The three basic kinds are text psects, containing executable code, data psects, containing initialised data, and bss psects, containing uninitialised but reserved data. The difference between the data and bss psects may be illustrated by considering two external variables; one is initialised to the value 1, and the other is not initialised. The first will be placed into the data psect, and the second in the bss psect. The bss psect is always cleared to zeros on startup of the program, thus the second variable will be initialised at run time to zero. The first will however occupy space in the program file, and will maintain its initialised value of 1 at startup. It is quite possible to modify the value of a variable in the data psect during execution, however it is better practice not to do so, since this leads to more consistent use of variables, and allows for restartable and ROMable programs. For more information on the particular psects used in a specific compiler, refer to the appropriate machine-specific chapter. 5.4 Local Psects Most psects are global, i.e. they are referred to by the same name in all modules, and any reference in any module to a global psect will refer to the same psect as any other reference. Some psects are local, which means that they are local to only one module, and will be considered as separate from any other psect even of the same name in another module. Local psects can only be referred to at link time by a class name, which is a name associated with one or more psects via the PSECT directive class= in assembler code. See Section 4.3.8.3 for more information on PSECT options. 5.5 Global Symbols The linker handles only symbols which have been declared as GLOBAL to the assembler. The code generator generates these assembler directives whenever it encounters global C objects. At the C source level, this means all names which have storage class external and which are not declared 108 Linker and Utilities Link and load addresses as static. These symbols may be referred to by modules other than the one in which they are defined. It is the linker's job to match up the definition of a global symbol with the references to it. Other symbols (local symbols) are passed through the linker to the symbol file, but are not otherwise processed by the linker. 5.6 Link and load addresses The linker deals with two kinds of addresses; link and load addresses. Generally speaking the link address of a psect is the address by which it will be accessed at run time. The load address, which may or may not be the same as the link address, is the address at which the psect will start within the output file (HEX or binary file etc.). In the case of the 8086 processor, the link address roughly corresponds to the offset within a segment, while the load address corresponds to the physical address of a segment. The segment address is the load address divided by 16. Other examples of link and load addresses being different are; an initialised data psect that is copied from ROM to RAM at startup, so that it may be modified at run time; a banked text psect that is mapped from a physical (== load) address to a virtual (== link) address at run time. The exact manner in which link and load addresses are used depends very much on the particular compiler and memory model being used. 5.7 Compiled Stack Operation A compiler can either take advantage of the hardware stack contained on a device, or produce code which uses a compiled stack for parameter passing between functions and auto variables. Temporary variables used by a function may also be allocated space in the auto area. (Temporary variables with names like btemp, wtemp or ltemp are not examples of such variables. These variables are treated more like registers, although they may be are allocated memory.) A compiled stack consists of fixed memory areas that are usable by each function's auto and parameter variables. When a compiled stack is used, functions are not re-entrant since local variables in each function will use the same fixed area of memory every time the function is invoked. Compilers such as PICC, 6805 and Arclite use compiled stacks. The 8051 compiler uses a compiled stack in small and medium memory models only. Fundamental to the compiled stack is the call graph which defines a tree-like hierarchy indicating the structure of function calls. The call graph consists of one or more call trees which are defined by the program. Each tree has a root function, which is typically not called by the program, but which is executed via other means. The function main is an example of a root function. Interrupt functions are another. The term main-line code means any code that is executed, or may be executed, by a function that appears under the main root in the call graph. See Section 5.11.1 for detailed information on the call graph which is displayed in the map file. 109 Compiled Stack Operation Linker and Utilities Each function in the call graph is allocated an auto/parameter block (APB) for its parameter, auto and temporary variables. Temporary variables act just like auto variables. Local variables which are qualified static are not part of this block. For situations where a compiled stack is used, the linker performs additional operations to minimise the memory consumed by the program by overlaying each function's APB where possible. In assembly code variables within a function's APB are referenced via special symbols, which marks the start of the auto or parameter area in the block, and an offset. The symbol used to represent the base address of the parameter area within the function's APB is the concatenation of ? and the assembler name of the function. The symbol used to represent the base address of the auto area within the function's APB is the concatenation of ?a, in the case of Standard version compilers, or ??, in the case of Pro version compilers, and the assembler name of the function. For example, a function called foo, for example, will use the assembly symbol ?_foo as the base address for all its parameters variables that have been allocated memory, and either ?a_foo (Standard) or ??_foo (Pro) as the base address for auto variables which the function defines. So the first two-byte auto variable might be referenced in Pro version compiler assembly code as ??_foo; the second auto variable as ??_foo+2, etc. Note that some parameters may be passed in registers, and may not have memory allocated to them in the parameter area of the APB. The linker allocates memory for each function's APB, based on how that function is used in a program. In particular, the linker determines which functions are, or may be, active at the same time. If one function calls another, then both are active at the same time. To this end, a call graph is created from information in the object files being linker. See Section 5.11.1 for information on reading the call graph displayed in the map file. This information is directly related to the FNCALL assembler directive (see Section 4.3.8.13 for more information) which the code generator places in the assembler output whenever a C function calls another. Hand-written assembler code should also contain these directives, if required. Information regarding the size of the auto and parameter areas within in function's APB is specified by the FNSIZE assembler directive (see Section 4.3.8.16). 5.7.1 Parameters involving Function Calls The linker must take special note of the results of function calls used in expressions that are themselves parameters to another function. For example, if input and output are both functions that accept two int parameters and and both return an int, the following: result = output(out_selector, input(int_selector, 10)); shows that the function input is called to determine the second parameter to the function output. This information is very important as it indicates areas of the code that must be considered carefully, lest the code fail due to re-entrancy related issues. A re-entrant call is typically considered to be the situation in which a function is called and executed while another instance of the same function is also actively executing. For a compiled 110 Linker and Utilities Compiled Stack Operation stack program, a function must be considered active as soon as its parameter area has been modified in preparation for a call, even though code in that function is not yet being executed and a call to that function has not been made. This is particularly import with functions that accept more than one parameter as the ANSI standard does not dictate the order in which function parameters must be evaluated. Such a condition is best illustrated by an example, which is shown in the following tutorial. TUTˇRIAL PARAMETERS IMPLEMENTED AS FUNCTION CALLS Consider the following code. int B(int x, int y) { return x - y; } int A(int a, int b) { return a+B(9, b); } void main(void) { B(5, A(6, 7)); // consider this statement } For the highlighted statement, the compiler might evaluate and load the first parameter to the function B, which is the literal, 5. To do this, the value of 5 is loaded to the locations ?_B and ?_B+1. Now to evaluate the second parameter value to the function B, the compiler must first call the function A. So A's parameters are loaded and the call to function A is made. Code inside the function A, calls the function B. This involves loading the parameters to B: the contents of the variable b are loaded to ?_B+2 and ?_B+3, and the value 9 is loaded to ?_B and ?_B+1, which corrupts the contents of these locations which were loaded earlier for the still pending call to function B. Function A eventually returns normally and the the return value is the loaded to the second parameter locations for the still pending call to function B, back at the highlighted line of source. However, the value of 5 previously loaded as the first parameter to B has been lost. When the call to function B is now made, the parameters will not be correct. Note that the function B is not actively executing code in more than one instance of the function at the same time, however the code that loads the parameters to function B is. The linker indicates in the call graph those functions that may have been called to determine parameter values to other functions. See Section 5.11.1 for information on how this is displayed in the map file. 111 Map Files Linker and Utilities 5.7.2 Implicit Calls to Assembler Library Routines Evaluation of certain C operators will require the use of assembly routines that are precompiled into the object code library files. The code generator will call these routines as required. These assembly routines behave like C functions, in terms of their parameter passing, and calls to them will appear in the call graph in the usual way. If the same operators are used in a C interrupt functions, calls are made to routines which are functionally identical, but which are distinct copies of those routines called from main-line code. These duplicate routines have unique names which are derived from the interrupt level of the interrupt function. The name consists of the usual routine name prefixed with in, where n is the level number of the interrupt function. For example: if a compiler uses an assembler routine to perform word multiplication, and this is called wmul, then an expression in main-line code involving such a multiplication will call wmul; the same code used in an interrupt function of level 1 will result in a call to the routine i1wmul; in an interrupt function of level 2 will call i2wmul, etc. Having duplicate routines means that these implicitly called assembly library routines can safely be called from both code under the main call tree and code under the interrupt tree. Pro compilers will have as many duplicates of these routines precompiled in the object code libraries as there are interrupt levels. 5.8 Map Files The map file contains information relating to the relocation of psects and the addresses assigned to symbols within those psects. 5.8.1 Generation If compilation is being performed via HI-TIDE TM a map file is generated by default without you having to adjust the compiler options. If you are using the driver from the command line then you'll need to use the -M option, see Section 2.4.8. Map files are produced by the linker. If the compilation process is stopped before the linker is executed, then no map file is produced. The linker will still produce a map file even if it encounters errors, which will allow you to use this file to track down the cause of the errors. However, if the linker ultimately reports too many errors then it did not run to completion, and the map file will be either not created or not complete. You can use the --ERRORS option on the command line, or as an alternate MPLAB IDE setting, to increase the number of errors before the compiler applications give up. See Section 2.4.28 for more information on this option. 112 Linker and Utilities Map Files 5.8.2 Contents The sections in the map file, in order of appearance, are as follows: * The compiler name and version number * A copy of the command line used to invoke the linker; * The version number of the object code in the first file linked; * The machine type; * Optionally (dependent on the processor and compiler options selected), the call graph infor- mation; * A psect summary sorted by the psect's parent object file; * A psect summary sorted by the psect's CLASS; * A segment summary; * Unused address ranges summary * The symbol table Portions of an example map file, along with explanatory text, are shown in the following sections. 5.8.2.1 General Information At the top of the map file is general information relating to the execution of the linker. When analysing a program, always confirm the compiler version number shown in the map file if you have more than one compiler version installed to ensure the desired compiler is being executed. The chip selected with the --CHIP option should appear after the Machine type entry. The Object code version relates to the file format used by relocatable object files produced by the assembler. Unless either the assembler or linker have been updated independently, this should not be of concern. A typical map file may begin something like the following. This example has been cut down for clarity and brevity, and should not be used for reference. HI-TECH Software PICC Compiler std#V9.60 Linker command line: --edf=C:\Program Files\HI-TECH Software\pic\std\9.60\dat\en_msgs.txt \ -h+conv.sym -z -Q16F73 -ol.obj -Mconv.map -ver=PICC#std#V9.60 \ 113 Map Files Linker and Utilities -ACODE=00h-07FFhx2 -ACONST=00h-0FFhx16 -ASTRING=00h-0FFhx16 \ -ABANK0=020h-07Fh -ABANK1=0A0h-0FFh \ -preset_vec=00h,intentry,intcode -ppowerup=CODE -pintsave_0=07Fh \ -prbit_0=BANK0,rbss_0=BANK0,rdata_0=BANK0,idata_0=CODE C:\DOCUME~1\user\LOCALS~1\Temp\cgta5eHNF.obj conv.obj \ C:\Program Files\HI-TECH Software\pic\std\9.60\lib\pic412-c.lib \ C:\Program Files\HI-TECH Software\pic\std\9.60\lib\pic20--u.lib Object code version is 3.9 Machine type is 16F73 The Linker command line shown is the entire list of options and files that were passed to the linker for the build recorded by this map file. Remember, these are linker options and not command-line driver options. Typically the first options relate to general execution of the linker: path and file names for various input and output support files; and the chip type etc. These are followed by the memory allocation options, e.g. -A and -p. Last are the input object and library files that will be linked together. The linker command line should be used to confirm that driver options that control the link step have been specified correctly, and at the correct time. It is particularly useful when using the driver -L- option, see Section 2.4.7. TUTˇRIAL CONFIRMING LINKER OPERATION A project requires that a number of memory locations be reserved. For the compiler and device, the --ROM driver option is suitable for this task. How can the operation of this option be confirmed? First the program is compiled without using this option and the following linker class definition is noted in the linker command line: -ACODE=0-03FFFhx2 The class name will vary with compile and the selected device, however there is typically a class that is defined to cover the entire memory space used by the device which should be apparent. The option --ROM=default,-4000-400F is then added and the map file resulting from the subsequent build shows the following change: -ACODE=0-03FFFh,04010h-07FFFh which confirms that the memory option was seen by the linker. 114 Linker and Utilities Map Files 5.8.2.2 Call Graph Information A call graph is produced and displayed in the map file for target devices and memory models that use a compiled stack to facilitate parameter passing between functions and auto variables. See Section 5.7 for more detailed information on compiled stack operation. The call graph in the map file shows the information collated and interpreted by the linker, which is primarily used to allow overlapping of functions' APBs. The following information can be obtained from studying the call graph: * The functions in the program that are "root" nodes marking the top of a call tree, and which are not directly called; * The functions that the linker deemed were called, or may have been called, during program execution; * The program's hierarchy of function calls; * The size of the auto and parameter areas within each function's APB; * The offset of each function's APB within the program's auto/parameter psect; * Which functions' APBs are consuming memory not overlapped by the APB of any other function; * Which functions are called indirectly; * Which functions are called as part of a parameter expression for another function; * Estimated call tree depth. These features are discussed below. The call graph produced by Pro versions compilers is very similar to that produced by Standard version compilers, however there are differences. A typical Pro compiler call graph may look something like: Call graph: *_main size 0,4 offset 0 * _byteconv size 0,17 offset 4 float size 3,7 offset 21 ldiv size 8,6 offset 21 _crv ARG size 0 offset 21 _crv size 1 offset 21 ldiv size 8,6 offset 21 115 Map Files Linker and Utilities _convert size 4,0 offset 33 _srv size 2,10 offset 21 _convert size 4,0 offset 33 * _srv size 2,10 offset 21 * _convert size 4,0 offset 33 _init size 0,4 offset 4 indir_func size 0,0 offset 4 Estimated maximum call depth: 3 *intlevel1 size 0,0 offset 37 * _isr size 0,2 offset 37 * i1ldiv size 8,6 offset 44 Estimated maximum call depth: 2 Each line basically consists of the name of the function in question, and its APB size and offset. The general form of most entries look like: name size p,a offset n Note that the function name will always be the assembly name, thus the function main appears as _main. A function printed with no indent is a root function in a call tree. These functions are typically not called by the C program. Examples include the function main, any any interrupt functions the program defines. The programmer may also define additional functions that are root functions in the call tree by using the FNROOT assembler directive, see Section 4.3.8.17 for more information. The code generator issues an FNROOT directive for each interrupt function encountered, and the runtime startup code contains the FNROOT directive for the function main. The functions that the root function calls, or may call, are indented one level and listed below the root node. If any of these functions call (or might call) other functions, these called functions are indented and listed below the calling functions. And so the process continues for entire program. A function's inclusion into the call graph does not imply the function was called, but there is a possibility that the function was called. For example, code such as: int test(int a) { if(a) foo(); else bar(); } will list foo and bar under test, as either may be called. If a is always true, then clearly the function bar will never be called. If a function does not appear in the call graph, the linker has determined that the function cannot possibly be called, and that it is not a root function. For code like: 116 Linker and Utilities Map Files int test(void) { int a = 0; if(a) foo(); else bar(); } the function foo will never appear in the call graph. The inclusion of a function into the call graph is controlled by the FNCALL assembler directive, see Section 4.3.8.13 for more information. These directives are placed in the assembler output by the code generator. For the above code, the code generator optimiser will remove the redundant call to bar before the C source code conversion is performed, as so the FNCALL directive will not be present in the output file, hence not detectable by the linker. When writing assembler source code, the FNCALL assembler directive should always be used, particularly if the assembler routines define local auto-like variables using the FNSIZE directive, see below, and also Section 4.3.8.16 for more information. If printed, the two components to the size are the size of that function's parameter area, and the size of the function's auto area, respectively. The parameter size only includes those parameters which are allocated memory locations, and which are not passed via a register. The auto size does not include any auto variables which are allocated registers by the code generator's (global) optimizer for the entire duration of the function. The auto size does, however, include any values which must be stored temporarily in the functions scratch area. Variables which are passed via a register may need to be saved into the function's temporary variable if that register is required for code generation purposes, in which case they do not contribute to the function's parameter size, but increase the size of the auto area. The total parameter and auto area for each function is grouped to form an APB. This is then allocated an address within the program's auto/parameter psect. The offset value indicates the offset within the psect for that block. Thus, two APBs with the same offset are mapped over one another. If a star, *, appears on the very left line of a call tree, this implies that the memory consumed by the function represented by that line does not fully overlap with that of other functions, and thus this functions APB directly influences the size of the auto/parameter psect, and hence the total RAM usage of the program. If the RAM usage of a program needs to be reduced and the number or size of the parameters or auto variables defined by the starred functions can be reduced, the program's RAM usage will also be reduced. Reducing the number or size of the parameters or auto variables defined by the functions that are not starred will have no effect on the program's total RAM usage. Pro compilers track the values assigned to function pointers and maintains a list of all functions that could be called via the function pointer. Functions called indirectly are listed in the call graph along with those functions which are directly called. 117 Map Files Linker and Utilities If the ARG flag appears after a function's name, this implies that the call to this "ARG function" involves other function calls to determine the parameter values for this function. For example, if input and output are both functions that take two int parameters and and both return an int, the following: result = output(out_selector, input(in_selector, 10)); shows that the function input is called to determine the second parameter to the function output. The ARG function's name is listed again under the line which actually shows the ARG flag, and any functions this function calls appear here, indented in the usual way. Under this is listed every function (regardless of its depth in the call tree) that could be called to determine a parameter value to the ARG function throughout the program. If any of these functions call other functions, they also list called functions below, indented in the usual way. For example the following annotated call graph snippet illustrates the ARG function one. _one ARG size 0 offset 21 ; _one is the ARG function _one size 0 offset 21 ; ** here is _one's call tree: _two size 2,2 offset 21 ; ** _one may call _two _prep1 size 1,1 offset 45 ; # _prep1, _get & _prep2 may _get size 0,0 offset 47 ; # ultimately be called to _prep2 size 1,1 offset 47 ; # obtain parameters for _one _get size 0,0 offset 47 ; _prep2 may call by _get After each tree in call tree, there is an indication of the maximum call depth that might be realised by that tree. This may be used as a guide to the stack usage of the program. No definitive value can be given for the program's total stack usage for several reasons: * Certain parts of the call tree may never be reached, reducing that tree's stack usage; * The contribution of interrupt (or other) trees to the tree associated with the main function cannot be determined as the point in main's call tree at which the interrupt (or other function invocation) will occur cannot be known; * Any additional stack usage by functions, particularly interrupt functions, cannot be known; and * The assembler optimizer may have replaced function calls with jumps to functions, reducing that tree's stack usage. The above call graph example is analysed in the following tutorial. 118 Linker and Utilities Map Files TUTˇRIAL INTERPRETING A PRO COMPILER CALL GRAPH The graph graph shown above indicates that the program compiled consists of two call trees rooted at the functions: main, which can have up 3 levels of stack used, and intlevel1, which can use up to two levels of stack. In the example above, the symbol _main is associated with the function main, and intlevel1 associated with an interrupt function (with interrupt level 1). Here, the function main takes no parameters and defines 4 bytes of auto variables. The total size of the APB for main is 4, and this was placed at an offset of 0 in the programs auto/parameter psect. The function main may call a function called init. This function also uses a total of 4 bytes of auto variables. The function main is still active when init is active so their APBs must occupy distinct memory. The block for init follows immediately after that of main's at address offset 4. The function init does not call any other functions. The main may also call the function byteconv. This function defines a total of 17 bytes of auto variables. It is called when main is still active (NB main will always be active), but it is never active at the same time as init is active, so its APB can overlap with that of init and is placed at offset 4 within the auto/parameter psect. The function byteconv may call several functions: float, ldiv, crv and srv. (Any function name that does not start with an underscore must be an assembly routine. The routine float and ldiv in this case relating to floating point and long division library routines.) All these functions have their APB placed at the same offset in the auto/parameter psect. Of these functions, srv also may call convert. The call to crv from byteconv indicates that other functions might be called to obtain crv's parameter values. Those other functions are listed in a "flattened" call list below the ARG function line which shows every possible function that might be called, regardless of call depth. The functions which might be called are: ldiv, convert and srv. The function srv, which also calls convert still indicates this fact by also listing convert below and indented in the more conventional call graph format. The two lines of C code that produced this outcome were: TUTˇRIAL if(crv((my_long%10)) != 5) // ... if(crv(srv(8)) != 6) // ... where crv accepts one char parameter and returns a char. The call to srv is obvious; the other call come from the modulus operator, calling ldiv. 119 Map Files Linker and Utilities The other call tree rooted at intlevel1 relates to the interrupt function. intlevel1 is not a real function, but is used to represent the interrupt level associated with the interrupt function. There is no call from intlevel1 to the function isr and no stack usage. Note that an additional level of call depth is indicated for interrupt functions. This is used to mark the place of the return address of the stack. The selected device may use a differing number of stack locations when interrupts occur and this needs to be factored into any stack calculations. Notice that the interrupt function isr calls a function called i1ldiv. This is a duplicate of the ldiv routine that is callable by functions under the intlevel1 call tree. Having duplicate routines means that these implicitly called assembly library routines can safely be called from both code under the main call tree and code under the interrupt tree. Pro compilers will have as many duplicates of these routines as there are interrupt levels. The call graph shows that the functions: main, byteconv, srv, convert, isr and i1ldiv are all consuming APB memory that does not fully overlap with that of other functions. Reducing the auto/parameter memory requirements for these functions will reduce the program's memory requirements. The call graph reveals that 82 bytes of memory are required by the program for autos and parameters, but that only 58 are reserved and used by the program. The difference shows the amount of memory saved by overlapping of these blocks by the linker. 5.8.2.3 Psect Information listed by Module The next section in the map file lists those modules that made a contribution to the output, and information regarding the psects these modules defined. This section is heralded by the line that contains the headings: Name Link Load Length Selector Space Scale Under this on the far left is a list of object files. These object files include both files generated from source modules and those that were extracted from object library files. In the case of those from library files, the name of the library file is printed before the object file list. This section shows all the psects (under the Name column) that were linked into the program from each object file, and information regarding that psect. This only deals with object files linked by the linker. P-code modules derived from p-code library files are handled by the code generator, and do not appear in the map file. The Link address indicates the address at which this psect will be located when the program is running. (The Load address is also shown for those psects that may reside in the HEX file at 120 Linker and Utilities Map Files a different location and which are mapped before program execution.) The Length of the psect is shown (in units suitable for that psect). The Selector is less commonly used, but the Space field is important as it indicates the memory space in which the psect was placed. For Harvard architecture machines, with separate memory spaces, this field must be used in conjunction with the address to specify an exact storage location. The Scale of a psect indicates the number of address units per byte -- this is left blank if the scale is 1 -- and typically this will show 8 for psects that hold bit objects. The Load address of psects that hold bits is used to display the link address converted into units of bytes, rather than the load address. TUTˇRIAL INTERPRETING THE PSECT LIST The following appears in a map file. Name Link Load Length Selector Space Scale ext.obj text 3A 3A 22 30 0 bss 4B 4B 10 4B 1 rbit 50 A 2 0 1 8 This indicates that one of the files that the linker processed was called ext.obj. (This may have been derived from ext.c or ext.as.) This object file contained a text psect, as well as psects called bss and rbit. The psect text was linked at address 3A and bss at address 4B. At first glance, this seems to be a problem given that text is 22 words long, however note that they are in different memory areas, as indicated by the Space flag (0 for text and 1 for bss), and so do not occupy the same memory. The psect rbit contains bit objects, as indicated by its Scale value (its name is a bit of a giveaway too). Again, at first glance there seems there could be an issue with rbit linked over the top of bss. Their Space flags are the same, but since rbit contains bit objects, all the addresses shown are bit addresses, as indicated by the Scale value of 8. Note that the Load address field of rbit psect displays the Link address converted to byte units, i.e. 50h/8 => Ah. The list of files, that make up the program, indicated in this section of the map file will typically consist of one or more object files derived from input source code. The map file produced by Pro compilers will show one object file derived from all C source modules, however Standard version compilers will show one object file per C source module. In addition, there will typically be the runtime startup module. The runtime startup code is precompiled into an object file, in the case of Standard version compilers, or is a compiler-written assembler source file, which is then compiled along with the remainder of the program. In either case, an object file module will be listed in this section, along with those psects which it defines. 121 Map Files Linker and Utilities If the startup module is not being deleted after compilation (see the --RUNTIME option in Section 2.4.46) then the module name will be startup.obj, otherwise this module will have a systemdependent temporary file name, stored in a system-dependent location. Modules derived from library files area also shown in this list. The name of the library file is printed as a header, followed by a list of the modules that contributed to the output. Only modules that define symbols that are referenced are included in the program output. For example, the following: C:\program files\HI-TECH Software\PICC-18\9.50\lib\pic86l-c.lib i1aldiv.obj text 174 174 3C C 0 aldiv.obj text 90 90 3C C 0 indicates that both the i1aldiv.obj and aldiv.obj modules were linked in from the library file pic86l-c.lib. Underneath the library file contributions, there may be a label COMMON. This shows the contribution to the program from program-wide psects, in particular that used by the compiled stack auto/parameter area. This information in this section of the map file can be used to observe several details; * To confirm that a module is making a contribution to the output file by ensuring that the module appears in the module list; * To determine the exact psects that each module defines; * For cases where a user-defined routine, with the same name as a library routine, is present in the programs source file list, to confirm that the user-defined routine was linked in preference to the library routine. 5.8.2.4 Psect Information listed by Class The next section in the map file is the same psect information listed by module, but this time grouped into the psects' class. This section is heralded by the line that contains the headings: TOTAL Name Link Load Length Under this are the class names followed by those psects which belong to this class. These psects are the same as those listed by module in the above section; there is no new information contained in this section. 122 Linker and Utilities Map Files 5.8.2.5 Segment Listing The class listing in the map file is followed by a listing of segments. A segment is conceptual grouping of contiguous psects, and are used by the linker as an aid in psect placement. There is no segment assembler directive and segments cannot be controlled in any way. This section is heralded by the line that contains the headings: SEGMENTS Name Load Length Top Selector Space Class The name of a segment is derived from the psect in the contiguous group with the lowest link address. This can lead to confusion with the psect with the same name. Do not read psect information from this section of the map file. Typically this section of the map file can be ignored by the user. 5.8.2.6 Unused Address Ranges The last of the memory summaries Just before the symbol table in the map file is a list of memory which was not allocated by the linker. This memory is thus unused. The linker is aware of any memory allocated by the code generator (for absolute variables), and so this free space is accurate. This section follows the heading: UNUSED ADDRESS RANGES and is followed by a list of classes and the memory still available in each class defined in the program. If there is more than one range in a class, each range is printed on a separate line. Any paging boundaries within a class are ignored and not displayed in any way. Note that classes often define memory that is also covered by other classes, thus the total free space in a memory area is not simply the addition of the size of all the ranges indicated. For example if there are two classes the cover the RAM memory -- RAM and BANKRAM -- and the first 100h out of 500h bytes are used, then both will indicate 000100-0004FF as the unused memory. 5.8.2.7 Symbol Table The final section in the map file list global symbols that the program defines. This section has a heading: Symbol Table and is followed by two columns in which the symbols are alphabetically listed. As always with the linker, any C derived symbol is shown with its assembler equivalent symbol name. The symbols listed in this table are: 123 Operation Linker and Utilities * Global assembly labels; * Global EQU/SET assembler directive labels; and * Linker-defined symbols. Assembly symbols are made global via the GLOBAL assembler directive, see Section 4.3.8.1 for more information. linker-defined symbols act like EQU directives, however they are defined by the linker during the link process, and no definition for them will appear in any source or intermediate file. Non-static C functions, and non-auto and non-static C variables directly map to assembly labels. The name of the label will be the C identifier with a leading underscore character. The linker-defined symbols include symbols used to mark the bounds of psects. See Section 3.13.3. The symbols used to mark the base address of each functions' auto and parameter block are also shown. Although these symbols are used to represent the local autos and parameters of a function, they themselves must be globally accessible to allow each calling function to load their contents. The C auto and parameter variable identifiers are local symbols that only have scope in the function in which they are defined. Each symbol is shown with the psect in which they are placed, and the address which the symbol has been assigned. There is no information encoded into a symbol to indicate whether it represents code or variables, nor in which memory space it resides. If the psect of a symbol is shown as (abs), this implies that the symbol is not directly associated with a psect as is the case with absolute C variables. Linker-defined symbols showing this as the psect name may be symbols that have never been used throughout the program, or relate to symbols that are not directly associated with a psect. Note that a symbol table is also shown in each assembler list file. (See Section 2.4.17 for information on generating these files.) These differ to that shown in the map file in that they list all symbols, whether they be of global or local scope, and they only list the symbols used in the module(s) associated with that list file. 5.9 Operation A command to the linker takes the following form: hlink1 options files ... Options is zero or more linker options, each of which modifies the behaviour of the linker in some way. Files is one or more object files, and zero or more library names. The options recognised by the linker are listed in Table 5.1 and discussed in the following paragraphs. 1In earlier versions of HI-TECH C the linker was called LINK.EXE 124 Linker and Utilities Operation Table 5.1: Linker command-line options Option Effect -8 Use 8086 style segment:offset address form -Aclass=low-high,... Specify address ranges for a class -Cx Call graph options -Cpsect=class Specify a class name for a global psect -Cbaseaddr Produce binary output file based at baseaddr -Dclass=delta Specify a class delta value -Dsymfile Produce old-style symbol file -Eerrfile Write error messages to errfile -F Produce .obj file with only symbol records -Gspec Specify calculation for segment selectors -Hsymfile Generate symbol file -H+symfile Generate enhanced symbol file -I Ignore undefined symbols -Jnum Set maximum number of errors before aborting -K Prevent overlaying function parameter and auto areas -L Preserve relocation items in .obj file -LM Preserve segment relocation items in .obj file -N Sort symbol table in map file by address order -Nc Sort symbol table in map file by class address order -Ns Sort symbol table in map file by space address order -Mmapfile Generate a link map in the named file -Ooutfile Specify name of output file -Pspec Specify psect addresses and ordering -Qprocessor Specify the processor type (for cosmetic reasons only) -S Inhibit listing of symbols in symbol file -Sclass=limit[,bound] Specify address limit, and start boundary for a class of psects -Usymbol Pre-enter symbol in table as undefined -Vavmap Use file avmap to generate an Avocet format symbol file -Wwarnlev Set warning level (-9 to 9) -Wwidth Set map file width (>=10) -X Remove any local symbols from the symbol file -Z Remove trivial local symbols from the symbol file 125 Operation Linker and Utilities 5.9.1 Numbers in linker options Several linker options require memory addresses or sizes to be specified. The syntax for all these is similar. By default, the number will be interpreted as a decimal value. To force interpretation as a hex number, a trailing H should be added, e.g. 765FH will be treated as a hex number. 5.9.2 -Aclass=low-high,... Normally psects are linked according to the information given to a -P option (see below) but sometimes it is desired to have a class of psects linked into more than one non-contiguous address range. This option allows a number of address ranges to be specified for a class. For example: -ACODE=1020h-7FFEh,8000h-BFFEh specifies that the class CODE is to be linked into the given address ranges. Note that a contribution to a psect from one module cannot be split, but the linker will attempt to pack each block from each module into the address ranges, starting with the first specified. Where there are a number of identical, contiguous address ranges, they may be specified with a repeat count, e.g. -ACODE=0-FFFFhx16 specifies that there are 16 contiguous ranges each 64k bytes in size, starting from zero. Even though the ranges are contiguous, no code will straddle a 64k boundary. The repeat count is specified as the character x or * after a range, followed by a count. 5.9.3 -Cx These options allow control over the call graph information which may be included in the map file produced by the linker. The -CN option removes the call graph information from the map file. The -CC option only include the critical paths of the call graph. A function call that is marked with a * in a full call graph is on a critical path and only these calls are included when the -CC option is used. A call graph is only produced for processors and memory models that use a compiled stack. 5.9.4 -Cpsect=class This option will allow a psect to be associated with a specific class. Normally this is not required on the command line since classes are specified in object files. 126 Linker and Utilities Operation 5.9.5 -Dclass=delta This option allows the delta value for psects that are members of the specified class to be defined. The delta value should be a number and represents the number of bytes per addressable unit of objects within the psects. Most psects do not need this option as they are defined with a delta value. 5.9.6 -Dsymfile Use this option to produce an old-style symbol file. An old-style symbol file is an ASCII file, where each line has the link address of the symbol followed by the symbol name. 5.9.7 -Eerrfile Error messages from the linker are written to standard error (file handle 2). Under DOS there is no convenient way to redirect this to a file (the compiler drivers will redirect standard error if standard output is redirected). This option will make the linker write all error messages to the specified file instead of the screen, which is the default standard error destination. 5.9.8 -F Normally the linker will produce an object file that contains both program code and data bytes, and symbol information. Sometimes it is desired to produce a symbol-only object file that can be used again in a subsequent linker run to supply symbol values. The -F option will suppress data and code bytes from the output file, leaving only the symbol records. This option can be used when producing more than one hex file for situations where the program is contained in different memory devices located at different addresses. The files for one device are compiled using this linker option to produce a symbol-only object file; this is then linked with the files for the other device. The process can then be repeated for the other files and device. 5.9.9 -Gspec When linking programs using segmented, or bank-switched psects, there are two ways the linker can assign segment addresses, or selectors, to each segment. A segment is defined as a contiguous group of psects where each psect in sequence has both its link and load address concatenated with the previous psect in the group. The segment address or selector for the segment is the value derived when a segment type relocation is processed by the linker. By default the segment selector will be generated by dividing the base load address of the segment by the relocation quantum of the segment, which is based on the reloc= flag value given to psects at the assembler level. This is appropriate for 8086 real mode code, but not for protected mode 127 Operation Linker and Utilities or some bank-switched arrangements. In this instance the -G option is used to specify a method for calculating the segment selector. The argument to -G is a string similar to: A/10h-4h where A represents the load address of the segment and / represents division. This means "Take the load address of the psect, divide by 10 hex, then subtract 4". This form can be modified by substituting N for A, * for / (to represent multiplication), and adding rather than subtracting a constant. The token N is replaced by the ordinal number of the segment, which is allocated by the linker. For example: N*8+4 means "take the segment number, multiply by 8 then add 4". The result is the segment selector. This particular example would allocate segment selectors in the sequence 4, 12, 20, ... for the number of segments defined. This would be appropriate when compiling for 80286 protected mode, where these selectors would represent LDT entries. 5.9.10 -Hsymfile This option will instruct the linker to generate a symbol file. The optional argument symfile specifies a file to receive the symbol file. The default file name is l.sym. 5.9.11 -H+symfile This option will instruct the linker to generate an enhanced symbol file, which provides, in addition to the standard symbol file, class names associated with each symbol and a segments section which lists each class name and the range of memory it occupies. This format is recommended if the code is to be run in conjunction with a debugger. The optional argument symfile specifies a file to receive the symbol file. The default file name is l.sym. 5.9.12 -Jerrcount The linker will stop processing object files after a certain number of errors (other than warnings). The default number is 10, but the -J option allows this to be altered. 5.9.13 -K For compilers that use a compiled stack, the linker will try and overlay function auto and parameter areas in an attempt to reduce the total amount of RAM required. For debugging purposes, this feature can be disabled with this option. 128 Linker and Utilities Operation 5.9.14 -I Usually failure to resolve a reference to an undefined symbol is a fatal error. Use of this option will cause undefined symbols to be treated as warnings instead. 5.9.15 -L When the linker produces an output file it does not usually preserve any relocation information, since the file is now absolute. In some circumstances a further "relocation" of the program will be done at load time, e.g. when running a .exe file under DOS or a .prg file under TOS. This requires that some information about what addresses require relocation is preserved in the object (and subsequently the executable) file. The -L option will generate in the output file one null relocation record for each relocation record in the input. 5.9.16 -LM Similar to the above option, this preserves relocation records in the output file, but only segment relocations. This is used particularly for generating .exe files to run under DOS. 5.9.17 -Mmapfile This option causes the linker to generate a link map in the named file, or on the standard output if the file name is omitted. The format of the map file is illustrated in Section 5.11. 5.9.18 -N, -Ns and-Nc By default the symbol table in the link map will be sorted by name. The -N option will cause it to be sorted numerically, based on the value of the symbol. The -Ns and -Nc options work similarly except that the symbols are grouped by either their space value, or class. 5.9.19 -Ooutfile This option allows specification of an output file name for the linker. The default output file name is l.obj. Use of this option will override the default. 5.9.20 -Pspec Psects are linked together and assigned addresses based on information supplied to the linker via -P options. The argument to the -P option consists basically of comma-separated sequences thus: 129 Operation Linker and Utilities -Ppsect=lnkaddr+min/ldaddr+min,psect=lnkaddr/ldaddr, ... There are several variations, but essentially each psect is listed with its desired link and load addresses, and a minimum value. All values may be omitted, in which case a default will apply, depending on previous values. The minimum value, min, is preceded by a + sign, if present. It sets a minimum value for the link or load address. The address will be calculated as described below, but if it is less than the minimum then it will be set equal to the minimum. The link and load addresses are either numbers as described above, or the names of other psects or classes, or special tokens. If the link address is a negative number, the psect is linked in reverse order with the top of the psect appearing at the specified address minus one. Psects following a negative address will be placed before the first psect in memory. If a link address is omitted, the psect's link address will be derived from the top of the previous psect, e.g. -Ptext=100h,data,bss In this example the text psect is linked at 100 hex (its load address defaults to the same). The data psect will be linked (and loaded) at an address which is 100 hex plus the length of the text psect, rounded up as necessary if the data psect has a reloc= value associated with it. Similarly, the bss psect will concatenate with the data psect. Again: -Ptext=-100h,data,bss will link in ascending order bss, data then text with the top of text appearing at address 0ffh. If the load address is omitted entirely, it defaults to the same as the link address. If the slash / character is supplied, but no address is supplied after it, the load address will concatenate with the previous psect, e.g. -Ptext=0,data=0/,bss will cause both text and data to have a link address of zero, text will have a load address of 0, and data will have a load address starting after the end of text. The bss psect will concatenate with data for both link and load addresses. The load address may be replaced with a dot . character. This tells the linker to set the load address of this psect to the same as its link address. The link or load address may also be the name of another (already linked) psect. This will explicitly concatenate the current psect with the previously specified psect, e.g. -Ptext=0,data=8000h/,bss/. -Pnvram=bss,heap 130 Linker and Utilities Operation This example shows text at zero, data linked at 8000h but loaded after text, bss is linked and loaded at 8000h plus the size of data, and nvram and heap are concatenated with bss. Note here the use of two -P options. Multiple -P options are processed in order. If -A options have been used to specify address ranges for a class then this class name may be used in place of a link or load address, and space will be found in one of the address ranges. For example: -ACODE=8000h-BFFEh,E000h-FFFEh -Pdata=C000h/CODE This will link data at C000h, but find space to load it in the address ranges associated with CODE. If no sufficiently large space is available, an error will result. Note that in this case the data psect will still be assembled into one contiguous block, whereas other psects in the class CODE will be distributed into the address ranges wherever they will fit. This means that if there are two or more psects in class CODE, they may be intermixed in the address ranges. Any psects allocated by a -P option will have their load address range subtracted from any address ranges specified with the -A option. This allows a range to be specified with the -A option without knowing in advance how much of the lower part of the range, for example, will be required for other psects. 5.9.21 -Qprocessor This option allows a processor type to be specified. This is purely for information placed in the map file. The argument to this option is a string describing the processor. 5.9.22 -S This option prevents symbol information relating from being included in the symbol file produced by the linker. Segment information is still included. 5.9.23 -Sclass=limit[, bound] A class of psects may have an upper address limit associated with it. The following example places a limit on the maximum address of the CODE class of psects to one less than 400h. -SCODE=400h Note that to set an upper limit to a psect, this must be set in assembler code (with a limit= flag on a PSECT directive). 131 Operation Linker and Utilities If the bound (boundary) argument is used, the class of psects will start on a multiple of the bound address. This example places the FARCODE class of psects at a multiple of 1000h, but with an upper address limit of 6000h: -SFARCODE=6000h,1000h 5.9.24 -Usymbol This option will enter the specified symbol into the linker's symbol table as an undefined symbol. This is useful for linking entirely from libraries, or for linking a module from a library where the ordering has been arranged so that by default a later module will be linked. 5.9.25 -Vavmap To produce an Avocet format symbol file, the linker needs to be given a map file to allow it to map psect names to Avocet memory identifiers. The avmap file will normally be supplied with the compiler, or created automatically by the compiler driver as required. 5.9.26 -Wnum The -W option can be used to set the warning level, in the range -9 to 9, or the width of the map file, for values of num >= 10. -W9 will suppress all warning messages. -W0 is the default. Setting the warning level to -9 (-W-9) will give the most comprehensive warning messages. 5.9.27 -X Local symbols can be suppressed from a symbol file with this option. Global symbols will always appear in the symbol file. 5.9.28 -Z Some local symbols are compiler generated and not of interest in debugging. This option will suppress from the symbol file all local symbols that have the form of a single alphabetic character, followed by a digit string. The set of letters that can start a trivial symbol is currently "klfLSu". The -Z option will strip any local symbols starting with one of these letters, and followed by a digit string. 132 Linker and Utilities Invoking the Linker 5.10 Invoking the Linker The linker is called HLINK, and normally resides in the BIN subdirectory of the compiler installation directory. It may be invoked with no arguments, in which case it will prompt for input from standard input. If the standard input is a file, no prompts will be printed. This manner of invocation is generally useful if the number of arguments to HLINK is large. Even if the list of files is too long to fit on one line, continuation lines may be included by leaving a backslash \ at the end of the preceding line. In this fashion, HLINK commands of almost unlimited length may be issued. For example a link command file called x.lnk and containing the following text: -Z -OX.OBJ -MX.MAP \ -Ptext=0,data=0/,bss,nvram=bss/. \ X.OBJ Y.OBJ Z.OBJ C:\HT-Z80\LIB\Z80-SC.LIB may be passed to the linker by one of the following: hlink @x.lnk hlink < x.lnk 5.11 Map Files The map file contains information relating to the relocation of psects and the addresses assigned to symbols within those psects. The sections in the map file are as follows; first is a copy of the command line used to invoke the linker. This is followed by the version number of the object code in the first file linked, and the machine type. This is optionally followed by call graph information, depended on the processor and memory model selected. Then are listed all object files that were linked, along with their psect information. Libraries are listed, with each module within the library. The TOTALS section summarises the psects from the object files. The SEGMENTS section summarises major memory groupings. This will typically show RAM and ROM usage. The segment names are derived from the name of the first psect in the segment. Lastly (not shown in the example) is a symbol table, where each global symbol is listed with its associated psect and link address. Linker command line: -z -Mmap -pvectors=00h,text,strings,const,im2vecs \ -pbaseram=00h -pramstart=08000h,data/im2vecs,bss/.,stack=09000h \ -pnvram=bss,heap \ -oC:\TEMP\l.obj C:\HT-Z80\LIB\rtz80-s.obj hello.obj \ C:\HT-Z80\LIB\z80-sc.lib 133 Map Files Linker and Utilities Object code version is 2.4 Machine type is Z80 Name Link Load Length Selector C:\HT-Z80\LIB\rtz80-s.obj vectors 0 0 71 bss 8000 8000 24 const FB FB 1 0 text 72 72 82 hello.obj text F4 F4 7 C:\HT-Z80\LIB\z80-sc.lib powerup.obj vectors 71 71 1 TOTAL Name Link Load Length CLASS CODE vectors 0 0 72 const FB FB 1 text 72 72 89 CLASS DATA bss 8000 8000 24 SEGMENTS Name Load Length Top Selector vectors 000000 0000FC 0000FC 0 bss 008000 000024 008024 8000 5.11.1 Call Graph Information A call graph is produced for chip types and memory models that use a compiled stack, rather than a hardware stack, to facilitate parameter passing between functions and auto variables defined within a function. When a compiled stack is used, functions are not re-entrant since the function will use a fixed area of memory for its local objects (parameters/auto variables). A function called foo(), for example, will use symbols like ?_foo for parameters and ?a_foo for auto variables. Compilers such as the PIC, 6805 and V8 use compiled stacks. The 8051 compiler uses a compiled stack in small and medium memory models. The call graph shows information relating to the placement of function parameters and auto variables by the linker. A typical call graph may look something like: Call graph: *_main size 0,0 offset 0 _init size 2,3 offset 0 _ports size 2,2 offset 5 * _sprintf size 5,10 offset 0 * _putch 134 Linker and Utilities Map Files INDIRECT 4194 INDIRECT 4194 _function_2 size 2,2 offset 0 _function size 2,2 offset 5 *_isr->_incr size 2,0 offset 15 The graph shows the functions called and the memory usage (RAM) of the functions for their own local objects. In the example above, the symbol _main is associated with the function main(). It is shown at the far left of the call graph. This indicates that it is the root of a call tree. The run-time code has the FNROOT assembler directive that specifies this. The size field after the name indicates the number of parameters and auto variables, respectively. Here, main() takes no parameters and defines no auto variables. The offset field is the offset at which the function's parameters and auto variables have been placed from the beginning of the area of memory used for this purpose. The run-time code contains a FNCONF directive which tells the compiler in which psect parameters and auto variables should reside. This memory will be shown in the map file under the name COMMON. Main() calls a function called init(). This function uses a total of two bytes of parameters (it may be two objects of type char or one int; that is not important) and has three bytes of auto variables. These figures are the total of bytes of memory consumed by the function. If the function was passed a two-byte int, but that was done via a register, then the two bytes would not be included in this total. Since main() did not use any of the local object memory, the offset of init()'s memory is still at 0. The function init() itself calls another function called ports(). This function uses two bytes of parameters and another two bytes of auto variables. Since ports() is called by init(), its local variables cannot be overlapped with those of init()'s, so the offset is 5, which means that ports()'s local objects were placed immediately after those of init()'s. The function main also calls sprintf(). Since the function sprintf() is not active at the same time as init() or ports(), their local objects can be overlapped and the offset is hence set to 0. Sprintf() calls a function putch(), but this function uses no memory for parameters (the char passed as argument is apparently done so via a register) or locals, so the size and offset are zero and are not printed. Main() also calls another function indirectly using a function pointer. This is indicated by the two INDIRECT entries in the graph. The number following is the signature value of functions that could potentially be called by the indirect call. This number is calculated from the parameters and return type of the functions the pointer can indirectly call. The names of any functions that have this signature value are listed underneath the INDIRECT entries. Their inclusion does not mean that they were called (there is no way to determine that), but that they could potentially be called. The last line shows another function whose name is at the far left of the call graph. This implies that this is the root of another call graph tree. This is an interrupt function which is not called by any code, but which is automatically invoked when an enabled interrupt occurs. This interrupt routine 135 Librarian Linker and Utilities calls the function incr(), which is shown shorthand in the graph by the -> symbol followed by the called function's name instead of having that function shown indented on the following line. This is done whenever the calling function does not takes parameters, nor defines any variables. Those lines in the graph which are starred with * are those functions which are on a critical path in terms of RAM usage. For example, in the above, (main() is a trivial example) consider the function sprintf(). This uses a large amount of local memory and if you could somehow rewrite it so that it used less local memory, it would reduce the entire program's RAM usage. The functions init() and ports() have had their local memory overlapped with that of sprintf(), so reducing the size of these functions' local memory will have no affect on the program's RAM usage. Their memory usage could be increased, as long as the total size of the memory used by these two functions did not exceed that of sprintf(), with no additional memory used by the program. So if you have to reduce the amount of RAM used by the program, look at those functions that are starred. If, when searching a call graph, you notice that a function's parameter and auto areas have been overlapped (i.e. ?a_foo was placed at the same address as ?_foo, for example), then check to make sure that you have actually called the function in your program. If the linker has not seen a function actually called, then it overlaps these areas of memory since that are not needed. This is a consequence of the linker's ability to overlap the local memory areas of functions which are not active at the same time. Once the function is called, unique addresses will be assigned to both the parameters and auto objects. If you are writing a routine that calls C code from assembler, you will need to include the appropriate assembler directives to ensure that the linker sees the C function being called. 5.12 Librarian The librarian program, LIBR, has the function of combining several object files into a single file known as a library. The purposes of combining several such object modules are several. * fewer files to link * faster access * uses less disk space In order to make the library concept useful, it is necessary for the linker to treat modules in a library differently from object files. If an object file is specified to the linker, it will be linked into the final linked module. A module in a library, however, will only be linked in if it defines one or more symbols previously known, but not defined, to the linker. Thus modules in a library will be linked only if required. Since the choice of modules to link is made on the first pass of the linker, and the library is searched in a linear fashion, it is possible to order the modules in a library to produce special effects when linking. More will be said about this later. 136 Linker and Utilities Librarian Table 5.2: Librarian command-line options Option Effect -Pwidth specify page width -W Suppress non-fatal errors Table 5.3: Librarian key letter commands Key Meaning r Replace modules d Delete modules x Extract modules m List modules s List modules with symbols 5.12.1 The Library Format The modules in a library are basically just concatenated, but at the beginning of a library is maintained a directory of the modules and symbols in the library. Since this directory is smaller than the sum of the modules, the linker can perform faster searches since it need read only the directory, and not all the modules, on the first pass. On the second pass it need read only those modules which are required, seeking over the others. This all minimises disk I/O when linking. It should be noted that the library format is geared exclusively toward object modules, and is not a general purpose archiving mechanism as is used by some other compiler systems. This has the advantage that the format may be optimized toward speeding up the linkage process. 5.12.2 Using the Librarian The librarian program is called LIBR, and the format of commands to it is as follows: LIBR options k file.lib file.obj ... Interpreting this, LIBR is the name of the program, options is zero or more librarian options which affect the output of the program. k is a key letter denoting the function requested of the librarian (replacing, extracting or deleting modules, listing modules or symbols), file.lib is the name of the library file to be operated on, and file.obj is zero or more object file names. The librarian options are listed in Table 5.2. The key letters are listed in Table 5.3. When replacing or extracting modules, the file.obj arguments are the names of the modules to be replaced or extracted. If no such arguments are supplied, all the modules in the library will be 137 Librarian Linker and Utilities replaced or extracted respectively. Adding a file to a library is performed by requesting the librarian to replace it in the library. Since it is not present, the module will be appended to the library. If the r key is used and the library does not exist, it will be created. Under the d key letter, the named object files will be deleted from the library. In this instance, it is an error not to give any object file names. The m and s key letters will list the named modules and, in the case of the s keyletter, the symbols defined or referenced within (global symbols only are handled by the librarian). As with the r and x key letters, an empty list of modules means all the modules in the library. 5.12.3 Examples Here are some examples of usage of the librarian. The following lists the global symbols in the modules a.obj, b.obj and c.obj: LIBR s file.lib a.obj b.obj c.obj This command deletes the object modules a.obj, b.obj and c.obj from the library file.lib: LIBR d file.lib a.obj b.obj c.obj 5.12.4 Supplying Arguments Since it is often necessary to supply many object file arguments to LIBR, and command lines are restricted to 127 characters by CP/M and MS-DOS, LIBR will accept commands from standard input if no command line arguments are given. If the standard input is attached to the console, LIBR will prompt for input. Multiple line input may be given by using a backslash as a continuation character on the end of a line. If standard input is redirected from a file, LIBR will take input from the file, without prompting. For example: libr libr> r file.lib 1.obj 2.obj 3.obj \ libr> 4.obj 5.obj 6.obj will perform much the same as if the object files had been typed on the command line. The libr> prompts were printed by LIBR itself, the remainder of the text was typed as input. libr <lib.cmd LIBR will read input from lib.cmd, and execute the command found therein. This allows a virtually unlimited length command to be given to LIBR. 138 Linker and Utilities Objtohex 5.12.5 Listing Format A request to LIBR to list module names will simply produce a list of names, one per line, on standard output. The s keyletter will produce the same, with a list of symbols after each module name. Each symbol will be preceded by the letter D or U, representing a definition or reference to the symbol respectively. The -P option may be used to determine the width of the paper for this operation. For example: LIBR -P80 s file.lib will list all modules in file.lib with their global symbols, with the output formatted for an 80 column printer or display. 5.12.6 Ordering of Libraries The librarian creates libraries with the modules in the order in which they were given on the command line. When updating a library the order of the modules is preserved. Any new modules added to a library after it has been created will be appended to the end. The ordering of the modules in a library is significant to the linker. If a library contains a module which references a symbol defined in another module in the same library, the module defining the symbol should come after the module referencing the symbol. 5.12.7 Error Messages LIBR issues various error messages, most of which represent a fatal error, while some represent a harmless occurrence which will nonetheless be reported unless the -W option was used. In this case all warning messages will be suppressed. 5.13 Objtohex The HI-TECH linker is capable of producing simple binary files, or object files as output. Any other format required must be produced by running the utility program OBJTOHEX. This allows conversion of object files as produced by the linker into a variety of different formats, including various hex formats. The program is invoked thus: OBJTOHEX options inputfile outputfile All of the arguments are optional. If outputfile is omitted it defaults to l.hex or l.bin depending on whether the -b option is used. The inputfile defaults to l.obj. The options for OBJTOHEX are listed in Table 5.4. Where an address is required, the format is the same as for HLINK. 139 Objtohex Linker and Utilities Table 5.4: OBJTOHEX command-line options Option Meaning -8 Produce a CP/M-86 output file -A Produce an ATDOS .atx output file -Bbase Produce a binary file with offset of base. Default file name is l.obj -Cckfile Read a list of checksum specifications from ckfile or standard input -D Produce a COD file -E Produce an MS-DOS .exe file -Ffill Fill unused memory with words of value fill - default value is 0FFh -I Produce an Intel HEX file with linear addressed extended records. -L Pass relocation information into the output file (used with .exe files) -M Produce a Motorola HEX file (S19, S28 or S37 format) -N Produce an output file for Minix -Pstk Produce an output file for an Atari ST, with optional stack size -R Include relocation information in the output file -Sfile Write a symbol file into file -T Produce a Tektronix HEX file. -TE Produce an extended TekHEX file. -U Produce a COFF output file -UB Produce a UBROF format file -V Reverse the order of words and long words in the output file -n,m Format either Motorola or Intel HEX file, where n is the maximum number of bytes per record and m specifies the record size rounding. Non-rounded records are zero padded to a multiple of m. m itself must be a multiple of 2. 140 Linker and Utilities Cref 5.13.1 Checksum Specifications If you are generating a HEX file output, please refer to the hexmate section 5.16 for calculating checksums. For OBJTOHEX, the checksum specification allows automated checksum calculation and takes the form of several lines, each line describing one checksum. The syntax of a checksum line is: addr1-addr2 where1-where2 +offset All of addr1, addr2, where1, where2 and offset are hex numbers, without the usual H suffix. Such a specification says that the bytes at addr1 through to addr2 inclusive should be summed and the sum placed in the locations where1 through where2 inclusive. For an 8 bit checksum these two addresses should be the same. For a checksum stored low byte first, where1 should be less than where2, and vice versa. The +offset is optional, but if supplied, the value offset will be used to initialise the checksum. Otherwise it is initialised to zero. For example: 0005-1FFF 3-4 +1FFF This will sum the bytes in 5 through 1FFFH inclusive, then add 1FFFH to the sum. The 16 bit checksum will be placed in locations 3 and 4, low byte in 3. The checksum is initialised with 1FFFH to provide protection against an all zero ROM, or a ROM misplaced in memory. A run time check of this checksum would add the last address of the ROM being checksummed into the checksum. For the ROM in question, this should be 1FFFH. The initialization value may, however, be used in any desired fashion. 5.14 Cref The cross reference list utility CREF is used to format raw cross-reference information produced by the compiler or the assembler into a sorted listing. A raw cross-reference file is produced with the --CR option to the compiler. The assembler will generate a raw cross-reference file with a -C option (most assemblers) or by using an OPT CRE directive (6800 series assemblers) or a XREF control line (PIC assembler). The general form of the CREF command is: cref options files where options is zero or more options as described below and files is one or more raw crossreference files. CREF takes the options listed in Table 5.5. Each option is described in more detail in the following paragraphs. 141 Cref Linker and Utilities Table 5.5: CREF command-line options Option Meaning -Fprefix Exclude symbols from files with a pathname or filename starting with prefix -Hheading Specify a heading for the listing file -Llen Specify the page length for the listing file -Ooutfile Specify the name of the listing file -Pwidth Set the listing width -Sstoplist Read file stoplist and ignore any symbols listed. -Xprefix Exclude and symbols starting with prefix 5.14.1 -Fprefix It is often desired to exclude from the cross-reference listing any symbols defined in a system header file, e.g. <stdio.h>. The -F option allows specification of a path name prefix that will be used to exclude any symbols defined in a file whose path name begins with that prefix. For example, -F\ will exclude any symbols from all files with a path name starting with \. 5.14.2 -Hheading The -H option takes a string as an argument which will be used as a header in the listing. The default heading is the name of the first raw cross-ref information file specified. 5.14.3 -Llen Specify the length of the paper on which the listing is to be produced, e.g. if the listing is to be printed on 55 line paper you would use a -L55 option. The default is 66 lines. 5.14.4 -Ooutfile Allows specification of the output file name. By default the listing will be written to the standard output and may be redirected in the usual manner. Alternatively outfile may be specified as the output file name. 142 Linker and Utilities Cromwell 5.14.5 -Pwidth This option allows the specification of the width to which the listing is to be formatted, e.g. -P132 will format the listing for a 132 column printer. The default is 80 columns. 5.14.6 -Sstoplist The -S option should have as its argument the name of a file containing a list of symbols not to be listed in the cross-reference. Multiple stoplists may be supplied with multiple -S options. 5.14.7 -Xprefix The -X option allows the exclusion of symbols from the listing, based on a prefix given as argument to -X. For example if it was desired to exclude all symbols starting with the character sequence xyz then the option -Xxyz would be used. If a digit appears in the character sequence then this will match any digit in the symbol, e.g. -XX0 would exclude any symbols starting with the letter X followed by a digit. CREF will accept wildcard filenames and I/O redirection. Long command lines may be supplied by invoking CREF with no arguments and typing the command line in response to the cref> prompt. A backslash at the end of the line will be interpreted to mean that more command lines follow. 5.15 Cromwell The CROMWELL utility converts code and symbol files into different formats. The formats available are shown in Table 5.6. The general form of the CROMWELL command is: CROMWELL options input_files -okey output_file where options can be any of the options shown in Table 5.7. Output_file (optional) is the name of the output file. The input_files are typically the HEX and SYM file. CROMWELL automatically searches for the SDB files and reads those if they are found. The options are further described in the following paragraphs. 5.15.1 -Pname[,architecture] The -P options takes a string which is the name of the processor used. CROMWELL may use this in the generation of the output format selected. Note that to produce output in COFF format an additional argument to this option which also specifies the processor architecture is required. Hence for this 143 Cromwell Linker and Utilities Table 5.6: CROMWELL format types Key Format cod Bytecraft COD file coff COFF file format elf ELF/DWARF file eomf51 Extended OMF-51 format hitech HI-TECH Software format icoff ICOFF file format ihex Intel HEX file format mcoff Microchip COFF file format omf51 OMF-51 file format pe P&E file format s19 Motorola HEX file format Table 5.7: CROMWELL command-line options Option Description -Pname[,architecture] Processor name and architecture -N Identify code classes -D Dump input file -C Identify input files only -F Fake local symbols as global -Okey Set the output format -Ikey Set the input format -L List the available formats -E Strip file extensions -B Specify big-endian byte ordering -M Strip underscore character -V Verbose mode 144 Linker and Utilities Cromwell Table 5.8: -P option architecture arguments for COFF file output. Architecture Description 68K Motorola 68000 series chips H8/300 Hitachi 8 bit H8/300 chips H8/300H Hitachi 16 bit H8/300H chips SH Hitachi 32 bit SuperH RISC chips PIC12 Microchip base-line PIC chips PIC14 Microchip mid-range PIC chips PIC16 Microchip high-end (17Cxxx) PIC chips PIC18 Microchip PIC18 chips PIC24 Microchip PIC24F and PIC24H chips PIC30 Microchip dsPIC30 and dsPIC33 chips format the usage of this option must take the form: -Pname,architecture. Table 5.8 enumerates the architectures supported for producing COFF files. 5.15.2 -N To produce some output file formats (e.g. COFF), Cromwell requires that the names of the program memory space psect classes be provided. The names of the classes are given as a comma separated list. For example, in the DSPIC C compiler these classes are typically "CODE" and "NEARCODE", i.e. -NCODE,NEARCODE. 5.15.3 -D The -D option is used to display to the screen details about the named input file in a readable format. The input file can be one of the file types as shown in Table 5.6. 5.15.4 -C This option will attempt to identify if the specified input files are one of the formats as shown in Table 5.6. If the file is recognised, a confirmation of its type will be displayed. 5.15.5 -F When generating a COD file, this option can be used to force all local symbols to be represented as global symbols. The may be useful where an emulator cannot read local symbol information from the COD file. 145 Hexmate Linker and Utilities 5.15.6 -Okey This option specifies the format of the output file. The key can be any of the types listed in Table 5.6. 5.15.7 -Ikey This option can be used to specify the default input file format. The key can be any of the types listed in Table 5.6. 5.15.8 -L Use this option to show what file format types are supported. A list similar to that given in Table 5.6 will be shown. 5.15.9 -E Use this option to tell CROMWELL to ignore any filename extensions that were given. The default extension will be used instead. 5.15.10 -B In formats that support different endian types, use this option to specify big-endian byte ordering. 5.15.11 -M When generating COD files this option will remove the preceding underscore character from sym- bols. 5.15.12 -V Turns on verbose mode which will display information about operations CROMWELL is performing. 5.16 Hexmate The Hexmate utility is a program designed to manipulate Intel HEX files. Hexmate is a post-link stage utility that provides the facility to: * Calculate and store variable-length checksum values 146 Linker and Utilities Hexmate * Fill unused memory locations with known data sequences * Merge multiple Intel hex files into one output file * Convert INHX32 files to other INHX formats (e.g. INHX8M) * Detect specific or partial opcode sequences within a hex file * Find/replace specific or partial opcode sequences * Provide a map of addresses used in a hex file * Change or fix the length of data records in a hex file. * Validate checksums within Intel hex files. Typical applications for hexmate might include: * Merging a bootloader or debug module into a main application at build time * Calculating a checksum over a range of program memory and storing its value in program memory or EEPROM * Filling unused memory locations with an instruction to send the PC to a known location if it gets lost. * Storage of a serial number at a fixed address. * Storage of a string (e.g. time stamp) at a fixed address. * Store initial values at a particular memory address (e.g. initialise EEPROM) * Detecting usage of a buggy/restricted instruction * Adjusting hex records to a fixed length as required by some bootloaders 5.16.1 Hexmate Command Line Options Some of these hexmate operations may be possible from the compiler's command line driver. However, if hexmate is to be run directly, its usage is: hexmate <file1.hex ... fileN.hex> <options> 147 Hexmate Linker and Utilities Table 5.9: Hexmate command-line options Option Effect -ADDRESSING Set address fields in all hexmate options to use word addressing or other -CK Calculate and store a checksum value -FILL Program unused locations with a known value -FIND Search and notify if a particular code sequence is detected -FIND...,REPLACE Replace the code sequence with a new code sequence -FORMAT Specify maximum data record length or select INHX variant -HELP Show all options or display help message for specific option -LOGFILE Save hexmate analysis of output and various results to a file -Ofile Specify the name of the output file -SERIAL Store a serial number or code sequence at a fixed address -STRING Store an ASCII string at a fixed address -W Adjust warning sensitivity + Prefix to any option to overwrite other data in its address range if necessary Where file1.hex through to fileN.hex are a list of input Intel hex files to merge using hexmate. Additional options can be provided to further customize this process. Table 5.9 lists the command line options that hexmate accepts. The input parameters to hexmate are now discussed in greater detail. Note that any integral values supplied to the hexmate options should be entered as hexadecimal values without leading 0x or trailing h characters. Note also that any address fields specified in these options are to be entered as byte addresses, unless specified otherwise in the -ADDRESSING option. 5.16.1.1 specifications,filename.hex Intel hex files that can be processed by hexmate should be in either INHX32 or INHX8M format. Additional specifications can be applied to each hex file to put restrictions or conditions on how this file should be processed. If any specifications are used they must precede the filename. The list of specifications will then be separated from the filename by a comma. A range restriction can be applied with the specification rStart-End. A range restriction will cause only the address data falling within this range to be used. For example: r100-1FF,myfile.hex will use myfile.hex as input, but only process data which is addressed within the range 100h-1FFh (inclusive) to be read from myfile.hex. 148 Linker and Utilities Hexmate An address shift can be applied with the specification sOffset . If an address shift is used, data read from this hex file will be shifted (by the Offset) to a new address when generating the output. The offset can be either positive or negative. For example: r100-1FFs2000,myfile.hex will shift the block of data from 100h-1FFh to the new address range 2100h-21FFh. Be careful when shifting sections of executable code. Program code shouldn't be shifted unless it can be guaranteed that no part of the program relies upon the absolute location of this code segment. 5.16.1.2 + Prefix When the + operator precedes a parameter or input file, the data obtained from that parameter will be forced into the output file and will overwrite other data existing within its address range. For example: +input.hex +-STRING@1000="My string" Ordinarily, hexmate will issue an error if two sources try to store differing data at the same location. Using the + operator informs hexmate that if more than one data source tries to store data to the same address, the one specified with a '+' will take priority. 5.16.1.3 -ADDRESSING By default, all address parameters in hexmate options expect that values will be entered as byte addresses. In some device architectures the native addressing format may be something other than byte addressing. In these cases it would be much simpler to be able to enter address-components in the device's native format. To facilitate this, the -ADDRESSING option is used. This option takes exactly one parameter which configures the number of bytes contained per address location. If for example a device's program memory naturally used a 16-bit (2 byte) word-addressing format, the option -ADDRESSING=2 will configure hexmate to interpret all command line addess fields as word addresses. The affect of this setting is global and all hexmate options will now interpret addresses according to this setting. This option will allow specification of addressing modes from one byteper-address to four bytes-per-address. 5.16.1.4 -CK The -CK option is for calculating a checksum. The usage of this option is: -CK=start-end@destination[+offset][wWidth][tCode][gAlogithm] 149 Hexmate Linker and Utilities Table 5.10: Hexmate Checksum Algorithm Selection Selector Algorithm description -4 Subtraction of 32 bit values from initial value -3 Subtraction of 24 bit values from initial value -2 Subtraction of 16 bit values from initial value -1 Subtraction of 8 bit values from initial value 1 Addition of 8 bit values from initial value 2 Addition of 16 bit values from initial value 3 Addition of 24 bit values from initial value 4 Addition of 32 bit values from initial value where: * Start and End specify the address range that the checksum will be calculated over. * Destination is the address where to store the checksum result. This value cannot be within the range of calculation. * Offset is an optional initial value to add to the checksum result. Width is optional and specifies the byte-width of the checksum result. Results can be calculated for byte-widths of 1 to 4 bytes. If a positive width is requested, the result will be stored in big-endian byte order. A negative width will cause the result to be stored in little-endian byte order. If the width is left unspecified, the result will be 2 bytes wide and stored in little-endian byte order. * Code is a hexadecimal code that will trail each byte in the checksum result. This can allow each byte of the checksum result to be embedded within an instruction. * Algorithm is an integer to select which hexmate algorithm to use to calculate the checksum result. A list of selectable algorithms are given in Table 5.10. If unspecified, the default checksum algorithm used is 8 bit addition. A typical example of the use of the checksum option is: -CK=0-1FFF@2FFE+2100w2 This will calculate a checksum over the range 0-1FFFh and program the checksum result at address 2FFEh, checksum value will apply an initial offset of 2100h. The result will be two bytes wide. 150 Linker and Utilities Hexmate 5.16.1.5 -FILL The -FILL option is used for filling unused memory locations with a known value. The usage of this option is: -FILL=Code@Start-End[,data] where: * Code is the opcode that will be programmed to unused locations in memory. Multi-byte codes should be entered in little endian order. * Start and End specify the address range that this fill will apply to. For example: -FILL=3412@0-1FFF,data will program opcode 1234h in all unused addresses from program memory address 0 to 1FFFh (Note the endianism). -FILL accepts whole bytes of hexadecimal data from 1 to 8 bytes in length. Adding the ,data flag to this option is not required. If the data flag has been specified, hexmate will only perform ROM filling to records that actually contain data. This means that these records will be padded out to the default data record length or the width specified in the -FORMAT option. Records will also begin on addresses which are multiples of the data record length used. The default data record length is 16 bytes. This facility is particularly useful or is a requirement for some bootloaders that expect that all data records will be of a particular length and address alignment. 5.16.1.6 -FIND This option is used to detect and log occurrences of an opcode or partial code sequence. The usage of this option is: -FIND=Findcode[mMask]@Start-End[/Align][w][t"Title"] where: * Findcode is the hexadecimal code sequence to search for and is entered in little endian byte order. * Mask is optional. It allows a bitmask over the Findcode value and is entered in little endian byte order. * Start and End limit the address range to search through. 151 Hexmate Linker and Utilities * Align is optional. It specifies that a code sequence can only match if it begins on an address which is a multiple of this value. w, if present will cause hexmate to issue a warning whenever the code sequence is detected. * Title is optional. It allows a title to be given to this code sequence. Defining a title will make log-reports and messages more descriptive and more readable. A title will not affect the actual search results. TUTˇRIAL Let's look at some examples. The option -FIND=3412@0-7FFF/2w will detect the code sequence 1234h when aligned on a 2 (two) byte address boundary, between 0h and 7FFFh. w indicates that a warning will be issued each time this sequence is found. Another example, -FIND=3412M0F00@0-7FFF/2wt"ADDXY" is same as last example but the code sequence being matched is masked with 000Fh, so hexmate will search for 123xh. If a byte-mask is used, is must be of equal byte-width to the opcode it is applied to. Any messaging or reports generated by hexmate will refer to this opcode by the name, ADDXY as this was the title defined for this search. If hexmate is generating a logfile, it will contain the results of all searches. -FIND accepts whole bytes of hex data from 1 to 8 bytes in length. Optionally, -FIND can be used in conjunction with ,REPLACE (described below). 5.16.1.7 -FIND...,REPLACE REPLACE Can only be used in conjunction with a -FIND option. Code sequences that matched the -FIND criteria can be replaced or partially replaced with new codes. The usage for this sub-option is: -FIND...,REPLACE=Code[mMask] where: * Code is a little endian hexadecimal code to replace the sequences that match the -FIND crite- ria. * Mask is an optional bitmask to specify which bits within Code will replace the code sequence that has been matched. This may be useful if, for example, it is only necessary to modify 4 bits within a 16-bit instruction. The remaining 12 bits can masked and be left unchanged. 152 Linker and Utilities Hexmate Table 5.11: INHX types used in -FORMAT option Type Description INHX8M Cannot program addresses beyond 64K. INHX32 Can program addresses beyond 64K with extended linear address records. INHX032 INHX32 with initialization of upper address to zero. 5.16.1.8 -FORMAT The -FORMAT option can be used to specify a particular variant of INHX format or adjust maximum record length. The usage of this option is: -FORMAT=Type[,Length] where: * Type specifies a particular INHX format to generate. * Length is optional and sets the maximum number of bytes per data record. A valid length is between 1 and 16, with 16 being the default. TUTˇRIAL Consider this case. A bootloader trying to download an INHX32 file fails succeed because it cannot process the extended address records which are part of the INHX32 standard. You know that this bootloader can only program data addressed within the range 0 to 64k, and that any data in the hex file outside of this range can be safely disregarded. In this case, by generating the hex file in INHX8M format the operation might succeed. The hexmate option to do this would be -FORMAT=INHX8M. Now consider this. What if the same bootloader also required every data record to contain eight bytes of data, no more, no less? This is possible by combining -FORMAT with -FILL. Appropriate use of -FILL can ensure that there are no gaps in the data for the address range being programmed. This will satisfy the minimum data length requirement. To set the maximum length of data records to eight bytes, just modify the previous option to become -FORMAT=INHX8M,8. The possible types that are supported by this option are listed in Table 5.11. Note that INHX032 is not an actual INHX format. Selection of this type generates an INHX32 file but will also initialize the upper address information to zero. This is a requirement of some device programmers. 153 Hexmate Linker and Utilities 5.16.1.9 -HELP Using -HELP will list all hexmate options. By entering another hexmate option as a parameter of -HELP will show a detailed help message for the given option. For example: -HELP=string will show additional help for the -STRING hexmate option. 5.16.1.10 -LOGFILE The -LOGFILE option saves hexfile statistics to the named file. For example: -LOGFILE=output.log will analyse the hex file that hexmate is generating and save a report to a file named output.log. 5.16.1.11 -Ofile The generated Intel hex output will be created in this file. For example: -Oprogram.hex will save the resultant output to program.hex. The output file can take the same name as one of its input files, but by doing so, it will replace the input file entirely. 5.16.1.12 -SERIAL This option will store a particular hex value at a fixed address. The usage of this option is: -SERIAL=Code[+/-Increment]@Address[+/-Interval][rRepetitions] where: * Code is a hexadecimal value to store and is entered in little endian byte order. * Increment is optional and allows the value of Code to change by this value with each repetition (if requested). * Address is the location to store this code, or the first repetition thereof. * Interval is optional and specifies the address shift per repetition of this code. * Repetitions is optional and specifies the number of times to repeat this code. 154 Linker and Utilities Hexmate For example: -SERIAL=000001@EFFE will store hex code 00001h to address EFFEh. Another example: -SERIAL=0000+2@1000+10r5 will store 5 codes, beginning with value 0000 at address 1000h. Subsequent codes will appear at address intervals of +10h and the code value will change in increments of +2h. 5.16.1.13 -STRING The -STRING option will embed an ASCII string at a fixed address. The usage of this option is: -STRING@Address[tCode]="Text" where: * Address is the location to store this string. * Code is optional and allows a byte sequence to trail each byte in the string. This can allow the bytes of the string to be encoded within an instruction. * Text is the string to convert to ASCII and embed. For example: -STRING@1000="My favourite string" will store the ASCII data for the string, My favourite string (including null terminator) at address 1000h. Another example: -STRING@1000t34="My favourite string" will store the same string with every byte in the string being trailed with the hexcode 34h. 155 Hexmate Linker and Utilities 156 Appendix A Library Functions The functions within the standard compiler library are listed in this chapter. Each entry begins with the name of the function. This is followed by information decomposed into the following categories. Synopsis the C declaration of the function, and the header file in which it is declared. Description a narrative description of the function and its purpose. Example an example of the use of the function. It is usually a complete small program that illustrates the function. Data types any special data types (structures etc.) defined for use with the function. These data types will be defined in the header file named under Synopsis. See also any allied functions. Return value the type and nature of the return value of the function, if any. Information on error returns is also included Only those categories which are relevant to each function are used. 157 Library Functions __CONFIG Synopsis #include <htc.h> __CONFIG(data) Description This macro is used to program the configuration fuses that set the device into various modes of operation. The macro accepts the 16-bit value it is to update it with. 16-Bit masks have been defined to describe each programmable attribute available on each device. These attribute masks can be found tabulated in this manual in the Features and Runtime Environment section. Multiple attributes can be selected by ANDing them together. Example #include <htc.h> __CONFIG(RC & UNPROTECT) void main (void) { } See also __EEPROM_DATA(), __IDLOC(), __IDLOC7() 158 Library Functions __EEPROM_DATA Synopsis #include <htc.h> __EEPROM_DATA(a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h) Description This macro is used to store initial values into the device's EEPROM registers at the time of program- ming. The macro must be given blocks of 8 bytes to write each time it is called, and can be called repeatedly to store multiple blocks. __EEPROM_DATA() will begin writing to EEPROM address zero, and will auto-increment the address written to by 8, each time it is used. Example #include <htc.h> __EEPROM_DATA(0x00,0x01,0x02,0x03,0x04,0x05,0x06,0x07) __EEPROM_DATA(0x08,0x09,0x0A,0x0B,0x0C,0x0D,0x0E,0x0F) void main (void) { } See also __CONFIG() 159 Library Functions __IDLOC Synopsis #include <htc.h> __IDLOC(x) Description This macro places data into the device's special locations outside of addressable memory reserved for ID. This would be useful for storage of serial numbers etc. The macro will attempt to write 4 nibbles of data to the 4 locations reserved for ID purposes. Example #include <htc.h> __IDLOC(15F0); /* will store 1, 5, F and 0 in the ID registers*/ void main (void) { } See also __IDLOC7(), __CONFIG() 160 Library Functions __IDLOC7 Synopsis #include <htc.h> __IDLOC7(a,b,c,d) Description This macro places data into the device's special locations outside of addressable memory reserved for ID. This would be useful for storage of serial numbers etc. The macro will attempt to write 7 bits of data to each of the 4 locations reserved for ID purposes. Example #include <htc.h> __IDLOC(0x7F,70,1,0x5A); /* will store 7Fh, 70, 1 and 5Ah in the ID registers */ void main (void) { } Note Not all devices permit 7 bit programming of the ID locations. Refer to the device datasheet to see whether this macro can be used on your particular device. See also __IDLOC(), __CONFIG() 161 Library Functions __RAM_CELL_TEST Synopsis void _ram_cell_test(void) Description Should not be called from user code. This routine is called from a loop within the generated runtime startup code if the system requires a RAM integrity test before program execution. Upon entry to this routine, the FSR register has been loaded with the RAM cell to test. The value 0x55 will be assigned to the cell and verified, followed by 0xAA. If either of these values fail verification, the routine will call ram_test_failed() with an error code in the working register and FSR still containing the address that was in error. This routine is called repeatedly during startup, with each subsequent call testing the next address in sequence. If the location being tested contains non volatile data, the value will be backed up before the test routine is called and restored upon return from the routine. This library routine can be overriden by a user's implementation if the standard cell tests are insufficient for a particular system's verification. See also ram_cell_test() 162 Library Functions ABS Synopsis #include <stdlib.h> int abs (int j) Description The abs() function returns the absolute value of j. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> void main (void) { int a = -5; printf("The absolute value of %d is %d\n", a, abs(a)); } Return Value The absolute value of j. 163 Library Functions ACOS Synopsis #include <math.h> double acos (double f) Description The acos() function implements the inverse of cos(), i.e. it is passed a value in the range -1 to +1, and returns an angle in radians whose cosine is equal to that value. Example #include <math.h> #include <stdio.h> /* Print acos() values for -1 to 1 in degrees. */ void main (void) { float i, a; for(i = -1.0; i < 1.0 ; i += 0.1) { a = acos(i)*180.0/3.141592; printf("acos(%f) = %f degrees\n", i, a); } } See Also sin(), cos(), tan(), asin(), atan(), atan2() Return Value An angle in radians, in the range 0 to 164 Library Functions ASCTIME Synopsis #include <time.h> char * asctime (struct tm * t) Description The asctime() function takes the time broken down into the struct tm structure, pointed to by its argument, and returns a 26 character string describing the current date and time in the format: Sun Sep 16 01:03:52 1973\n\0 Note the newline at the end of the string. The width of each field in the string is fixed. The example gets the current time, converts it to a struct tm pointer with localtime(), it then converts this to ASCII and prints it. The time() function will need to be provided by the user (see time() for details). Example #include <stdio.h> #include <time.h> void main (void) { time_t clock; struct tm * tp; time(&clock); tp = localtime(&clock); printf("%s", asctime(tp)); } See Also ctime(), gmtime(), localtime(), time() 165 Library Functions Return Value A pointer to the string. Note The example will require the user to provide the time() routine as it cannot be supplied with the compiler. See time() for more details. 166 Library Functions ASIN Synopsis #include <math.h> double asin (double f) Description The asin() function implements the converse of sin(), i.e. it is passed a value in the range -1 to +1, and returns an angle in radians whose sine is equal to that value. Example #include <math.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { float i, a; for(i = -1.0; i < 1.0 ; i += 0.1) { a = asin(i)*180.0/3.141592; printf("asin(%f) = %f degrees\n", i, a); } } See Also sin(), cos(), tan(), acos(), atan(), atan2() Return Value An angle in radians, in the range - 167 Library Functions ASSERT Synopsis #include <assert.h> void assert (int e) Description This macro is used for debugging purposes; the basic method of usage is to place assertions liberally throughout your code at points where correct operation of the code depends upon certain conditions being true initially. An assert() routine may be used to ensure at run time that an assumption holds true. For example, the following statement asserts that the pointer tp is not equal to NULL: assert(tp); If at run time the expression evaluates to false, the program will abort with a message identifying the source file and line number of the assertion, and the expression used as an argument to it. A fuller discussion of the uses of assert() is impossible in limited space, but it is closely linked to methods of proving program correctness. Example void ptrfunc (struct xyz * tp) { assert(tp != 0); } Note When required for ROM based systems, the underlying routine _fassert(...) will need to be implemented by the user. 168 Library Functions ATAN Synopsis #include <math.h> double atan (double x) Description This function returns the arc tangent of its argument, i.e. it returns an angle e in the range - Example #include <stdio.h> #include <math.h> void main (void) { printf("%f\n", atan(1.5)); } See Also sin(), cos(), tan(), asin(), acos(), atan2() Return Value The arc tangent of its argument. 169 Library Functions ATOF Synopsis #include <stdlib.h> double atof (const char * s) Description The atof() function scans the character string passed to it, skipping leading blanks. It then converts an ASCII representation of a number to a double. The number may be in decimal, normal floating point or scientific notation. Example #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { char buf[80]; double i; gets(buf); i = atof(buf); printf("Read %s: converted to %f\n", buf, i); } See Also atoi(), atol() Return Value A double precision floating point number. If no number is found in the string, 0.0 will be returned. 170 Library Functions ATOI Synopsis #include <stdlib.h> int atoi (const char * s) Description The atoi() function scans the character string passed to it, skipping leading blanks and reading an optional sign. It then converts an ASCII representation of a decimal number to an integer. Example #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { char buf[80]; int i; gets(buf); i = atoi(buf); printf("Read %s: converted to %d\n", buf, i); } See Also xtoi(), atof(), atol() Return Value A signed integer. If no number is found in the string, 0 will be returned. 171 Library Functions ATOL Synopsis #include <stdlib.h> long atol (const char * s) Description The atol() function scans the character string passed to it, skipping leading blanks. It then converts an ASCII representation of a decimal number to a long integer. Example #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { char buf[80]; long i; gets(buf); i = atol(buf); printf("Read %s: converted to %ld\n", buf, i); } See Also atoi(), atof() Return Value A long integer. If no number is found in the string, 0 will be returned. 172 Library Functions BSEARCH Synopsis #include <stdlib.h> void * bsearch (const void * key, void * base, size_t n_memb, size_t size, int (*compar)(const void *, const void *)) Description The bsearch() function searches a sorted array for an element matching a particular key. It uses a binary search algorithm, calling the function pointed to by compar to compare elements in the array. Example #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #include <string.h> struct value { char name[40]; int value; } values[100]; int val_cmp (const void * p1, const void * p2) { return strcmp(((const struct value *)p1)->name, ((const struct value *)p2)->name); } void main (void) { char inbuf[80]; int i; struct value * vp; 173 Library Functions i = 0; while(gets(inbuf)) { sscanf(inbuf,"%s %d", values[i].name, &values[i].value); i++; } qsort(values, i, sizeof values[0], val_cmp); vp = bsearch("fred", values, i, sizeof values[0], val_cmp); if(!vp) printf("Item 'fred' was not found\n"); else printf("Item 'fred' has value %d\n", vp->value); } See Also qsort() Return Value A pointer to the matched array element (if there is more than one matching element, any of these may be returned). If no match is found, a null pointer is returned. Note The comparison function must have the correct prototype. 174 Library Functions CEIL Synopsis #include <math.h> double ceil (double f) Description This routine returns the smallest whole number not less than f. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <math.h> void main (void) { double j; scanf("%lf", &j); printf("The ceiling of %lf is %lf\n", j, ceil(j)); } 175 Library Functions CGETS Synopsis #include <conio.h> char * cgets (char * s) Description The cgets() function will read one line of input from the console into the buffer passed as an argument. It does so by repeated calls to getche(). As characters are read, they are buffered, with backspace deleting the previously typed character, and ctrl-U deleting the entire line typed so far. Other characters are placed in the buffer, with a carriage return or line feed (newline) terminating the function. The collected string is null terminated. Example #include <conio.h> #include <string.h> char buffer[80]; void main (void) { for(;;) { cgets(buffer); if(strcmp(buffer, "exit") == 0) break; cputs("Type 'exit' to finish\n"); } } See Also getch(), getche(), putch(), cputs() 176 Library Functions Return Value The return value is the character pointer passed as the sole argument. 177 Library Functions CLRWDT Synopsis #include <htc.h> CLRWDT(); Description This macro is used to clear the device's internal watchdog timer. Example #include <htc.h> void main (void) { WDTCON=1; /* enable the WDT */ CLRWDT(); } 178 Library Functions COS Synopsis #include <math.h> double cos (double f) Description This function yields the cosine of its argument, which is an angle in radians. The cosine is calculated by expansion of a polynomial series approximation. Example #include <math.h> #include <stdio.h> #define C 3.141592/180.0 void main (void) { double i; for(i = 0 ; i <= 180.0 ; i += 10) printf("sin(%3.0f) = %f, cos = %f\n", i, sin(i*C), cos(i*C)); } See Also sin(), tan(), asin(), acos(), atan(), atan2() Return Value A double in the range -1 to +1. 179 Library Functions COSH, SINH, TANH Synopsis #include <math.h> double cosh (double f) double sinh (double f) double tanh (double f) Description These functions are the implement hyperbolic equivalents of the trigonometric functions; cos(), sin() and tan(). Example #include <stdio.h> #include <math.h> void main (void) { printf("%f\n", cosh(1.5)); printf("%f\n", sinh(1.5)); printf("%f\n", tanh(1.5)); } Return Value The function cosh() returns the hyperbolic cosine value. The function sinh() returns the hyperbolic sine value. The function tanh() returns the hyperbolic tangent value. 180 Library Functions CPUTS Synopsis #include <conio.h> void cputs (const char * s) Description The cputs() function writes its argument string to the console, outputting carriage returns before each newline in the string. It calls putch() repeatedly. On a hosted system cputs() differs from puts() in that it writes to the console directly, rather than using file I/O. In an embedded system cputs() and puts() are equivalent. Example #include <conio.h> #include <string.h> char buffer[80]; void main (void) { for(;;) { cgets(buffer); if(strcmp(buffer, "exit") == 0) break; cputs("Type 'exit' to finish\n"); } } See Also cputs(), puts(), putch() 181 Library Functions CTIME Synopsis #include <time.h> char * ctime (time_t * t) Description The ctime() function converts the time in seconds pointed to by its argument to a string of the same form as described for asctime(). Thus the example program prints the current time and date. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <time.h> void main (void) { time_t clock; time(&clock); printf("%s", ctime(&clock)); } See Also gmtime(), localtime(), asctime(), time() Return Value A pointer to the string. Note The example will require the user to provide the time() routine as one cannot be supplied with the compiler. See time() for more detail. 182 Library Functions DI, EI Synopsis #include <htc.h> void ei (void) void di (void) Description The di() and ei() routines disable and re-enable interrupts respectively. These are implemented as macros defined in pic.h. The example shows the use of ei() and di() around access to a long variable that is modified during an interrupt. If this was not done, it would be possible to return an incorrect value, if the interrupt occurred between accesses to successive words of the count value. Example #include <htc.h> long count; void interrupt tick (void) { count++; } long getticks (void) { long val; /* Disable interrupts around access to count, to ensure consistency.*/ di(); val = count; ei(); return val; } 183 Library Functions DIV Synopsis #include <stdlib.h> div_t div (int numer, int demon) Description The div() function computes the quotient and remainder of the numerator divided by the denomina- tor. Example #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { div_t x; x = div(12345, 66); printf("quotient = %d, remainder = %d\n", x.quot, x.rem); } Return Value Returns the quotient and remainder into the div_t structure. 184 Library Functions EEPROM_READ, EEPROM_WRITE Synopsis #include <htc.h> unsigned char eeprom_read (unsigned char addr); void eeprom_write (unsigned char addr, unsigned char value); Description These function allow access to the on-chip eeprom (when present). The eeprom is not in the directlyaccessible memory space and a special byte sequence is loaded to the eeprom control registers to access the device. Writing a value to the eeprom is a slow process and the eeprom_write() function polls the appropriate registers to ensure that any previous writes have completed before writing the next datum. Reading data is completed in the one cycle and no polling is necessary to check for a read completion. Example #include <htc.h> void main (void) { unsigned char data; unsigned char address; address = 0x10; data = eeprom_read(address); } Note It may be necessary to poll the eeprom registers to ensure that the write has completed if an eeprom_write() call is immediately followed by an eeprom_read(). The global interrupt enable bit (GIE) is now restored by the eeprom_write() routine. The EEIF interrupt flag is not reset by this function. 185 Library Functions EVAL_POLY Synopsis #include <math.h> double eval_poly (double x, const double * d, int n) Description The eval_poly() function evaluates a polynomial, whose coefficients are contained in the array d, at x, for example: y = x*x*d2 + x*d1 + d0. The order of the polynomial is passed in n. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <math.h> void main (void) { double x, y; double d[3] = {1.1, 3.5, 2.7}; x = 2.2; y = eval_poly(x, d, 2); printf("The polynomial evaluated at %f is %f\n", x, y); } Return Value A double value, being the polynomial evaluated at x. 186 Library Functions EXP Synopsis #include <math.h> double exp (double f) Description The exp() routine returns the exponential function of its argument, i.e. e to the power of f. Example #include <math.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { double f; for(f = 0.0 ; f <= 5 ; f += 1.0) printf("e to %1.0f = %f\n", f, exp(f)); } See Also log(), log10(), pow() 187 Library Functions FABS Synopsis #include <math.h> double fabs (double f) Description This routine returns the absolute value of its double argument. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <math.h> void main (void) { printf("%f %f\n", fabs(1.5), fabs(-1.5)); } See Also abs() 188 Library Functions FLASH_COPY Synopsis #include <htc.h> void flash_copy(const unsigned char * source_addr, unsigned char length, unsigned short dest_addr); Description This utility function is useful for copying a large section of memory to a new location in flash memory. Note it is only applicable to those devices which have an internal set of flash buffer registers. When the function is called, it needs to be supplied with a const pointer to the source address of the data to copy. The pointer may point to a valid address in either RAM or flash memory. A length parameter must be specified to indicate the number of words of the data to be copied. Finally the flash address where this data is destined must be specified. Example #include <htc.h> const unsigned char ROMSTRING[] = "0123456789ABCDEF"; void main (void){ const unsigned char * ptr = &ROMSTRING[0]; flash_copy( ptr, 5, 0x70 ); } See Also EEPROM_READ, EEPROM_WRITE, FLASH_READ, FLASH_WRITE Note This function is only applicable to those devices which use internal buffer registers when writing to flash. 189 Library Functions Ensure that the function does not attempt to overwrite the section of program memory from which it is currently executing, and extreme caution must be exercised if modifying code at the device's reset or interrupt vectors. A reset or interrupt must not be triggered while this sector is in erasure. 190 Library Functions FLASH_ERASE(), FLASH_READ() Synopsis #include <htc.h> void flash_erase (unsigned short addr); unsigned int flash_read (unsigned short addr); Description These functions allow access to the flash memory of the microcontroller (if supported). Reading from the flash memory can be done one word at a time with use of the flash_read() function. flash_read() returns the data value found at the specified word address in flash memory. Entire sectors of 32 words can be restored to an unprogrammed state (value=FF) with use of the flash_erase() function. Specifying an address to the flash_erase() function, will erase all 32 words in the sector that contains the given address. Example #include <htc.h> void main (void) { unsigned int data; unsigned short address=0x1000; data = flash_read(address); flash_erase(address); } Return Value flash_read() returns the data found at the given address, as an unsigned int. 191 Library Functions Note The functions flash_erase() and flash_read() are only available on those devices that support such functionality. 192 Library Functions FLOOR Synopsis #include <math.h> double floor (double f) Description This routine returns the largest whole number not greater than f. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <math.h> void main (void) { printf("%f\n", floor( 1.5 )); printf("%f\n", floor( -1.5)); } 193 Library Functions FREXP Synopsis #include <math.h> double frexp (double f, int * p) Description The frexp() function breaks a floating point number into a normalized fraction and an integral power of 2. The integer is stored into the int object pointed to by p. Its return value x is in the interval (0.5, 1.0) or zero, and f equals x times 2 raised to the power stored in *p. If f is zero, both parts of the result are zero. Example #include <math.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { double f; int i; f = frexp(23456.34, &i); printf("23456.34 = %f * 2^%d\n", f, i); } See Also ldexp() 194 Library Functions GETCH, GETCHE Synopsis #include <conio.h> char getch (void) char getche (void) Description The getch() function reads a single character from the console keyboard and returns it without echoing. The getche() function is similar but does echo the character typed. In an embedded system, the source of characters is defined by the particular routines supplied. By default, the library contains a version of getch() that will interface to the Lucifer Debugger. The user should supply an appropriate routine if another source is desired, e.g. a serial port. The module getch.c in the SOURCES directory contains model versions of all the console I/O routines. Other modules may also be supplied, e.g. ser180.c has routines for the serial port in a Z180. Example #include <conio.h> void main (void) { char c; while((c = getche()) != '\n') continue; } See Also cgets(), cputs(), ungetch() 195 Library Functions GETCHAR Synopsis #include <stdio.h> int getchar (void) Description The getchar() routine is a getc(stdin) operation. It is a macro defined in stdio.h. Note that under normal circumstances getchar() will NOT return unless a carriage return has been typed on the console. To get a single character immediately from the console, use the function getch(). Example #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { int c; while((c = getchar()) != EOF) putchar(c); } See Also getc(), fgetc(), freopen(), fclose() Note This routine is not usable in a ROM based system. 196 Library Functions GETS Synopsis #include <stdio.h> char * gets (char * s) Description The gets() function reads a line from standard input into the buffer at s, deleting the newline (cf. fgets()). The buffer is null terminated. In an embedded system, gets() is equivalent to cgets(), and results in getche() being called repeatedly to get characters. Editing (with backspace) is available. Example #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { char buf[80]; printf("Type a line: "); if(gets(buf)) puts(buf); } See Also fgets(), freopen(), puts() Return Value It returns its argument, or NULL on end-of-file. 197 Library Functions GET_CAL_DATA Synopsis #include <htc.h> double get_cal_data (const unsigned char * code_ptr) Description This function returns the 32-bit floating point calibration data from the PIC14000 calibration space. Only use this function to access KREF, KBG, VHTHERM and KTC (that is, the 32-bit floating point parameters). FOSC and TWDT can be accessed directly as they are bytes. Example #include <htc.h> void main (void) { double x; unsigned char y; /* Get the slope reference ratio. */ x = get_cal_data(KREF); /* Get the WDT time-out. */ y =TWDT; } Return Value The value of the calibration parameter Note This function can only be used on the PIC14000. 198 Library Functions GMTIME Synopsis #include <time.h> struct tm * gmtime (time_t * t) Description This function converts the time pointed to by t which is in seconds since 00:00:00 on Jan 1, 1970, into a broken down time stored in a structure as defined in time.h. The structure is defined in the 'Data Types' section. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <time.h> void main (void) { time_t clock; struct tm * tp; time(&clock); tp = gmtime(&clock); printf("It's %d in London\n", tp->tm_year+1900); } See Also ctime(), asctime(), time(), localtime() 199 Library Functions Return Value Returns a structure of type tm. Note The example will require the user to provide the time() routine as one cannot be supplied with the compiler. See time() for more detail. 200 Library Functions ISALNUM, ISALPHA, ISDIGIT, ISLOWER et. al. Synopsis #include <ctype.h> int isalnum (char c) int isalpha (char c) int isascii (char c) int iscntrl (char c) int isdigit (char c) int islower (char c) int isprint (char c) int isgraph (char c) int ispunct (char c) int isspace (char c) int isupper (char c) int isxdigit(char c) Description These macros, defined in ctype.h, test the supplied character for membership in one of several overlapping groups of characters. Note that all except isascii() are defined for c, if isascii(c) is true or if c = EOF. isalnum(c) c is in 0-9 or a-z or A-Z isalpha(c) c is in A-Z or a-z isascii(c) c is a 7 bit ascii character iscntrl(c) c is a control character isdigit(c) c is a decimal digit islower(c) c is in a-z isprint(c) c is a printing char isgraph(c) c is a non-space printable character ispunct(c) c is not alphanumeric isspace(c) c is a space, tab or newline isupper(c) c is in A-Z isxdigit(c) c is in 0-9 or a-f or A-F 201 Library Functions Example #include <ctype.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { char buf[80]; int i; gets(buf); i = 0; while(isalnum(buf[i])) i++; buf[i] = 0; printf("'%s' is the word\n", buf); } See Also toupper(), tolower(), toascii() 202 Library Functions LDEXP Synopsis #include <math.h> double ldexp (double f, int i) Description The ldexp() function performs the inverse of frexp() operation; the integer i is added to the exponent of the floating point f and the resultant returned. Example #include <math.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { double f; f = ldexp(1.0, 10); printf("1.0 * 2^10 = %f\n", f); } See Also frexp() Return Value The return value is the integer i added to the exponent of the floating point value f. 203 Library Functions LDIV Synopsis #include <stdlib.h> ldiv_t ldiv (long number, long denom) Description The ldiv() routine divides the numerator by the denominator, computing the quotient and the remainder. The sign of the quotient is the same as that of the mathematical quotient. Its absolute value is the largest integer which is less than the absolute value of the mathematical quotient. The ldiv() function is similar to the div() function, the difference being that the arguments and the members of the returned structure are all of type long int. Example #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { ldiv_t lt; lt = ldiv(1234567, 12345); printf("Quotient = %ld, remainder = %ld\n", lt.quot, lt.rem); } See Also div() Return Value Returns a structure of type ldiv_t 204 Library Functions LOCALTIME Synopsis #include <time.h> struct tm * localtime (time_t * t) Description The localtime() function converts the time pointed to by t which is in seconds since 00:00:00 on Jan 1, 1970, into a broken down time stored in a structure as defined in time.h. The routine localtime() takes into account the contents of the global integer time_zone. This should contain the number of minutes that the local time zone is westward of Greenwich. On systems where it is not possible to predetermine this value, localtime() will return the same result as gmtime(). Example #include <stdio.h> #include <time.h> char * wday[] = { "Sunday", "Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday", "Friday", "Saturday" }; void main (void) { time_t clock; struct tm * tp; time(&clock); tp = localtime(&clock); printf("Today is %s\n", wday[tp->tm_wday]); } 205 Library Functions See Also ctime(), asctime(), time() Return Value Returns a structure of type tm. Note The example will require the user to provide the time() routine as one cannot be supplied with the compiler. See time() for more detail. 206 Library Functions LOG, LOG10 Synopsis #include <math.h> double log (double f) double log10 (double f) Description The log() function returns the natural logarithm of f. The function log10() returns the logarithm to base 10 of f. Example #include <math.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { double f; for(f = 1.0 ; f <= 10.0 ; f += 1.0) printf("log(%1.0f) = %f\n", f, log(f)); } See Also exp(), pow() Return Value Zero if the argument is negative. 207 Library Functions LONGJMP Synopsis #include <setjmp.h> void longjmp (jmp_buf buf, int val) Description The longjmp() function, in conjunction with setjmp(), provides a mechanism for non-local goto's. To use this facility, setjmp() should be called with a jmp_buf argument in some outer level function. The call from setjmp() will return 0. To return to this level of execution, longjmp() may be called with the same jmp_buf argument from an inner level of execution. Note however that the function which called setjmp() must still be active when longjmp() is called. Breach of this rule will cause disaster, due to the use of a stack containing invalid data. The val argument to longjmp() will be the value apparently returned from the setjmp(). This should normally be non-zero, to distinguish it from the genuine setjmp() call. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <setjmp.h> #include <stdlib.h> jmp_buf jb; void inner (void) { longjmp(jb, 5); } void main (void) { int i; 208 Library Functions if(i = setjmp(jb)) { printf("setjmp returned %d\n", i); exit(0); } printf("setjmp returned 0 - good\n"); printf("calling inner...\n"); inner(); printf("inner returned - bad!\n"); } See Also setjmp() Return Value The longjmp() routine never returns. Note The function which called setjmp() must still be active when longjmp() is called. Breach of this rule will cause disaster, due to the use of a stack containing invalid data. 209 Library Functions MEMCHR Synopsis #include <string.h> /* For baseline and midrange processors */ const void * memchr (const void * block, int val, size_t length) /* For high-end processors */ void * memchr (const void * block, int val, size_t length) Description The memchr() function is similar to strchr() except that instead of searching null terminated strings, it searches a block of memory specified by length for a particular byte. Its arguments are a pointer to the memory to be searched, the value of the byte to be searched for, and the length of the block. A pointer to the first occurrence of that byte in the block is returned. Example #include <string.h> #include <stdio.h> unsigned int ary[] = {1, 5, 0x6789, 0x23}; void main (void) { char * cp; cp = memchr(ary, 0x89, sizeof ary); if(!cp) printf("not found\n"); else printf("Found at offset %u\n", cp - (char *)ary); } 210 Library Functions See Also strchr() Return Value A pointer to the first byte matching the argument if one exists; NULL otherwise. 211 Library Functions MEMCMP Synopsis #include <string.h> int memcmp (const void * s1, const void * s2, size_t n) Description The memcmp() function compares two blocks of memory, of length n, and returns a signed value similar to strncmp(). Unlike strncmp() the comparison does not stop on a null character. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <string.h> void main (void) { int buf[10], cow[10], i; buf[0] = 1; buf[2] = 4; cow[0] = 1; cow[2] = 5; buf[1] = 3; cow[1] = 3; i = memcmp(buf, cow, 3*sizeof(int)); if(i < 0) printf("less than\n"); else if(i > 0) printf("Greater than\n"); else printf("Equal\n"); } 212 Library Functions See Also strncpy(), strncmp(), strchr(), memset(), memchr() Return Value Returns negative one, zero or one, depending on whether s1 points to string which is less than, equal to or greater than the string pointed to by s2 in the collating sequence. 213 Library Functions MEMCPY Synopsis #include <string.h> /* For baseline and midrange processors */ void * memcpy (void * d, const void * s, size_t n) /* For high-end processors */ far void * memcpy (far void * d, const void * s, size_t n) Description The memcpy() function copies n bytes of memory starting from the location pointed to by s to the block of memory pointed to by d. The result of copying overlapping blocks is undefined. The memcpy() function differs from strcpy() in that it copies a specified number of bytes, rather than all bytes up to a null terminator. Example #include <string.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { char buf[80]; memset(buf, 0, sizeof buf); memcpy(buf, "a partial string", 10); printf("buf = '%s'\n", buf); } See Also strncpy(), strncmp(), strchr(), memset() 214 Library Functions Return Value The memcpy() routine returns its first argument. 215 Library Functions MEMMOVE Synopsis #include <string.h> /* For baseline and midrange processors */ void * memmove (void * s1, const void * s2, size_t n) /* For high-end processors */ far void * memmove (far void * s1, const void * s2, size_t n) Description The memmove() function is similar to the function memcpy() except copying of overlapping blocks is handled correctly. That is, it will copy forwards or backwards as appropriate to correctly copy one block to another that overlaps it. See Also strncpy(), strncmp(), strchr(), memcpy() Return Value The function memmove() returns its first argument. 216 Library Functions MEMSET Synopsis #include <string.h> /* For baseline and midrange processors */ void * memset (void * s, int c, size_t n) /* For high-end processors */ far void * memset (far void * s, int c, size_t n) Description The memset() function fills n bytes of memory starting at the location pointed to by s with the byte c. Example #include <string.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { char abuf[20]; strcpy(abuf, "This is a string"); memset(abuf, 'x', 5); printf("buf = '%s'\n", abuf); } See Also strncpy(), strncmp(), strchr(), memcpy(), memchr() 217 Library Functions MODF Synopsis #include <math.h> double modf (double value, double * iptr) Description The modf() function splits the argument value into integral and fractional parts, each having the same sign as value. For example, -3.17 would be split into the integral part (-3) and the fractional part (-0.17). The integral part is stored as a double in the object pointed to by iptr. Example #include <math.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { double i_val, f_val; f_val = modf( -3.17, &i_val); } Return Value The signed fractional part of value. 218 Library Functions PERSIST_CHECK, PERSIST_VALIDATE Synopsis #include <sys.h> int persist_check (int flag) void persist_validate (void) Description The persist_check() function is used with non-volatile RAM variables, declared with the persistent qualifier. It tests the nvram area, using a magic number stored in a hidden variable by a previous call to persist_validate() and a checksum also calculated by persist_validate(). If the magic number and checksum are correct, it returns true (non-zero). If either are incorrect, it returns zero. In this case it will optionally zero out and re-validate the non-volatile RAM area (by calling persist_validate()). This is done if the flag argument is true. The persist_validate() routine should be called after each change to a persistent variable. It will set up the magic number and recalculate the checksum. Example #include <sys.h> #include <stdio.h> persistent long reset_count; void main (void) { if(!persist_check(1)) printf("Reset count invalid - zeroed\n"); else printf("Reset number %ld\n", reset_count); reset_count++; /* update count */ persist_validate(); /* and checksum */ for(;;) continue; /* sleep until next reset */ 219 Library Functions } Return Value FALSE (zero) if the NVRAM area is invalid; TRUE (non-zero) if the NVRAM area is valid. 220 Library Functions POW Synopsis #include <math.h> double pow (double f, double p) Description The pow() function raises its first argument, f, to the power p. Example #include <math.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { double f; for(f = 1.0 ; f <= 10.0 ; f += 1.0) printf("pow(2, %1.0f) = %f\n", f, pow(2, f)); } See Also log(), log10(), exp() Return Value f to the power of p. 221 Library Functions PRINTF Synopsis #include <stdio.h> unsigned char printf (const char * fmt, ...) Description The printf() function is a formatted output routine, operating on stdout. There are corresponding routines operating into a string buffer (sprintf()). The printf() routine is passed a format string, followed by a list of zero or more arguments. In the format string are conversion specifications, each of which is used to print out one of the argument list values. Each conversion specification is of the form %m.nc where the percent symbol % introduces a conversion, followed by an optional width specification m. The n specification is an optional precision specification (introduced by the dot) and c is a letter specifying the type of the conversion. Field widths and precision are only supported on the midrange and high-end processors, with the precision specification only applicable to %s. If the character * is used in place of a decimal constant, e.g. in the format %*d, then one integer argument will be taken from the list to provide that value. The types of conversion for the Baseline series are: o x X u d Integer conversion - in radices 8, 16, 16, 10 and 10 respectively. The conversion is signed in the case of d, unsigned otherwise. The precision value is the total number of digits to print, and may be used to force leading zeroes. E.g. %8.4x will print at least 4 hex digits in an 8 wide field. The letter X prints out hexadecimal numbers using the upper case letters A-F rather than a-f as would be printed when using x. When the alternate format is specified, a leading zero will be supplied for the octal format, and a leading 0x or 0X for the hex format. s Print a string - the value argument is assumed to be a character pointer. At most n characters from the string will be printed, in a field m characters wide. c The argument is assumed to be a single character and is printed literally. Any other characters used as conversion specifications will be printed. Thus % will produce a single percent sign. For the Midrange and High-end series, the types of conversions are as for the Baseline with the addition of: 222 Library Functions l Long integer conversion - Preceding the integer conversion key letter with an l indicates that the argument list is long. f Floating point - m is the total width and n is the number of digits after the decimal point. If n is omitted it defaults to 6. If the precision is zero, the decimal point will be omitted unless the alternate format is specified. Example printf("Total = %4d%", 23) yields 'Total = 23%' printf("Size is %lx" , size) where size is a long, prints size as hexadecimal. Note that the precision number is only available when using Midrange and High-end processors when using the %s placeholder. printf("Name = %.8s", "a1234567890") yields 'Name = a1234567' Note that the variable width number is only available when using Midrange and High-end processors placeholder. printf("xx%*d", 3, 4) yields 'xx 4' /* vprintf example */ #include <stdio.h> int error (char * s, ...) { va_list ap; va_start(ap, s); printf("Error: "); vprintf(s, ap); 223 Library Functions putchar('\n'); va_end(ap); } void main (void) { int i; i = 3; error("testing 1 2 %d", i); } See Also sprintf() Return Value The printf() routine returns the number of characters written to stdout. NB The return value is a char, NOT an int. Note Certain features of printf are only available for the midrange and high-end processors. Read the description for details. Printing floating point numbers requires that the float to be printed be no larger than the largest possible long integer. In order to use long or float formats, the appropriate supplemental library must be included. See the description on the PICC -L option and the HPDPIC Options/Long formats in printf menu for more details. 224 Library Functions PUTCH Synopsis #include <conio.h> void putch (char c) Description The putch() function outputs the character c to the console screen, prepending a carriage return if the character is a newline. In a CP/M or MS-DOS system this will use one of the system I/O calls. In an embedded system this routine, and associated others, will be defined in a hardware dependent way. The standard putch() routines in the embedded library interface either to a serial port or to the Lucifer Debugger. Example #include <conio.h> char * x = "This is a string"; void main (void) { char * cp; cp = x; while(*x) putch(*x++); putch('\n'); } See Also cgets(), cputs(), getch(), getche() 225 Library Functions PUTCHAR Synopsis #include <stdio.h> int putchar (int c) Description The putchar() function is a putc() operation on stdout, defined in stdio.h. Example #include <stdio.h> char * x = "This is a string"; void main (void) { char * cp; cp = x; while(*x) putchar(*x++); putchar('\n'); } See Also putc(), getc(), freopen(), fclose() Return Value The character passed as argument, or EOF if an error occurred. 226 Library Functions Note This routine is not usable in a ROM based system. 227 Library Functions PUTS Synopsis #include <stdio.h> int puts (const char * s) Description The puts() function writes the string s to the stdout stream, appending a newline. The null character terminating the string is not copied. Example #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { puts("Hello, world!"); } See Also fputs(), gets(), freopen(), fclose() Return Value EOF is returned on error; zero otherwise. 228 Library Functions QSORT Synopsis #include <stdlib.h> void qsort (void * base, size_t nel, size_t width, int (*func)(const void *, const void *)) Description The qsort() function is an implementation of the quicksort algorithm. It sorts an array of nel items, each of length width bytes, located contiguously in memory at base. The argument func is a pointer to a function used by qsort() to compare items. It calls func with pointers to two items to be compared. If the first item is considered to be greater than, equal to or less than the second then func should return a value greater than zero, equal to zero or less than zero respectively. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> int aray[] = { 567, 23, 456, 1024, 17, 567, 66 }; int sortem (const void * p1, const void * p2) { return *(int *)p1 - *(int *)p2; } void main (void) { register int i; 229 Library Functions qsort(aray, sizeof aray/sizeof aray[0], sizeof aray[0], sortem); for(i = 0 ; i != sizeof aray/sizeof aray[0] ; i++) printf("%d\t", aray[i]); putchar('\n'); } Note The function parameter must be a pointer to a function of type similar to: int func (const void *, const void *) i.e. it must accept two const void * parameters, and must be prototyped. 230 Library Functions RAM_TEST_FAILED Synopsis void ram_test_failed (unsigned char errcode) Description The ram_test_failed() function is not intended to be called from within the general execution of the program. This routine is called during execution of the generated runtime startup code if the program is using a compiler generated RAM integrity test and the integrity test detects a bad cell. Upon entry to this function, the working register contains an error code, the address that failed can be determined from the FSR register and IRP bit. The failed value will still be accessable through the INDF register. The default operation of this routine will halt program execution if a bad cell is detected, however the user is free to enhance this functionality if required. See Also __ram_cell_test Note This routine is intended to be replaced by an equivalent routine to suit the user's implementation. Possible enhancements include logging the location of the dead cell and continuing to test if there are any more more dead cells, or alerting the outside world that the device has a memory problem. 231 Library Functions RAND Synopsis #include <stdlib.h> int rand (void) Description The rand() function is a pseudo-random number generator. It returns an integer in the range 0 to 32767, which changes in a pseudo-random fashion on each call. The algorithm will produce a deterministic sequence if started from the same point. The starting point is set using the srand() call. The example shows use of the time() function to generate a different starting point for the sequence each time. Example #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #include <time.h> void main (void) { time_t toc; int i; time(&toc); srand((int)toc); for(i = 0 ; i != 10 ; i++) printf("%d\t", rand()); putchar('\n'); } See Also srand() 232 Library Functions Note The example will require the user to provide the time() routine as one cannot be supplied with the compiler. See time() for more detail. 233 Library Functions SCANF, VSCANF Synopsis #include <stdio.h> int scanf (const char * fmt, ...) #include <stdio.h> #include <stdarg.h> int vscanf (const char *, va_list ap) Description The scanf() function performs formatted input ("de-editing") from the stdin stream. Similar functions are available for streams in general, and for strings. The function vscanf() is similar, but takes a pointer to an argument list rather than a series of additional arguments. This pointer should have been initialised with va_start(). The input conversions are performed according to the fmt string; in general a character in the format string must match a character in the input; however a space character in the format string will match zero or more "white space" characters in the input, i.e. spaces, tabs or newlines. A conversion specification takes the form of the character %, optionally followed by an assignment suppression character ('*'), optionally followed by a numerical maximum field width, followed by a conversion specification character. Each conversion specification, unless it incorporates the assignment suppression character, will assign a value to the variable pointed at by the next argument. Thus if there are two conversion specifications in the fmt string, there should be two additional pointer arguments. The conversion characters are as follows: o x d Skip white space, then convert a number in base 8, 16 or 10 radix respectively. If a field width was supplied, take at most that many characters from the input. A leading minus sign will be recognized. f Skip white space, then convert a floating number in either conventional or scientific notation. The field width applies as above. s Skip white space, then copy a maximal length sequence of non-white-space characters. The pointer 234 Library Functions argument must be a pointer to char. The field width will limit the number of characters copied. The resultant string will be null terminated. c Copy the next character from the input. The pointer argument is assumed to be a pointer to char. If a field width is specified, then copy that many characters. This differs from the s format in that white space does not terminate the character sequence. The conversion characters o, x, u, d and f may be preceded by an l to indicate that the corresponding pointer argument is a pointer to long or double as appropriate. A preceding h will indicate that the pointer argument is a pointer to short rather than int. Example scanf("%d %s", &a, &c) with input " 12s" will assign 12 to a, and "s" to s. scanf("%3cd %lf", &c, &f) with input " abcd -3.5" will assign " abc" to c, and -3.5 to f. See Also fscanf(), sscanf(), printf(), va_arg() Return Value The scanf() function returns the number of successful conversions; EOF is returned if end-of-file was seen before any conversions were performed. 235 Library Functions SETJMP Synopsis #include <setjmp.h> int setjmp (jmp_buf buf) Description The setjmp() function is used with longjmp() for non-local goto's. See longjmp() for further infor- mation. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <setjmp.h> #include <stdlib.h> jmp_buf jb; void inner (void) { longjmp(jb, 5); } void main (void) { int i; if(i = setjmp(jb)) { printf("setjmp returned %d\n", i); exit(0); } printf("setjmp returned 0 - good\n"); printf("calling inner...\n"); 236 Library Functions inner(); printf("inner returned - bad!\n"); } See Also longjmp() Return Value The setjmp() function returns zero after the real call, and non-zero if it apparently returns after a call to longjmp(). 237 Library Functions SIN Synopsis #include <math.h> double sin (double f) Description This function returns the sine function of its argument. Example #include <math.h> #include <stdio.h> #define C 3.141592/180.0 void main (void) { double i; for(i = 0 ; i <= 180.0 ; i += 10) printf("sin(%3.0f) = %f, cos = %f\n", i, sin(i*C), cos(i*C)); } See Also cos(), tan(), asin(), acos(), atan(), atan2() Return Value Sine vale of f. 238 Library Functions SPRINTF Synopsis #include <stdio.h> /* For baseline and midrange processors */ unsigned char sprintf (char *buf, const char * fmt, ...) /* For high-end processors */ unsigned char sprintf (far char *buf, const char * fmt, ...) Description The sprintf() function operates in a similar fashion to printf(), except that instead of placing the converted output on the stdout stream, the characters are placed in the buffer at buf. The resultant string will be null terminated, and the number of characters in the buffer will be returned. See Also printf() Return Value The sprintf() routine returns the number of characters placed into the buffer. NB: The return value is a char not an int. Note For High-end processors the buffer is accessed via a far pointer. 239 Library Functions SQRT Synopsis #include <math.h> double sqrt (double f) Description The function sqrt(), implements a square root routine using Newton's approximation. Example #include <math.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { double i; for(i = 0 ; i <= 20.0 ; i += 1.0) printf("square root of %.1f = %f\n", i, sqrt(i)); } See Also exp() Return Value Returns the value of the square root. Note A domain error occurs if the argument is negative. 240 Library Functions SRAND Synopsis #include <stdlib.h> void srand (unsigned int seed) Description The srand() function initializes the random number generator accessed by rand() with the given seed. This provides a mechanism for varying the starting point of the pseudo-random sequence yielded by rand(). On the Z80, a good place to get a truly random seed is from the refresh register. Otherwise timing a response from the console will do, or just using the system time. Example #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #include <time.h> void main (void) { time_t toc; int i; time(&toc); srand((int)toc); for(i = 0 ; i != 10 ; i++) printf("%d\t", rand()); putchar('\n'); } See Also rand() 241 Library Functions STRCAT Synopsis #include <string.h> /* For baseline and midrange processors */ char * strcat (char * s1, const char * s2) /* For high-end processors */ far char * strcat (far char * s1, const char * s2) Description This function appends (contcatenates) string s2 to the end of string s1. The result will be null terminated. The argument s1 must point to a character array big enough to hold the resultant string. Example #include <string.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { char buffer[256]; char * s1, * s2; strcpy(buffer, "Start of line"); s1 = buffer; s2 = " ... end of line"; strcat(s1, s2); printf("Length = %d\n", strlen(buffer)); printf("string = \"%s\"\n", buffer); } See Also strcpy(), strcmp(), strncat(), strlen() 242 Library Functions Return Value The value of s1 is returned. 243 Library Functions STRCHR, STRICHR Synopsis #include <string.h> /* For baseline and midrange processors */ const char * strchr (const char * s, int c) const char * strichr (const char * s, int c) /* For high-end processors */ char * strchr (const char * s, int c) char * strichr (const char * s, int c) Description The strchr() function searches the string s for an occurrence of the character c. If one is found, a pointer to that character is returned, otherwise NULL is returned. The strichr() function is the case-insensitive version of this function. Example #include <strings.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { static char temp[] = "Here it is..."; char c = 's'; if(strchr(temp, c)) printf("Character %c was found in string\n", c); else printf("No character was found in string"); } 244 Library Functions See Also strrchr(), strlen(), strcmp() Return Value A pointer to the first match found, or NULL if the character does not exist in the string. Note The functions takes an integer argument for the character, only the lower 8 bits of the value are used. 245 Library Functions STRCMP, STRICMP Synopsis #include <string.h> int strcmp (const char * s1, const char * s2) int stricmp (const char * s1, const char * s2) Description The strcmp() function compares its two, null terminated, string arguments and returns a signed integer to indicate whether s1 is less than, equal to or greater than s2. The comparison is done with the standard collating sequence, which is that of the ASCII character set. The stricmp() function is the case-insensitive version of this function. Example #include <string.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { int i; if((i = strcmp("ABC", "ABc")) < 0) printf("ABC is less than ABc\n"); else if(i > 0) printf("ABC is greater than ABc\n"); else printf("ABC is equal to ABc\n"); } See Also strlen(), strncmp(), strcpy(), strcat() 246 Library Functions Return Value A signed integer less than, equal to or greater than zero. Note Other C implementations may use a different collating sequence; the return value is negative, zero or positive, i.e. do not test explicitly for negative one (-1) or one (1). 247 Library Functions STRCPY Synopsis #include <string.h> /* For baseline and midrange processors */ char * strcpy (char * s1, const char * s2) /* For high-end processors */ far char * strcpy (far char * s1, const char * s2) Description This function copies a null terminated string s2 to a character array pointed to by s1. The destination array must be large enough to hold the entire string, including the null terminator. Example #include <string.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { char buffer[256]; char * s1, * s2; strcpy(buffer, "Start of line"); s1 = buffer; s2 = " ... end of line"; strcat(s1, s2); printf("Length = %d\n", strlen(buffer)); printf("string = \"%s\"\n", buffer); } See Also strncpy(), strlen(), strcat(), strlen() 248 Library Functions Return Value The destination buffer pointer s1 is returned. 249 Library Functions STRCSPN Synopsis #include <string.h> size_t strcspn (const char * s1, const char * s2) Description The strcspn() function returns the length of the initial segment of the string pointed to by s1 which consists of characters NOT from the string pointed to by s2. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <string.h> void main (void) { static char set[] = "xyz"; printf("%d\n", strcspn( "abcdevwxyz", set)); printf("%d\n", strcspn( "xxxbcadefs", set)); printf("%d\n", strcspn( "1234567890", set)); } See Also strspn() Return Value Returns the length of the segment. 250 Library Functions STRLEN Synopsis #include <string.h> size_t strlen (const char * s) Description The strlen() function returns the number of characters in the string s, not including the null termina- tor. Example #include <string.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { char buffer[256]; char * s1, * s2; strcpy(buffer, "Start of line"); s1 = buffer; s2 = " ... end of line"; strcat(s1, s2); printf("Length = %d\n", strlen(buffer)); printf("string = \"%s\"\n", buffer); } Return Value The number of characters preceding the null terminator. 251 Library Functions STRNCAT Synopsis #include <string.h> /* For baseline and midrange processors */ char * strncat (char * s1, const char * s2, size_t n) /* For high-end processors */ far char * strncat (far char * s1, const char * s2, size_t n) Description This function appends (concatenates) string s2 to the end of string s1. At most n characters will be copied, and the result will be null terminated. s1 must point to a character array big enough to hold the resultant string. Example #include <string.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { char buffer[256]; char * s1, * s2; strcpy(buffer, "Start of line"); s1 = buffer; s2 = " ... end of line"; strncat(s1, s2, 5); printf("Length = %d\n", strlen(buffer)); printf("string = \"%s\"\n", buffer); } 252 Library Functions See Also strcpy(), strcmp(), strcat(), strlen() Return Value The value of s1 is returned. 253 Library Functions STRNCMP, STRNICMP Synopsis #include <string.h> int strncmp (const char * s1, const char * s2, size_t n) int strnicmp (const char * s1, const char * s2, size_t n) Description The strncmp() function compares its two, null terminated, string arguments, up to a maximum of n characters, and returns a signed integer to indicate whether s1 is less than, equal to or greater than s2. The comparison is done with the standard collating sequence, which is that of the ASCII character set. The strnicmp() function is the case-insensitive version of this function. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <string.h> void main (void) { int i; i = strcmp("abcxyz", "abcxyz"); if(i == 0) printf("Both strings are equal\n"); else if(i > 0) printf("String 2 less than string 1\n"); else printf("String 2 is greater than string 1\n"); } See Also strlen(), strcmp(), strcpy(), strcat() 254 Library Functions Return Value A signed integer less than, equal to or greater than zero. Note Other C implementations may use a different collating sequence; the return value is negative, zero or positive, i.e. do not test explicitly for negative one (-1) or one (1). 255 Library Functions STRNCPY Synopsis #include <string.h> /* For baseline and midrange processors */ char * strncpy (char * s1, const char * s2, size_t n) /* For high-end processors */ far char * strncpy (far char * s1, const char * s2, size_t n) Description This function copies a null terminated string s2 to a character array pointed to by s1. At most n characters are copied. If string s2 is longer than n then the destination string will not be null terminated. The destination array must be large enough to hold the entire string, including the null terminator. Example #include <string.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { char buffer[256]; char * s1, * s2; strncpy(buffer, "Start of line", 6); s1 = buffer; s2 = " ... end of line"; strcat(s1, s2); printf("Length = %d\n", strlen(buffer)); printf("string = \"%s\"\n", buffer); } 256 Library Functions See Also strcpy(), strcat(), strlen(), strcmp() Return Value The destination buffer pointer s1 is returned. 257 Library Functions STRPBRK Synopsis #include <string.h> /* For baseline and midrange processors */ const char * strpbrk (const char * s1, const char * s2) /* For high-end processors */ char * strpbrk (const char * s1, const char * s2) Description The strpbrk() function returns a pointer to the first occurrence in string s1 of any character from string s2, or a null pointer if no character from s2 exists in s1. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <string.h> void main (void) { char * str = "This is a string."; while(str != NULL) { printf( "%s\n", str ); str = strpbrk( str+1, "aeiou" ); } } Return Value Pointer to the first matching character, or NULL if no character found. 258 Library Functions STRRCHR, STRRICHR Synopsis #include <string.h> /* For baseline and midrange processors */ const char * strrchr (char * s, int c) const char * strrichr (char * s, int c) /* For high-end processors */ char * strrchr (char * s, int c) char * strrichr (char * s, int c) Description The strrchr() function is similar to the strchr() function, but searches from the end of the string rather than the beginning, i.e. it locates the last occurrence of the character c in the null terminated string s. If successful it returns a pointer to that occurrence, otherwise it returns NULL. The strrichr() function is the case-insensitive version of this function. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <string.h> void main (void) { char * str = "This is a string."; while(str != NULL) { printf( "%s\n", str ); str = strrchr( str+1, 's'); } } 259 Library Functions See Also strchr(), strlen(), strcmp(), strcpy(), strcat() Return Value A pointer to the character, or NULL if none is found. 260 Library Functions STRSPN Synopsis #include <string.h> size_t strspn (const char * s1, const char * s2) Description The strspn() function returns the length of the initial segment of the string pointed to by s1 which consists entirely of characters from the string pointed to by s2. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <string.h> void main (void) { printf("%d\n", strspn("This is a string", "This")); printf("%d\n", strspn("This is a string", "this")); } See Also strcspn() Return Value The length of the segment. 261 Library Functions STRSTR, STRISTR Synopsis #include <string.h> /* For baseline and midrange processors */ const char * strstr (const char * s1, const char * s2) const char * stristr (const char * s1, const char * s2) /* For high-end processors */ char * strstr (const char * s1, const char * s2) char * stristr (const char * s1, const char * s2) Description The strstr() function locates the first occurrence of the sequence of characters in the string pointed to by s2 in the string pointed to by s1. The stristr() routine is the case-insensitive version of this function. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <string.h> void main (void) { printf("%d\n", strstr("This is a string", "str")); } Return Value Pointer to the located string or a null pointer if the string was not found. 262 Library Functions STRTOK Synopsis #include <string.h> /* For baseline and midrange processors */ char * strtok (char * s1, const char * s2) /* For high-end processors */ far char * strtok (far char * s1, const char * s2) Description A number of calls to strtok() breaks the string s1 (which consists of a sequence of zero or more text tokens separated by one or more characters from the separator string s2) into its separate tokens. The first call must have the string s1. This call returns a pointer to the first character of the first token, or NULL if no tokens were found. The inter-token separator character is overwritten by a null character, which terminates the current token. For subsequent calls to strtok(), s1 should be set to a null pointer. These calls start searching from the end of the last token found, and again return a pointer to the first character of the next token, or NULL if no further tokens were found. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <string.h> void main (void) { char * ptr; char * buf = "This is a string of words."; char * sep_tok = ".,?! "; ptr = strtok(buf, sep_tok); while(ptr != NULL) { printf("%s\n", ptr); 263 Library Functions ptr = strtok(NULL, sep_tok); } } Return Value Returns a pointer to the first character of a token, or a null pointer if no token was found. Note The separator string s2 may be different from call to call. 264 Library Functions TAN Synopsis #include <math.h> double tan (double f) Description The tan() function calculates the tangent of f. Example #include <math.h> #include <stdio.h> #define C 3.141592/180.0 void main (void) { double i; for(i = 0 ; i <= 180.0 ; i += 10) printf("tan(%3.0f) = %f\n", i, tan(i*C)); } See Also sin(), cos(), asin(), acos(), atan(), atan2() Return Value The tangent of f. 265 Library Functions TIME Synopsis #include <time.h> time_t time (time_t * t) Description This function is not provided as it is dependant on the target system supplying the current time. This function will be user implemented. When implemented, this function should return the current time in seconds since 00:00:00 on Jan 1, 1970. If the argument t is not equal to NULL, the same value is stored into the object pointed to by t. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <time.h> void main (void) { time_t clock; time(&clock); printf("%s", ctime(&clock)); } See Also ctime(), gmtime(), localtime(), asctime() Return Value This routine when implemented will return the current time in seconds since 00:00:00 on Jan 1, 1970. 266 Library Functions Note The time() routine is not supplied, if required the user will have to implement this routine to the specifications outlined above. 267 Library Functions TOLOWER, TOUPPER, TOASCII Synopsis #include <ctype.h> char toupper (int c) char tolower (int c) char toascii (int c) Description The toupper() function converts its lower case alphabetic argument to upper case, the tolower() routine performs the reverse conversion and the toascii() macro returns a result that is guaranteed in the range 0-0177. The functions toupper() and tolower() return their arguments if it is not an alphabetic character. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <ctype.h> #include <string.h> void main (void) { char * array1 = "aBcDE"; int i; for(i=0;i < strlen(array1); ++i) { printf("%c", tolower(array1[i])); } printf("\n"); } See Also islower(), isupper(), isascii(), et. al. 268 Library Functions UNGETCH Synopsis #include <conio.h> void ungetch (char c) Description The ungetch() function will push back the character c onto the console stream, such that a subsequent getch() operation will return the character. At most one level of push back will be allowed. See Also getch(), getche() 269 Library Functions VA_START, VA_ARG, VA_END Synopsis #include <stdarg.h> void va_start (va_list ap, parmN) type va_arg (ap, type) void va_end (va_list ap) Description These macros are provided to give access in a portable way to parameters to a function represented in a prototype by the ellipsis symbol (...), where type and number of arguments supplied to the function are not known at compile time. The rightmost parameter to the function (shown as parmN) plays an important role in these macros, as it is the starting point for access to further parameters. In a function taking variable numbers of arguments, a variable of type va_list should be declared, then the macro va_start() invoked with that variable and the name of parmN. This will initialize the variable to allow subsequent calls of the macro va_arg() to access successive parameters. Each call to va_arg() requires two arguments; the variable previously defined and a type name which is the type that the next parameter is expected to be. Note that any arguments thus accessed will have been widened by the default conventions to int, unsigned int or double. For example if a character argument has been passed, it should be accessed by va_arg(ap, int) since the char will have been widened to int. An example is given below of a function taking one integer parameter, followed by a number of other parameters. In this example the function expects the subsequent parameters to be pointers to char, but note that the compiler is not aware of this, and it is the programmers responsibility to ensure that correct arguments are supplied. Example #include <stdio.h> #include <stdarg.h> void pf (int a, ...) { 270 Library Functions va_list ap; va_start(ap, a); while(a--) puts(va_arg(ap, char *)); va_end(ap); } void main (void) { pf(3, "Line 1", "line 2", "line 3"); } 271 Library Functions XTOI Synopsis #include <stdlib.h> unsigned xtoi (const char * s) Description The xtoi() function scans the character string passed to it, skipping leading blanks reading an optional sign, and converts an ASCII representation of a hexadecimal number to an integer. Example #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> void main (void) { char buf[80]; int i; gets(buf); i = xtoi(buf); printf("Read %s: converted to %x\n", buf, i); } See Also atoi() Return Value A signed integer. If no number is found in the string, zero will be returned. 272 Library Functions 273 Library Functions 274 Appendix B Error and Warning Messages This chapter lists most error, warning and advisory messages from all HI-TECH C compilers, with an explanation of each message. Most messages have been assigned a unique number which appears in brackets before each message in this chapter, and which is also printed by the compiler when the message is issued. The messages shown here are sorted by their number. Un-numbered messages appear toward the end and are sorted alphabetically. The name of the application(s) that could have produced the messages are listed in brackets opposite the error message. In some cases examples of code or options that could trigger the error are given. The use of * in the error message is used to represent a string that the compiler will substitute that is specific to that particular error. Note that one problem in your C or assembler source code may trigger more than one error message. (100) unterminated #if[n][def] block from line * (Preprocessor) A #if or similar block was not terminated with a matching #endif, e.g.: #if INPUT /* error flagged here */ void main(void) { run(); } /* no #endif was found in this module */ 275 Error and Warning Messages (101) #* may not follow #else (Preprocessor) A #else or #elif has been used in the same conditional block as a #else. These can only follow a #if, e.g.: #ifdef FOO result = foo; #else result = bar; #elif defined(NEXT) /* the #else above terminated the #if */ result = next(0); #endif (102) #* must be in an #if (Preprocessor) The #elif, #else or #endif directive must be preceded by a matching #if line. If there is an apparently corresponding #if line, check for things like extra #endif's, or improperly terminated comments, e.g.: #ifdef FOO result = foo; #endif result = bar; #elif defined(NEXT) /* the #endif above terminated the #if */ result = next(0); #endif (103) #error: * (Preprocessor) This is a programmer generated error; there is a directive causing a deliberate error. This is normally used to check compile time defines etc. Remove the directive to remove the error, but first check as to why the directive is there. (104) preprocessor #assert failure (Preprocessor) The argument to a preprocessor #assert directive has evaluated to zero. This is a programmer induced error. #assert SIZE == 4 /* size should never be 4 */ 276 Error and Warning Messages (105) no #asm before #endasm (Preprocessor) A #endasm operator has been encountered, but there was no previous matching #asm, e.g.: void cleardog(void) { clrwdt #endasm /* this ends the in-line assembler, only where did it begin? */ } (106) nested #asm directives (Preprocessor) It is not legal to nest #asm directives. Check for a missing or misspelt #endasm directive, e.g.: #asm move r0, #0aah #asm ; the previous #asm must be closed before opening another sleep #endasm (107) illegal # directive "*" (Preprocessor, Parser) The compiler does not understand the # directive. It is probably a misspelling of a pre-processor # directive, e.g.: #indef DEBUG /* woops -- that should be #undef DEBUG */ (108) #if[n][def] without an argument (Preprocessor) The preprocessor directives #if, #ifdef and #ifndef must have an argument. The argument to #if should be an expression, while the argument to #ifdef or #ifndef should be a single name, e.g.: #if /* woops -- no argument to check */ output = 10; #else output = 20; #endif 277 Error and Warning Messages (109) #include syntax error (Preprocessor) The syntax of the filename argument to #include is invalid. The argument to #include must be a valid file name, either enclosed in double quotes "" or angle brackets < >. Spaces should not be included, and the closing quote or bracket must be present. There should be nothing else on the line other than comments, e.g.: #include stdio.h /* woops -- should be: #include <stdio.h> */ (110) too many file arguments; usage: cpp [input [output]] (Preprocessor) CPP should be invoked with at most two file arguments. Contact HI-TECH Support if the preprocessor is being executed by a compiler driver. (111) redefining preprocessor macro "*" (Preprocessor) The macro specified is being redefined, to something different to the original definition. If you want to deliberately redefine a macro, use #undef first to remove the original definition, e.g.: #define ONE 1 /* elsewhere: */ /* Is this correct? It will overwrite the first definition. */ #define ONE one (112) #define syntax error (Preprocessor) A macro definition has a syntax error. This could be due to a macro or formal parameter name that does not start with a letter or a missing closing parenthesis , ), e.g.: #define FOO(a, 2b) bar(a, 2b) /* 2b is not to be! */ (113) unterminated string in preprocessor macro body (Preprocessor, Assembler) A macro definition contains a string that lacks a closing quote. (114) illegal #undef argument (Preprocessor) The argument to #undef must be a valid name. It must start with a letter, e.g.: #undef 6YYY /* this isn't a valid symbol name */ 278 Error and Warning Messages (115) recursive preprocessor macro definition of "*" defined by "*" (Preprocessor) The named macro has been defined in such a manner that expanding it causes a recursive expansion of itself! (116) end of file within preprocessor macro argument from line * (Preprocessor) A macro argument has not been terminated. This probably means the closing parenthesis has been omitted from a macro invocation. The line number given is the line where the macro argument started, e.g.: #define FUNC(a, b) func(a+b) FUNC(5, 6; /* woops -- where is the closing bracket? */ (117) misplaced constant in #if (Preprocessor) A constant in a #if expression should only occur in syntactically correct places. This error is most probably caused by omission of an operator, e.g.: #if FOO BAR /* woops -- did you mean: #if FOO == BAR ? */ (118) stack overflow processing #if expression (Preprocessor) The preprocessor filled up its expression evaluation stack in a #if expression. Simplify the expression -- it probably contains too many parenthesized subexpressions. (119) invalid expression in #if line (Preprocessor) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (120) operator "*" in incorrect context (Preprocessor) An operator has been encountered in a #if expression that is incorrectly placed, e.g. two binary operators are not separated by a value, e.g.: #if FOO * % BAR == 4 /* what is "* %" ? */ #define BIG #endif 279 Error and Warning Messages (121) expression stack overflow at operator "*" (Preprocessor) Expressions in #if lines are evaluated using a stack with a size of 128. It is possible for very complex expressions to overflow this. Simplify the expression. (122) unbalanced parenthesis at operator "*" (Preprocessor) The evaluation of a #if expression found mismatched parentheses. Check the expression for correct parenthesisation, e.g.: #if ((A) + (B) /* woops -- a missing ), I think */ #define ADDED #endif (123) misplaced "?" or ":"; previous operator is "*" (Preprocessor) A colon operator has been encountered in a #if expression that does not match up with a corresponding ? operator, e.g.: #if XXX : YYY /* did you mean: #if COND ? XXX : YYY */ (124) illegal character "*" in #if (Preprocessor) There is a character in a #if expression that has no business being there. Valid characters are the letters, digits and those comprising the acceptable operators, e.g.: #if `YYY` /* what are these characters doing here? */ int m; #endif (125) illegal character (* decimal) in #if (Preprocessor) There is a non-printable character in a #if expression that has no business being there. Valid characters are the letters, digits and those comprising the acceptable operators, e.g.: #if ^SYYY /* what is this control characters doing here? */ int m; #endif 280 Error and Warning Messages (126) strings can't be used in #if (Preprocessor) The preprocessor does not allow the use of strings in #if expressions, e.g.: /* no string operations allowed by the preprocessor */ #if MESSAGE > "hello" #define DEBUG #endif (127) bad syntax for defined() in #[el]if (Preprocessor) The defined() pseudo-function in a preprocessor expression requires its argument to be a single name. The name must start with a letter and should be enclosed in parentheses, e.g.: /* woops -- defined expects a name, not an expression */ #if defined(a&b) input = read(); #endif (128) illegal operator in #if (Preprocessor) A #if expression has an illegal operator. Check for correct syntax, e.g.: #if FOO = 6 /* woops -- should that be: #if FOO == 5 ? */ (129) unexpected "\" in #if (Preprocessor) The backslash is incorrect in the #if statement, e.g.: #if FOO == \34 #define BIG #endif (130) unknown type "*" in #[el]if sizeof() (Preprocessor) An unknown type was used in a preprocessor sizeof(). The preprocessor can only evaluate sizeof() with basic types, or pointers to basic types, e.g.: #if sizeof(unt) == 2 /* woops -- should be: #if sizeof(int) == 2 */ i = 0xFFFF; #endif 281 Error and Warning Messages (131) illegal type combination in #[el]if sizeof() (Preprocessor) The preprocessor found an illegal type combination in the argument to sizeof() in a #if expression, e.g. #if sizeof(short long int) == 2 /* short or long? make up your mind */ i = 0xFFFF; #endif (132) no type specified in #[el]if sizeof() (Preprocessor) Sizeof() was used in a preprocessor #if expression, but no type was specified. The argument to sizeof() in a preprocessor expression must be a valid simple type, or pointer to a simple type, e.g.: #if sizeof() /* woops -- size of what? */ i = 0; #endif (133) unknown type code (0x*) in #[el]if sizeof() (Preprocessor) The preprocessor has made an internal error in evaluating a sizeof() expression. Check for a malformed type specifier. This is an internal error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (134) syntax error in #[el]if sizeof() (Preprocessor) The preprocessor found a syntax error in the argument to sizeof, in a #if expression. Probable causes are mismatched parentheses and similar things, e.g.: #if sizeof(int == 2) /* woops -- should be: #if sizeof(int) == 2 */ i = 0xFFFF; #endif (135) unknown operator (*) in #if (Preprocessor) The preprocessor has tried to evaluate an expression with an operator it does not understand. This is an internal error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. 282 Error and Warning Messages (137) strange character "*" after ## (Preprocessor) A character has been seen after the token catenation operator ## that is neither a letter nor a digit. Since the result of this operator must be a legal token, the operands must be tokens containing only letters and digits, e.g.: /* the ' character will not lead to a valid token */ #define cc(a, b) a ## 'b (138) strange character (*) after ## (Preprocessor) An unprintable character has been seen after the token catenation operator ## that is neither a letter nor a digit. Since the result of this operator must be a legal token, the operands must be tokens containing only letters and digits, e.g.: /* the ' character will not lead to a valid token */ #define cc(a, b) a ## 'b (139) end of file in comment (Preprocessor) End of file was encountered inside a comment. Check for a missing closing comment flag, e.g.: /* Here is the start of a comment. I'm not sure where I end, though } (140) can't open * file "*": * (Driver, Preprocessor, Code Generator, Assembler) The command file specified could not be opened for reading. Confirm the spelling and path of the file specified on the command line, e.g.: picc @communds should that be: picc @commands (141) can't open * file "*": * (Any) An output file could not be created. Confirm the spelling and path of the file specified on the command line. 283 Error and Warning Messages (144) too many nested #if blocks (Preprocessor) #if, #ifdef etc. blocks may only be nested to a maximum of 32. (146) #include filename too long (Preprocessor) A filename constructed while looking for an include file has exceeded the length of an internal buffer. Since this buffer is 4096 bytes long, this is unlikely to happen. (147) too many #include directories specified (Preprocessor) A maximum of 7 directories may be specified for the preprocessor to search for include files. The number of directories specified with the driver is too great. (148) too many arguments for preprocessor macro (Preprocessor) A macro may only have up to 31 parameters, as per the C Standard. (149) preprocessor macro work area overflow (Preprocessor) The total length of a macro expansion has exceeded the size of an internal table. This table is normally 8192 bytes long. Thus any macro expansion must not expand into a total of more than 8K bytes. (150) illegal "__" preprocessor macro "*" (Preprocessor) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (151) too many arguments in preprocessor macro expansion (Preprocessor) There were too many arguments supplied in a macro invocation. The maximum number allowed is 31. (152) bad dp/nargs in openpar(): c = * (Preprocessor) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (153) out of space in preprocessor macro "*" argument expansion (Preprocessor) A macro argument has exceeded the length of an internal buffer. This buffer is normally 4096 bytes long. 284 Error and Warning Messages (155) work buffer overflow concatenating "*" (Preprocessor) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (156) work buffer "*" overflow (Preprocessor) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (157) can't allocate * bytes of memory (Code Generator, Assembler, Optimiser) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (158) invalid disable in preprocessor macro "*" (Preprocessor) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (159) too many calls to unget() (Preprocessor) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (160) too many errors (Preprocessor, Parser, Code Generator, Assembler, Linker) There were so many errors that the compiler has given up. Correct the first few errors and many of the later ones will probably go away. (161) control line "*" within preprocessor macro expansion (Preprocessor) A preprocessor control line (one starting with a #) has been encountered while expanding a macro. This should not happen. (162) #warning: * (Preprocessor, Driver) This warning is either the result of user-defined #warning preprocessor directive or the driver encountered a problem reading the the map file. If the latter then please HI-TECH Software technical support with details (163) unexpected text in control line ignored (Preprocessor) This warning occurs when extra characters appear on the end of a control line, e.g. The extra text will be ignored, but a warning is issued. It is preferable (and in accordance with Standard C) to enclose the text as a comment, e.g.: 285 Error and Warning Messages #if defined(END) #define NEXT #endif END /* END would be better in a comment here */ (164) #include filename "*" was converted to lower case (Preprocessor) The #include file name had to be converted to lowercase before it could be opened, e.g.: #include <STDIO.H> /* woops -- should be: #include <stdio.h> */ (165) #include filename "*" does not match actual name (check upper/lower case) (Prepro- cessor) In Windows versions this means the file to be included actually exists and is spelt the same way as the #include filename, however the case of each does not exactly match. For example, specifying #include "code.c" will include Code.c if it is found. In Linux versions this warning could occur if the file wasn't found. (166) too few values specified with option "*" (Preprocessor) The list of values to the preprocessor (CPP) -S option is incomplete. This should not happen if the preprocessor is being invoked by the compiler driver. The values passes to this option represent the sizes of char, short, int, long, float and double types. (167) too many values specified with -S option; "*" unused (Preprocessor) There were too many values supplied to the -S preprocessor option. See the Error Message -s, too few values specified in * on page 286. (168) unknown option "*" (Any) This option given to the component which caused the error is not recognized. (169) strange character (*) after ## (Preprocessor) There is an unexpected character after #. 286 Error and Warning Messages (170) symbol "*" in undef was never defined (Preprocessor) The symbol supplied as argument to #undef was not already defined. This warning may be disabled with some compilers. This warning can be avoided with code like: #ifdef SYM #undef SYM /* only undefine if defined */ #endif (171) wrong number of preprocessor macro arguments for "*" (* instead of *)(Preprocessor) A macro has been invoked with the wrong number of arguments, e.g.: #define ADD(a, b) (a+b) ADD(1, 2, 3) /* woops -- only two arguments required */ (172) formal parameter expected after # (Preprocessor) The stringization operator # (not to be confused with the leading # used for preprocessor control lines) must be followed by a formal macro parameter, e.g.: #define str(x) #y /* woops -- did you mean x instead of y? */ If you need to stringize a token, you will need to define a special macro to do it, e.g. #define __mkstr__(x) #x then use __mkstr__(token) wherever you need to convert a token into a string. (173) undefined symbol "*" in #if, 0 used (Preprocessor) A symbol on a #if expression was not a defined preprocessor macro. For the purposes of this expression, its value has been taken as zero. This warning may be disabled with some compilers. Example: #if FOO+BAR /* e.g. FOO was never #defined */ #define GOOD #endif 287 Error and Warning Messages (174) multi-byte constant "*" isn't portable (Preprocessor) Multi-byte constants are not portable, and in fact will be rejected by later passes of the compiler, e.g.: #if CHAR == 'ab' #define MULTI #endif (175) division by zero in #if; zero result assumed (Preprocessor) Inside a #if expression, there is a division by zero which has been treated as yielding zero, e.g.: #if foo/0 /* divide by 0: was this what you were intending? */ int a; #endif (176) missing newline (Preprocessor) A new line is missing at the end of the line. Each line, including the last line, must have a new line at the end. This problem is normally introduced by editors. (177) symbol "*" in -U option was never defined (Preprocessor) A macro name specified in a -U option to the preprocessor was not initially defined, and thus cannot be undefined. (179) nested comments (Preprocessor) This warning is issued when nested comments are found. A nested comment may indicate that a previous closing comment marker is missing or malformed, e.g.: output = 0; /* a comment that was left unterminated flag = TRUE; /* another comment: hey, where did this line go? */ (180) unterminated comment in included file (Preprocessor) Comments begun inside an included file must end inside the included file. 288 Error and Warning Messages (181) non-scalar types can't be converted to other types (Parser) You can't convert a structure, union or array to another type, e.g.: struct TEST test; struct TEST * sp; sp = test; /* woops -- did you mean: sp = &test; ? */ (182) illegal conversion between types (Parser) This expression implies a conversion between incompatible types, e.g. a conversion of a structure type into an integer, e.g.: struct LAYOUT layout; int i; layout = i; /* an int cannot be converted into a struct */ Note that even if a structure only contains an int, for example, it cannot be assigned to an int variable, and vice versa. (183) function or function pointer required (Parser) Only a function or function pointer can be the subject of a function call, e.g.: int a, b, c, d; a = b(c+d); /* b is not a function -- did you mean a = b*(c+d) ? */ (184) calling an interrupt function is illegal (Parser) A function qualified interrupt can't be called from other functions. It can only be called by a hardware (or software) interrupt. This is because an interrupt function has special function entry and exit code that is appropriate only for calling from an interrupt. An interrupt function can call other non-interrupt functions. (185) function does not take arguments (Parser, Code Generator) This function has no parameters, but it is called here with one or more arguments, e.g.: int get_value(void); void main(void) { 289 Error and Warning Messages int input; input = get_value(6); /* woops -- the parameter should not be here */ } (186) too many function arguments (Parser) This function does not accept as many arguments as there are here. void add(int a, int b); add(5, 7, input); /* this call has too many arguments */ (187) too few function arguments (Parser) This function requires more arguments than are provided in this call, e.g.: void add(int a, int b); add(5); /* this call needs more arguments */ (188) constant expression required (Parser) In this context an expression is required that can be evaluated to a constant at compile time, e.g.: int a; switch(input) { case a: /* woops! you cannot use a variable as part of a case label */ input++; } (189) illegal type for array dimension (Parser) An array dimension must be either an integral type or an enumerated value. int array[12.5]; /* woops -- twelve and a half elements, eh? */ (190) illegal type for index expression (Parser) An index expression must be either integral or an enumerated value, e.g.: int i, array[10]; i = array[3.5]; /* woops -- exactly which element do you mean? */ 290 Error and Warning Messages (191) cast type must be scalar or void (Parser) A typecast (an abstract type declarator enclosed in parentheses) must denote a type which is either scalar (i.e. not an array or a structure) or the type void, e.g.: lip = (long [])input; /* woops -- maybe: lip = (long *)input */ (192) undefined identifier "*" (Parser) This symbol has been used in the program, but has not been defined or declared. Check for spelling errors if you think it has been defined. (193) not a variable identifier "*" (Parser) This identifier is not a variable; it may be some other kind of object, e.g. a label. (194) ")" expected (Parser) A closing parenthesis, ), was expected here. This may indicate you have left out this character in an expression, or you have some other syntax error. The error is flagged on the line at which the code first starts to make no sense. This may be a statement following the incomplete expression, e.g.: if(a == b /* the closing parenthesis is missing here */ b = 0; /* the error is flagged here */ (195) expression syntax (Parser) This expression is badly formed and cannot be parsed by the compiler, e.g.: a /=% b; /* woops -- maybe that should be: a /= b; */ (196) struct/union required (Parser) A structure or union identifier is required before a dot ., e.g.: int a; a.b = 9; /* woops -- a is not a structure */ (197) struct/union member expected (Parser) A structure or union member name must follow a dot (".") or arrow ("->"). 291 Error and Warning Messages (198) undefined struct/union "*" (Parser) The specified structure or union tag is undefined, e.g. struct WHAT what; /* a definition for WHAT was never seen */ (199) logical type required (Parser) The expression used as an operand to if, while statements or to boolean operators like ! and && must be a scalar integral type, e.g.: struct FORMAT format; if(format) /* this operand must be a scaler type */ format.a = 0; (200) taking the address of a register variable is illegal (Parser) A variable declared register may not have storage allocated for it in memory, and thus it is illegal to attempt to take the address of it by applying the & operator, e.g.: int * proc(register int in) { int * ip = ∈ /* woops -- in may not have an address to take */ return ip; } (201) taking the address of this object is illegal (Parser) The expression which was the operand of the & operator is not one that denotes memory storage ("an lvalue") and therefore its address can not be defined, e.g.: ip = &8; /* woops -- you can't take the address of a literal */ (202) only lvalues may be assigned to or modified (Parser) Only an lvalue (i.e. an identifier or expression directly denoting addressable storage) can be assigned to or otherwise modified, e.g.: int array[10]; int * ip; char c; array = ip; /* array is not a variable, it cannot be written to */ 292 Error and Warning Messages A typecast does not yield an lvalue, e.g.: /* the contents of c cast to int is only a intermediate value */ (int)c = 1; However you can write this using pointers: *(int *)&c = 1 (203) illegal operation on bit variable (Parser) Not all operations on bit variables are supported. This operation is one of those, e.g.: bit b; int * ip; ip = &b; /* woops -- cannot take the address of a bit object */ (204) void function can't return a value (Parser) A void function cannot return a value. Any return statement should not be followed by an expression, e.g.: void run(void) { step(); return 1; /* either run should not be void, or remove the 1 */ } (205) integral type required (Parser) This operator requires operands that are of integral type only. (206) illegal use of void expression (Parser) A void expression has no value and therefore you can't use it anywhere an expression with a value is required, e.g. as an operand to an arithmetic operator. (207) simple type required for "*" (Parser) A simple type (i.e. not an array or structure) is required as an operand to this operator. 293 Error and Warning Messages (208) operands of "*" not same type (Parser) The operands of this operator are of different pointer, e.g.: int * ip; char * cp, * cp2; cp = flag ? ip : cp2; /* result of ? : will either be int * or char * */ Maybe you meant something like: cp = flag ? (char *)ip : cp2; (209) type conflict (Parser) The operands of this operator are of incompatible types. (210) bad size list (Parser) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (211) taking sizeof bit is illegal (Parser) It is illegal to use the sizeof operator with the HI-TECH C bit type. When used against a type the sizeof operator gives the number of bytes required to store an object that type. Therefore its usage with the bit type make no sense and is an illegal operation. (212) missing number after pragma "pack" (Parser) The pragma pack requires a decimal number as argument. This specifies the alignment of each member within the structure. Use this with caution as some processors enforce alignment and will not operate correctly if word fetches are made on odd boundaries, e.g.: #pragma pack /* what is the alignment value */ Maybe you meant something like: #pragma pack 2 (214) missing number after pragma "interrupt_level" (Parser) The pragma interrupt_level requires an argument from 0 to 7. 294 Error and Warning Messages (215) missing argument to pragma "switch" (Parser) The pragma switch requires an argument of auto, direct or simple, e.g.: #pragma switch /* woops -- this requires a switch mode */ maybe you meant something like: #pragma switch simple (216) missing argument to pragma "psect" (Parser) The pragma psect requires an argument of the form oldname=newname where oldname is an existing psect name known to the compiler, and newname is the desired new name, e.g.: #pragma psect /* woops -- this requires an psect to redirect */ maybe you meant something like: #pragma psect text=specialtext (218) missing name after pragma "inline" (Parser) The inline pragma expects the name of a function to follow. The function name must be recognized by the code generator for it to be expanded; other functions are not altered, e.g.: #pragma inline /* what is the function name? */ maybe you meant something like: #pragma inline memcpy (219) missing name after pragma "printf_check" (Parser) The printf_check pragma expects the name of a function to follow. This specifies printf-style format string checking for the function, e.g. #pragma printf_check /* what function is to be checked? */ Maybe you meant something like: #pragma printf_check sprintf Pragmas for all the standard printf-like function are already contained in <stdio.h>. 295 Error and Warning Messages (220) exponent expected (Parser) A floating point constant must have at least one digit after the e or E., e.g.: float f; f = 1.234e; /* woops -- what is the exponent? */ (221) hexadecimal digit expected (Parser) After 0x should follow at least one of the hex digits 0-9 and A-F or a-f, e.g.: a = 0xg6; /* woops -- was that meant to be a = 0xf6 ? */ (222) binary digit expected (Parser) A binary digit was expected following the 0b format specifier, e.g. i = 0bf000; /* wooops -- f000 is not a base two value */ (223) digit out of range (Parser, Assembler, Optimiser) A digit in this number is out of range of the radix for the number, e.g. using the digit 8 in an octal number, or hex digits A-F in a decimal number. An octal number is denoted by the digit string commencing with a zero, while a hex number starts with "0X" or "0x". For example: int a = 058; /* a leading 0 implies octal which has digits 0 thru 7 */ (224) illegal "#" directive (Parser) An illegal # preprocessor has been detected. Likely a directive has been misspelt in your code somewhere. (225) missing character in character constant (Parser) The character inside the single quotes is missing, e.g.: char c = "; /* the character value of what? */ (226) char const too long (Parser) A character constant enclosed in single quotes may not contain more than one character, e.g.: c = '12'; /* woops -- only one character may be specified */ 296 Error and Warning Messages (227) "." expected after ".." (Parser) The only context in which two successive dots may appear is as part of the ellipsis symbol, which must have 3 dots. (An ellipsis is used in function prototypes to indicate a variable number of param- eters.) Either .. was meant to be an ellipsis symbol which would require you to add an extra dot, or it was meant to be a structure member operator which would require you remove one dot. (228) illegal character (*) (Parser) This character is illegal in the C code. Valid characters are the letters, digits and those comprising the acceptable operators, e.g.: c = `a`; /* woops -- did you mean c = 'a'; ? */ (229) unknown qualifier "*" given to -A (Parser) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (230) missing argument to -A (Parser) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (231) unknown qualifier "*" given to -I (Parser) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (232) missing argument to -I (Parser) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (233) bad -Q option "*" (Parser) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (234) close error (Parser) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. 297 Error and Warning Messages (236) simple integer expression required (Parser) A simple integral expression is required after the operator @, used to associate an absolute address with a variable, e.g.: int address; char LOCK @ address; (237) function "*" redefined (Parser) More than one definition for a function has been encountered in this module. Function overloading is illegal, e.g.: int twice(int a) { return a*2; } long twice(long a) /* only one prototype & definition of rv can exist */ { return a*2; } (238) illegal initialisation (Parser) You can't initialise a typedef declaration, because it does not reserve any storage that can be initialised, e.g.: /* woops -- uint is a type, not a variable */ typedef unsigned int uint = 99; (239) identifier "*" redefined (from line *) (Parser) This identifier has already been defined in the same scope. It cannot be defined again, e.g.: int a; /* a filescope variable called "a" */ int a; /* this attempts to define another with the same name */ Note that variables with the same name, but defined with different scopes are legal, but not recom- mended. 298 Error and Warning Messages (240) too many initializers (Parser) There are too many initializers for this object. Check the number of initializers against the object definition (array or structure), e.g.: /* three elements, but four initializers */ int ivals[3] = { 2, 4, 6, 8}; (241) initialization syntax (Parser) The initialisation of this object is syntactically incorrect. Check for the correct placement and number of braces and commas, e.g.: int iarray[10] = {{'a', 'b', 'c'}; /* woops -- one two many {s */ (242) illegal type for switch expression (Parser) A switch operation must have an expression that is either an integral type or an enumerated value, e.g: double d; switch(d) { /* woops -- this must be integral */ case '1.0': d = 0; } (243) inappropriate break/continue (Parser) A break or continue statement has been found that is not enclosed in an appropriate control structure. A continue can only be used inside a while, for or do while loop, while break can only be used inside those loops or a switch statement, e.g.: switch(input) { case 0: if(output == 0) input = 0xff; } /* woops! this shouldn't be here and closed the switch */ break; /* this should be inside the switch */ 299 Error and Warning Messages (244) "default" case redefined (Parser) There is only allowed to be one default label in a switch statement. You have more than one, e.g.: switch(a) { default: /* if this is the default case... */ b = 9; break; default: /* then what is this? */ b = 10; break; (245) "default" case not in switch (Parser) A label has been encountered called default but it is not enclosed by a switch statement. A default label is only legal inside the body of a switch statement. If there is a switch statement before this default label, there may be one too many closing braces in the switch code which would prematurely terminate the switch statement. See example for Error Message 'case' not in switch on page 300. (246) case label not in switch (Parser) A case label has been encountered, but there is no enclosing switch statement. A case label may only appear inside the body of a switch statement. If there is a switch statement before this case label, there may be one too many closing braces in the switch code which would prematurely terminate the switch statement, e.g.: switch(input) { case '0': count++; break; case '1': if(count>MAX) count= 0; } /* woops -- this shouldn't be here */ break; case '2': /* error flagged here */ 300 Error and Warning Messages (247) duplicate label "*" (Parser) The same name is used for a label more than once in this function. Note that the scope of labels is the entire function, not just the block that encloses a label, e.g.: start: if(a > 256) goto end; start: /* error flagged here */ if(a == 0) goto start; /* which start label do I jump to? */ (248) inappropriate "else" (Parser) An else keyword has been encountered that cannot be associated with an if statement. This may mean there is a missing brace or other syntactic error, e.g.: /* here is a comment which I have forgotten to close... if(a > b) { c = 0; /* ... that will be closed here, thus removing the "if" */ else /* my "if" has been lost */ c = 0xff; (249) probable missing "}" in previous block (Parser) The compiler has encountered what looks like a function or other declaration, but the preceding function has not been ended with a closing brace. This probably means that a closing brace has been omitted from somewhere in the previous function, although it may well not be the last one, e.g.: void set(char a) { PORTA = a; /* the closing brace was left out here */ void clear(void) /* error flagged here */ { PORTA = 0; } 301 Error and Warning Messages (251) array dimension redeclared (Parser) An array dimension has been declared as a different non-zero value from its previous declaration. It is acceptable to redeclare the size of an array that was previously declared with a zero dimension, but not otherwise, e.g.: extern int array[5]; int array[10]; /* woops -- has it 5 or 10 elements? */ (252) argument * conflicts with prototype (Parser) The argument specified (argument 0 is the left most argument) of this function definition does not agree with a previous prototype for this function, e.g.: extern int calc(int, int); /* this is supposedly calc's prototype */ int calc(int a, long int b) /* hmmm -- which is right? */ { /* error flagged here */ return sin(b/a); } (253) argument list conflicts with prototype (Parser) The argument list in a function definition is not the same as a previous prototype for that function. Check that the number and types of the arguments are all the same. extern int calc(int); /* this is supposedly calc's prototype */ int calc(int a, int b) /* hmmm -- which is right? */ { /* error flagged here */ return a + b; } (254) undefined *: "*" (Parser) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (255) not a member of the struct/union "*" (Parser) This identifier is not a member of the structure or union type with which it used here, e.g.: 302 Error and Warning Messages struct { int a, b, c; } data; if(data.d) /* woops -- there is no member d in this structure */ return; (256) too much indirection (Parser) A pointer declaration may only have 16 levels of indirection. (257) only "register" storage class allowed (Parser) The only storage class allowed for a function parameter is register, e.g.: void process(static int input) (258) duplicate qualifier (Parser) There are two occurrences of the same qualifier in this type specification. This can occur either directly or through the use of a typedef. Remove the redundant qualifier. For example: typedef volatile int vint; /* woops -- this results in two volatile qualifiers */ volatile vint very_vol; (259) can't be qualified both far and near (Parser) It is illegal to qualify a type as both far and near, e.g.: far near int spooky; /* woops -- choose either far or near, not both */ (260) undefined enum tag "*" (Parser) This enum tag has not been defined, e.g.: enum WHAT what; /* a definition for WHAT was never seen */ 303 Error and Warning Messages (261) struct/union member "*" redefined (Parser) This name of this member of the struct or union has already been used in this struct or union, e.g.: struct { int a; int b; int a; /* woops -- a different name is required here */ } input; (262) struct/union "*" redefined (Parser) A structure or union has been defined more than once, e.g.: struct { int a; } ms; struct { int a; } ms; /* was this meant to be the same name as above? */ (263) members can't be functions (Parser) A member of a structure or a union may not be a function. It may be a pointer to a function, e.g.: struct { int a; int get(int); /* this should be a pointer: int (*get)(int); */ } object; (264) bad bitfield type (Parser) A bitfield may only have a type of int (signed or unsigned), e.g.: struct FREG { char b0:1; /* woops -- these must be part of an int, not char */ char :6; char b7:1; } freg; 304 Error and Warning Messages (265) integer constant expected (Parser) A colon appearing after a member name in a structure declaration indicates that the member is a bitfield. An integral constant must appear after the colon to define the number of bits in the bitfield, e.g.: struct { unsigned first: /* woops -- should be: unsigned first; */ unsigned second; } my_struct; If this was meant to be a structure with bitfields, then the following illustrates an example: struct { unsigned first : 4; /* 4 bits wide */ unsigned second: 4; /* another 4 bits */ } my_struct; (266) storage class illegal (Parser) A structure or union member may not be given a storage class. Its storage class is determined by the storage class of the structure, e.g.: struct { /* no additional qualifiers may be present with members */ static int first; } ; (267) bad storage class (Code Generator) The code generator has encountered a variable definition whose storage class is invalid, e.g.: auto int foo; /* auto not permitted with global variables */ int power(static int a) /* parameters may not be static */ { return foo * a; } 305 Error and Warning Messages (268) inconsistent storage class (Parser) A declaration has conflicting storage classes. Only one storage class should appear in a declaration, e.g.: extern static int where; /* so is it static or extern? */ (269) inconsistent type (Parser) Only one basic type may appear in a declaration, e.g.: int float if; /* is it int or float? */ (270) variable can't have storage class "register" (Parser) Only function parameters or auto variables may be declared using the register qualifier, e.g.: register int gi; /* this cannot be qualified register */ int process(register int input) /* this is okay */ { return input + gi; } (271) type can't be long (Parser) Only int and float can be qualified with long. long char lc; /* what? */ (272) type can't be short (Parser) Only int can be modified with short, e.g.: short float sf; /* what? */ (273) type can't be both signed and unsigned (Parser) The type modifiers signed and unsigned cannot be used together in the same declaration, as they have opposite meaning, e.g.: signed unsigned int confused; /* which is it? signed or unsigned? */ 306 Error and Warning Messages (274) type can't be unsigned (Parser) A floating point type cannot be made unsigned, e.g.: unsigned float uf; /* what? */ (275) "..." illegal in non-prototype argument list (Parser) The ellipsis symbol may only appear as the last item in a prototyped argument list. It may not appear on its own, nor may it appear after argument names that do not have types, i.e. K&R-style non-prototype function definitions. For example: int kandr(a, b, ...) /* K&R-style non-prototyped function definition */ int a, b; { (276) type specifier required for prototyped argument (Parser) A type specifier is required for a prototyped argument. It is not acceptable to just have an identifier. (277) can't mix prototyped and non-prototyped arguments (Parser) A function declaration can only have all prototyped arguments (i.e. with types inside the parentheses) or all K&R style args (i.e. only names inside the parentheses and the argument types in a declaration list before the start of the function body), e.g.: int plus(int a, b) /* woops -- a is prototyped, b is not */ int b; { return a + b; } (278) argument "*" redeclared (Parser) The specified argument is declared more than once in the same argument list, e.g. int calc(int a, int a) /* you cannot have two parameters called "a" */ 307 Error and Warning Messages (279) initialization of function arguments is illegal (Parser) A function argument can't have an initialiser in a declaration. The initialisation of the argument happens when the function is called and a value is provided for the argument by the calling function, e.g.: /* woops -- a is initialized when proc is called */ extern int proc(int a = 9); (280) arrays of functions are illegal (Parser) You can't define an array of functions. You can however define an array of pointers to functions, e.g.: int * farray[](); /* woops -- should be: int (* farray[])(); */ (281) functions can't return functions (Parser) A function cannot return a function. It can return a function pointer. A function returning a pointer to a function could be declared like this: int (* (name()))(). Note the many parentheses that are necessary to make the parts of the declaration bind correctly. (282) functions can't return arrays (Parser) A function can return only a scalar (simple) type or a structure. It cannot return an array. (283) dimension required (Parser) Only the most significant (i.e. the first) dimension in a multi-dimension array may not be assigned a value. All succeeding dimensions must be present as a constant expression, e.g.: enum { one = 1, two }; int get_element(int array[two][]) /* should be, e.g.: int array[][7] */ { return array[1][6]; } (284) invalid dimension (Parser) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. 308 Error and Warning Messages (285) no identifier in declaration (Parser) The identifier is missing in this declaration. This error can also occur where the compiler has been confused by such things as missing closing braces, e.g.: void interrupt(void) /* what is the name of this function? */ { } (286) declarator too complex (Parser) This declarator is too complex for the compiler to handle. Examine the declaration and find a way to simplify it. If the compiler finds it too complex, so will anybody maintaining the code. (287) arrays of bits or pointers to bit are illegal (Parser) It is not legal to have an array of bits, or a pointer to bit variable, e.g.: bit barray[10]; /* wrong -- no bit arrays */ bit * bp; /* wrong -- no pointers to bit variables */ (288) only functions may be void (Parser) A variable may not be void. Only a function can be void, e.g.: int a; void b; /* this makes no sense */ (289) only functions may be qualified "interrupt" (Parser) The qualifier interrupt may not be applied to anything except a function, e.g.: interrupt int input; /* variables cannot be qualified interrupt */ (290) illegal function qualifier(s) (Parser) A qualifier has been applied to a function which makes no sense in this context. Some qualifier only make sense when used with an lvalue, e.g. const or volatile. This may indicate that you have forgotten out a star * indicating that the function should return a pointer to a qualified object, e.g. 309 Error and Warning Messages const char ccrv(void) /* woops! did you mean const * char ccrv(void) ? */ { /* error flagged here */ return ccip; } (291) K&R identifier "*" not an argument (Parser) This identifier that has appeared in a K&R style argument declarator is not listed inside the parentheses after the function name, e.g.: int process(input) int unput; /* woops -- that should be int input; */ { } (292) function parameter may not be a function (Parser) A function parameter may not be a function. It may be a pointer to a function, so perhaps a "*" has been omitted from the declaration. (293) bad size in index_type() (Parser) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (294) can't allocate * bytes of memory (Code Generator, Hexmate) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (295) expression too complex (Parser) This expression has caused overflow of the compiler's internal stack and should be re-arranged or split into two expressions. (296) out of memory (Objtohex) This could be an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (297) bad argument (*) to tysize() (Parser) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. 310 Error and Warning Messages (298) end of file in #asm (Preprocessor) An end of file has been encountered inside a #asm block. This probably means the #endasm is missing or misspelt, e.g.: #asm mov r0, #55 mov [r1], r0 } /* woops -- where is the #endasm */ (300) unexpected end of file (Parser) An end-of-file in a C module was encountered unexpectedly, e.g.: void main(void) { init(); run(); /* is that it? What about the close brace */ (301) end of file on string file (Parser) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (302) can't reopen "*": * (Parser) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (303) can't allocate * bytes of memory (line *) (Parser) The parser was unable to allocate memory for the longest string encountered, as it attempts to sort and merge strings. Try reducing the number or length of strings in this module. (306) can't allocate * bytes of memory for * (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (307) too many qualifier names (Parser) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. 311 Error and Warning Messages (308) too many case labels in switch (Code Generator) There are too many case labels in this switch statement. The maximum allowable number of case labels in any one switch statement is 511. (309) too many symbols (Assembler) There are too many symbols for the assembler's symbol table. Reduce the number of symbols in your program. (310) "]" expected (Parser) A closing square bracket was expected in an array declaration or an expression using an array index, e.g. process(carray[idx); /* woops -- should be: process(carray[idx]); */ (311) closing quote expected (Parser) A closing quote was expected for the indicated string. (312) "*" expected (Parser) The indicated token was expected by the parser. (313) function body expected (Parser) Where a function declaration is encountered with K&R style arguments (i.e. argument names but no types inside the parentheses) a function body is expected to follow, e.g.: /* the function block must follow, not a semicolon */ int get_value(a, b); (314) ";" expected (Parser) A semicolon is missing from a statement. A close brace or keyword was found following a statement with no terminating semicolon, e.g.: while(a) { b = a-- /* woops -- where is the semicolon? */ } /* error is flagged here */ 312 Error and Warning Messages Note: Omitting a semicolon from statements not preceding a close brace or keyword typically results in some other error being issued for the following code which the parser assumes to be part of the original statement. (315) "{" expected (Parser) An opening brace was expected here. This error may be the result of a function definition missing the opening brace, e.g.: /* woops! no opening brace after the prototype */ void process(char c) return max(c, 10) * 2; /* error flagged here */ } (316) "}" expected (Parser) A closing brace was expected here. This error may be the result of a initialized array missing the closing brace, e.g.: char carray[4] = { 1, 2, 3, 4; /* woops -- no closing brace */ (317) "(" expected (Parser) An opening parenthesis, (, was expected here. This must be the first token after a while, for, if, do or asm keyword, e.g.: if a == b /* should be: if(a == b) */ b = 0; (318) string expected (Parser) The operand to an asm statement must be a string enclosed in parentheses, e.g.: asm(nop); /* that should be asm("nop"); (319) while expected (Parser) The keyword while is expected at the end of a do statement, e.g.: 313 Error and Warning Messages do { func(i++); } /* do the block while what condition is true? */ if(i > 5) /* error flagged here */ end(); (320) ":" expected (Parser) A colon is missing after a case label, or after the keyword default. This often occurs when a semicolon is accidentally typed instead of a colon, e.g.: switch(input) { case 0; /* woops -- that should have been: case 0: */ state = NEW; (321) label identifier expected (Parser) An identifier denoting a label must appear after goto, e.g.: if(a) goto 20; /* this is not BASIC -- a valid C label must follow a goto */ (322) enum tag or "{" expected (Parser) After the keyword enum must come either an identifier that is or will be defined as an enum tag, or an opening brace, e.g.: enum 1, 2; /* should be, e.g.: enum {one=1, two }; */ (323) struct/union tag or "{" expected (Parser) An identifier denoting a structure or union or an opening brace must follow a struct or union keyword, e.g.: struct int a; /* this is not how you define a structure */ You might mean something like: struct { int a; } my_struct; 314 Error and Warning Messages (324) too many arguments for printf-style format string (Parser) There are too many arguments for this format string. This is harmless, but may represent an incorrect format string, e.g.: /* woops -- missed a placeholder? */ printf("%d - %d", low, high, median); (325) error in printf-style format string (Parser) There is an error in the format string here. The string has been interpreted as a printf() style format string, and it is not syntactically correct. If not corrected, this will cause unexpected behaviour at run time, e.g.: printf("%l", lll); /* woops -- maybe: printf("%ld", lll); */ (326) long int argument required in printf-style format string (Parser) A long argument is required for this format specifier. Check the number and order of format specifiers and corresponding arguments, e.g.: printf("%lx", 2); /* woops -- maybe you meant: printf("%lx", 2L); (327) long long int argument required in printf-style format string (Parser) A long long argument is required for this format specifier. Check the number and order of format specifiers and corresponding arguments, e.g.: printf("%llx", 2); /* woops -- maybe you meant: printf("%llx", 2LL); Note that not all HI-TECH C compilers provide support for a long long integer type. (328) int argument required in printf-style format string (Parser) An integral argument is required for this printf-style format specifier. Check the number and order of format specifiers and corresponding arguments, e.g.: printf("%d", 1.23); /* woops! either wrong number or wrong placeholder */ 315 Error and Warning Messages (329) double argument required in printf-style format string (Parser) The printf format specifier corresponding to this argument is %f or similar, and requires a floating point expression. Check for missing or extra format specifiers or arguments to printf. printf("%f", 44); /* should be: printf("%f", 44.0); */ (330) pointer to * argument required in printf-style format string (Parser) A pointer argument is required for this format specifier. Check the number and order of format specifiers and corresponding arguments. (331) too few arguments for printf-style format string (Parser) There are too few arguments for this format string. This would result in a garbage value being printed or converted at run time, e.g.: printf("%d - %d", low); /* woops! where is the other value to print? */ (332) "interrupt_level" should be 0 to 7 (Parser) The pragma interrupt_level must have an argument from 0 to 7, e.g.: #pragma interrupt_level /* woops -- what is the level */ void interrupt isr(void) { /* isr code goes here */ } (333) unrecognized qualifier name after "strings" (Parser) The pragma strings was passed a qualifier that was not identified, e.g.: /* woops -- should that be #pragma strings const ? */ #pragma strings cinst (334) unrecognized qualifier name after "printf_check" (Parser) The #pragma printf_check was passed a qualifier that could not be identified, e.g.: /* woops -- should that be const not cinst? */ #pragma printf_check(printf) cinst 316 Error and Warning Messages (335) unknown pragma "*" (Parser) An unknown pragma directive was encountered, e.g.: #pragma rugsused w /* I think you meant regsused */ (336) string concatenation across lines (Parser) Strings on two lines will be concatenated. Check that this is the desired result, e.g.: char * cp = "hi" "there"; /* this is okay, but is it what you had intended? */ (337) line does not have a newline on the end (Parser) The last line in the file is missing the newline (operating system dependent character) from the end. Some editors will create such files, which can cause problems for include files. The ANSI C standard requires all source files to consist of complete lines only. (338) can't create * file "*" (Any) The application tried to create or open the named file, but it could not be created. Check that all file pathnames are correct. (339) initializer in extern declaration (Parser) A declaration containing the keyword extern has an initialiser. This overrides the extern storage class, since to initialise an object it is necessary to define (i.e. allocate storage for ) it, e.g.: extern int other = 99; /* if it's extern and not allocated storage, how can it be initialized? */ (340) string not terminated by null character. (Parser) A char array is being initialized with a string literal larger than the array. Hence there is insufficient space in the array to safely append a null terminating character, e.g.: char foo[5] = "12345"; /* the string stored in foo won't have a null terminating, i.e. foo = ['1', '2', '3', '4', '5'] */ 317 Error and Warning Messages (343) implicit return at end of non-void function (Parser) A function which has been declared to return a value has an execution path that will allow it to reach the end of the function body, thus returning without a value. Either insert a return statement with a value, or if the function is not to return a value, declare it void, e.g.: int mydiv(double a, int b) { if(b != 0) return a/b; /* what about when b is 0? */ } /* warning flagged here */ (344) non-void function returns no value (Parser) A function that is declared as returning a value has a return statement that does not specify a return value, e.g.: int get_value(void) { if(flag) return val++; return; /* what is the return value in this instance? */ } (345) unreachable code (Parser) This section of code will never be executed, because there is no execution path by which it could be reached, e.g.: while(1) /* how does this loop finish? */ process(); flag = FINISHED; /* how do we get here? */ (346) declaration of "*" hides outer declaration (Parser) An object has been declared that has the same name as an outer declaration (i.e. one outside and preceding the current function or block). This is legal, but can lead to accidental use of one variable when the outer one was intended, e.g.: int input; /* input has filescope */ void process(int a) 318 Error and Warning Messages { int input; /* local blockscope input */ a = input; /* this will use the local variable. Is this right? */ (347) external declaration inside function (Parser) A function contains an extern declaration. This is legal but is invariably not desirable as it restricts the scope of the function declaration to the function body. This means that if the compiler encounters another declaration, use or definition of the extern object later in the same file, it will no longer have the earlier declaration and thus will be unable to check that the declarations are consistent. This can lead to strange behaviour of your program or signature errors at link time. It will also hide any previous declarations of the same thing, again subverting the compiler's type checking. As a general rule, always declare extern variables and functions outside any other functions. For example: int process(int a) { extern int away; /* this would be better outside the function */ return away + a; } (348) auto variable "*" should not be qualified (Parser) An auto variable should not have qualifiers such as near or far associated with it. Its storage class is implicitly defined by the stack organization. An auto variable may be qualified with static, but it is then no longer auto. (349) non-prototyped function declaration for "*" (Parser) A function has been declared using old-style (K&R) arguments. It is preferable to use prototype declarations for all functions, e.g.: int process(input) int input; /* warning flagged here */ { } This would be better written: int process(int input) { } 319 Error and Warning Messages (350) unused * "*" (from line *) (Parser) The indicated object was never used in the function or module being compiled. Either this object is redundant, or the code that was meant to use it was excluded from compilation or misspelt the name of the object. Note that the symbols rcsid and sccsid are never reported as being unused. (352) float parameter coerced to double (Parser) Where a non-prototyped function has a parameter declared as float, the compiler converts this into a double float. This is because the default C type conversion conventions provide that when a floating point number is passed to a non-prototyped function, it will be converted to double. It is important that the function declaration be consistent with this convention, e.g.: double inc_flt(f) /* the parameter f will be converted to double type */ float f; /* warning flagged here */ { return f * 2; } (353) sizeof external array "*" is zero (Parser) The size of an external array evaluates to zero. This is probably due to the array not having an explicit dimension in the extern declaration. (354) possible pointer truncation (Parser) A pointer qualified far has been assigned to a default pointer or a pointer qualified near, or a default pointer has been assigned to a pointer qualified near. This may result in truncation of the pointer and loss of information, depending on the memory model in use. (355) implicit signed to unsigned conversion (Parser) A signed number is being assigned or otherwise converted to a larger unsigned type. Under the ANSI "value preserving" rules, this will result in the signed value being first sign-extended to a signed number the size of the target type, then converted to unsigned (which involves no change in bit pattern). Thus an unexpected sign extension can occur. To ensure this does not happen, first convert the signed value to an unsigned equivalent, e.g.: signed char sc; unsigned int ui; 320 Error and Warning Messages ui = sc; /* if sc contains 0xff, ui will contain 0xffff for example */ will perform a sign extension of the char variable to the longer type. If you do not want this to take place, use a cast, e.g.: ui = (unsigned char)sc; (356) implicit conversion of float to integer (Parser) A floating point value has been assigned or otherwise converted to an integral type. This could result in truncation of the floating point value. A typecast will make this warning go away. double dd; int i; i = dd; /* is this really what you meant? */ If you do intend to use an expression like this, then indicate that this is so by a cast: i = (int)dd; (357) illegal conversion of integer to pointer (Parser) An integer has been assigned to or otherwise converted to a pointer type. This will usually mean you have used the wrong variable, but if this is genuinely what you want to do, use a typecast to inform the compiler that you want the conversion and the warning will be suppressed. This may also mean you have forgotten the & address operator, e.g.: int * ip; int i; ip = i; /* woops -- did you mean ip = &i ? */ If you do intend to use an expression like this, then indicate that this is so by a cast: ip = (int *)i; (358) illegal conversion of pointer to integer (Parser) A pointer has been assigned to or otherwise converted to a integral type. This will usually mean you have used the wrong variable, but if this is genuinely what you want to do, use a typecast to inform the compiler that you want the conversion and the warning will be suppressed. This may also mean you have forgotten the * dereference operator, e.g.: 321 Error and Warning Messages int * ip; int i; i = ip; /* woops -- did you mean i = *ip ? */ If you do intend to use an expression like this, then indicate that this is so by a cast: i = (int)ip; (359) illegal conversion between pointer types (Parser) A pointer of one type (i.e. pointing to a particular kind of object) has been converted into a pointer of a different type. This will usually mean you have used the wrong variable, but if this is genuinely what you want to do, use a typecast to inform the compiler that you want the conversion and the warning will be suppressed, e.g.: long input; char * cp; cp = &input; /* is this correct? */ This is common way of accessing bytes within a multi-byte variable. To indicate that this is the intended operation of the program, use a cast: cp = (char *)&input; /* that's better */ This warning may also occur when converting between pointers to objects which have the same type, but which have different qualifiers, e.g.: char * cp; /* yes, but what sort of characters? */ cp = "I am a string of characters"; If the default type for string literals is const char *, then this warning is quite valid. This should be written: const char * cp; cp = "I am a string of characters"; /* that's better */ Omitting a qualifier from a pointer type is often disastrous, but almost certainly not what you intend. 322 Error and Warning Messages (360) array index out of bounds (Parser) An array is being indexed with a constant value that is less than zero, or greater than or equal to the number of elements in the array. This warning will not be issued when accessing an array element via a pointer variable, e.g.: int i, * ip, input[10]; i = input[-2]; /* woops -- this element doesn't exist */ ip = &input[5]; i = ip[-2]; /* this is okay */ (361) function declared implicit int (Parser) Where the compiler encounters a function call of a function whose name is presently undefined, the compiler will automatically declare the function to be of type int, with unspecified (K&R style) parameters. If a definition of the function is subsequently encountered, it is possible that its type and arguments will be different from the earlier implicit declaration, causing a compiler error. The solution is to ensure that all functions are defined or at least declared before use, preferably with prototyped parameters. If it is necessary to make a forward declaration of a function, it should be preceded with the keywords extern or static as appropriate. For example: /* I may prevent an error arising from calls below */ void set(long a, int b); void main(void) { set(10L, 6); /* by here a prototype for set should have seen */ } (362) redundant "&" applied to array (Parser) The address operator & has been applied to an array. Since using the name of an array gives its address anyway, this is unnecessary and has been ignored, e.g.: int array[5]; int * ip; /* array is a constant, not a variable; the & is redundant. */ ip = &array; (363) redundant "&" applied to function (Parser) The address operator "&" has been applied to a function. Since using the name of a function gives its address anyway, this is unnecessary and has been ignored, e.g.: 323 Error and Warning Messages extern void foo(void); void main(void) { void(*bar)(void); /* both assignments are equivalent */ bar = &foo; bar = foo; /* the & is redundant */ } (364) attempt to modify object qualified * (Parser) Objects declared const or code may not be assigned to or modified in any other way by your program. The effect of attempting to modify such an object is compiler-specific. const int out = 1234; /* "out" is read only */ out = 0; /* woops -- writing to a read-only object */ (365) pointer to non-static object returned (Parser) This function returns a pointer to a non-static (e.g. auto) variable. This is likely to be an error, since the storage associated with automatic variables becomes invalid when the function returns, e.g.: char * get_addr(void) { char c; /* returning this is dangerous; the pointer could be dereferenced */ return &c; } (366) operands of "*" not same pointer type (Parser) The operands of this operator are of different pointer types. This probably means you have used the wrong pointer, but if the code is actually what you intended, use a typecast to suppress the error message. (367) identifier is already extern; can't be static (Parser) This function was already declared extern, possibly through an implicit declaration. It has now been redeclared static, but this redeclaration is invalid. 324 Error and Warning Messages void main(void) { /* at this point the compiler assumes set is extern... */ set(10L, 6); } static void set(long a, int b) /* now it finds out otherwise */ { PORTA = a + b; } (368) array dimension on "*[]" ignored (Preprocessor) An array dimension on a function parameter has been ignored because the argument is actually converted to a pointer when passed. Thus arrays of any size may be passed. Either remove the dimension from the parameter, or define the parameter using pointer syntax, e.g.: /* param should be: "int array[]" or "int *" */ int get_first(int array[10]) { /* warning flagged here */ return array[0]; } (369) signed bitfields not supported (Parser) Only unsigned bitfields are supported. If a bitfield is declared to be type int, the compiler still treats it as unsigned, e.g.: struct { signed int sign: 1; /* this must be unsigned */ signed int value: 15; } ; (370) illegal basic type; int assumed (Parser) The basic type of a cast to a qualified basic type couldn't not be recognised and the basic type was assumed to be int, e.g.: /* here ling is assumed to be int */ unsigned char bar = (unsigned ling) 'a'; 325 Error and Warning Messages (371) missing basic type; int assumed (Parser) This declaration does not include a basic type, so int has been assumed. This declaration is not illegal, but it is preferable to include a basic type to make it clear what is intended, e.g.: char c; i; /* don't let the compiler make assumptions, use : int i */ func(); /* ditto, use: extern int func(int); */ (372) "," expected (Parser) A comma was expected here. This could mean you have left out the comma between two identifiers in a declaration list. It may also mean that the immediately preceding type name is misspelled, and has thus been interpreted as an identifier, e.g.: unsigned char a; /* thinks: chat & b are unsigned, but where is the comma? */ unsigned chat b; (373) implicit signed to unsigned conversion (Parser) An unsigned type was expected where a signed type was given and was implicitly cast to unsigned, e.g.: unsigned int foo = -1; /* the above initialization is implicitly treated as: unsigned int foo = (unsigned) -1; */ (374) missing basic type; int assumed (Parser) The basic type of a cast to a qualified basic type was missing and assumed to be int., e.g.: int foo = (signed) 2; /* here (signed) is assumed to be (signed int) */ (375) unknown FNREC type "*" (Linker) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. 326 Error and Warning Messages (376) bad non-zero node in call graph (Linker) The linker has encountered a top level node in the call graph that is referenced from lower down in the call graph. This probably means the program has indirect recursion, which is not allowed when using a compiled stack. (378) can't create * file "*" (Hexmate) This type of file could not be created. Is the file or a file by this name already in use? (379) bad record type "*" (Linker) This is an internal compiler error. Ensure the object file is a valid HI-TECH object file. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (380) unknown record type (*) (Linker) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (381) record "*" too long (*) (Linker) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (382) incomplete record: type = *, length = * (Dump, Xstrip) This message is produced by the DUMP or XSTRIP utilities and indicates that the object file is not a valid HI-TECH object file, or that it has been truncated. Contact HI-TECH Support with details. (383) text record has length (*) too small (Linker) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (384) assertion failed: file *, line *, expression * (Linker, Parser) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (387) illegal or too many -G options (Linker) There has been more than one linker -g option, or the -g option did not have any arguments following. The arguments specify how the segment addresses are calculated. 327 Error and Warning Messages (388) duplicate -M option (Linker) The map file name has been specified to the linker for a second time. This should not occur if you are using a compiler driver. If invoking the linker manually, ensure that only one instance of this option is present on the command line. See Section 5.9.9 for information on the correct syntax for this option. (389) illegal or too many -O options (Linker) This linker -o flag is illegal, or another -o option has been encountered. A -o option to the linker must be immediately followed by a filename with no intervening space. (390) missing argument to -P (Linker) There have been too many -p options passed to the linker, or a -p option was not followed by any arguments. The arguments of separate -p options may be combined and separated by commas. (391) missing argument to -Q (Linker) The -Q linker option requires the machine type for an argument. (392) missing argument to -U (Linker) The -U (undefine) option needs an argument. (393) missing argument to -W (Linker) The -W option (listing width) needs a numeric argument. (394) duplicate -D or -H option (Linker) The symbol file name has been specified to the linker for a second time. This should not occur if you are using a compiler driver. If invoking the linker manually, ensure that only one instance of either of these options is present on the command line. (395) missing argument to -J (Linker) The maximum number of errors before aborting must be specified following the -j linker option. 328 Error and Warning Messages (397) usage: hlink [-options] files.obj files.lib (Linker) Improper usage of the command-line linker. If you are invoking the linker directly then please refer to Section 5.9 for more details. Otherwise this may be an internal compiler error and you should contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (398) output file can't be also an input file (Linker) The linker has detected an attempt to write its output file over one of its input files. This cannot be done, because it needs to simultaneously read and write input and output files. (400) bad object code format (Linker) This is an internal compiler error. The object code format of an object file is invalid. Ensure it is a valid HI-TECH object file. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (402) bad argument to -F (Objtohex) The -F option for objtohex has been supplied an invalid argument. If you are invoking this command-line tool directly then please refer to Section 5.13 for more details. Otherwise this may be an internal compiler error and you should contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (403) bad -E option: "*" (Objtohex) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (404) bad maximum length value to -<digits> (Objtohex) The first value to the OBJTOHEX -n,m hex length/rounding option is invalid. (405) bad record size rounding value to -<digits> (Objtohex) The second value to the OBJTOHEX -n,m hex length/rounding option is invalid. (406) bad argument to -A (Objtohex) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (407) bad argument to -U (Objtohex) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. 329 Error and Warning Messages (408) bad argument to -B (Objtohex) This option requires an integer argument in either base 8, 10 or 16. If you are invoking objtohex directly then see Section 5.13 for more details. Otherwise this may be an internal compiler error and you should contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (409) bad argument to -P (Objtohex) This option requires an integer argument in either base 8, 10 or 16. If you are invoking objtohex directly then see Section 5.13 for more details. Otherwise this may be an internal compiler error and you should contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (410) bad combination of options (Objtohex) The combination of options supplied to OBJTOHEX is invalid. (412) text does not start at 0 (Objtohex) Code in some things must start at zero. Here it doesn't. (413) write error on "*" (Assembler, Linker, Cromwell) A write error occurred on the named file. This probably means you have run out of disk space. (414) read error on "*" (Linker) The linker encountered an error trying to read this file. (415) text offset too low in COFF file (Objtohex) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (416) bad character (*) in extended TEKHEX line (Objtohex) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (417) seek error in "*" (Linker) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. 330 Error and Warning Messages (418) image too big (Objtohex) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (419) object file is not absolute (Objtohex) The object file passed to OBJTOHEX has relocation items in it. This may indicate it is the wrong object file, or that the linker or OBJTOHEX have been given invalid options. The object output files from the assembler are relocatable, not absolute. The object file output of the linker is absolute. (420) too many relocation items (Objtohex) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (421) too many segments (Objtohex) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (422) no end record (Linker) This object file has no end record. This probably means it is not an object file. Contact HI-TECH Support if the object file was generated by the compiler. (423) illegal record type (Linker) There is an error in an object file. This is either an invalid object file, or an internal error in the linker. Contact HI-TECH Support with details if the object file was created by the compiler. (424) record too long (Objtohex) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (425) incomplete record (Objtohex, Libr) The object file passed to OBJTOHEX or the librarian is corrupted. Contact HI-TECH Support with details. (427) syntax error in checksum list (Objtohex) There is a syntax error in a checksum list read by OBJTOHEX. The checksum list is read from standard input in response to an option. 331 Error and Warning Messages (428) too many segment fixups (Objtohex) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (429) bad segment fixups (Objtohex) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (430) bad checksum specification (Objtohex) A checksum list supplied to OBJTOHEX is syntactically incorrect. (431) bad argument to -E (Objtoexe) This option requires an integer argument in either base 8, 10 or 16. If you are invoking objtoexe directly then check this argument. Otherwise this may be an internal compiler error and you should contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (432) usage: objtohex [-ssymfile] [object-file [exe-file]] (Objtohex) Improper usage of the command-line tool objtohex. If you are invoking objtohex directly then please refer to Section 5.13 for more details. Otherwise this may be an internal compiler error and you should contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (434) too many symbols (*) (Linker) There are too many symbols in the symbol table, which has a limit of * symbols. Change some global symbols to local symbols to reduce the number of symbols. (435) bad segment selector "*" (Linker) The segment specification option (-G) to the linker is invalid, e.g.: -GA/f0+10 Did you forget the radix? -GA/f0h+10 (436) psect "*" re-orged (Linker) This psect has had its start address specified more than once. 332 Error and Warning Messages (437) missing "=" in class spec (Linker) A class spec needs an = sign, e.g. -Ctext=ROM See Section 5.9.9 for more information. (438) bad size in -S option (Linker) The address given in a -S specification is invalid: it should be a valid number, in decimal, octal or hexadecimal radix. The radix is specified by a trailing O, for octal, or H for hex. A leading 0x may also be used for hexadecimal. Case in not important for any number or radix. Decimal is the default, e.g.: -SCODE=f000 Did you forget the radix? -SCODE=f000h (439) bad -D spec: "*" (Linker) The format of a -D specification, giving a delta value to a class, is invalid, e.g.: -DCODE What is the delta value for this class? Maybe you meant something like: -DCODE=2 (440) bad delta value in -D spec (Linker) The delta value supplied to a -D specification is invalid. This value should an integer of base 8, 10 or 16. (441) bad -A spec: "*" (Linker) The format of a -A specification, giving address ranges to the linker, is invalid, e.g.: -ACODE What is the range for this class? Maybe you meant: -ACODE=0h-1fffh 333 Error and Warning Messages (442) missing address in -A spec (Linker) The format of a -A specification, giving address ranges to the linker, is invalid, e.g.: -ACODE= What is the range for this class? Maybe you meant: -ACODE=0h-1fffh (443) bad low address "*" in -A spec (Linker) The low address given in a -A specification is invalid: it should be a valid number, in decimal, octal or hexadecimal radix. The radix is specified by a trailing O (for octal) or H for hex. A leading 0x may also be used for hexadecimal. Case in not important for any number or radix. Decimal is default, e.g.: -ACODE=1fff-3fffh Did you forget the radix? -ACODE=1fffh-3fffh (444) expected "-" in -A spec (Linker) There should be a minus sign, -, between the high and low addresses in a -A linker option, e.g. -AROM=1000h maybe you meant: -AROM=1000h-1fffh (445) bad high address "*" in -A spec (Linker) The high address given in a -A specification is invalid: it should be a valid number, in decimal, octal or hexadecimal radix. The radix is specified by a trailing O, for octal, or H for hex. A leading 0x may also be used for hexadecimal. Case in not important for any number or radix. Decimal is the default, e.g.: -ACODE=0h-ffff Did you forget the radix? -ACODE=0h-ffffh See Section 5.9.20 for more information. 334 Error and Warning Messages (446) bad overrun address "*" in -A spec (Linker) The overrun address given in a -A specification is invalid: it should be a valid number, in decimal, octal or hexadecimal radix. The radix is specified by a trailing O (for octal) or H for hex. A leading 0x may also be used for hexadecimal. Case in not important for any number or radix. Decimal is default, e.g.: -AENTRY=0-0FFh-1FF Did you forget the radix? -AENTRY=0-0FFh-1FFh (447) bad load address "*" in -A spec (Linker) The load address given in a -A specification is invalid: it should be a valid number, in decimal, octal or hexadecimal radix. The radix is specified by a trailing O (for octal) or H for hex. A leading 0x may also be used for hexadecimal. Case in not important for any number or radix. Decimal is default, e.g.: -ACODE=0h-3fffh/a000 Did you forget the radix? -ACODE=0h-3fffh/a000h (448) bad repeat count "*" in -A spec (Linker) The repeat count given in a -A specification is invalid, e.g.: -AENTRY=0-0FFhxf Did you forget the radix? -AENTRY=0-0FFhxfh (449) syntax error in -A spec: * (Linker) The -A spec is invalid. A valid -A spec should be something like: -AROM=1000h-1FFFh 335 Error and Warning Messages (450) psect "*" was never defined (Linker, Optimiser) This psect has been listed in a -P option, but is not defined in any module within the program. (451) bad psect origin format in -P option (Linker) The origin format in a -p option is not a validly formed decimal, octal or hex number, nor is it the name of an existing psect. A hex number must have a trailing H, e.g.: -pbss=f000 Did you forget the radix? -pbss=f000h (452) bad "+" (minimum address) format in -P option (Linker) The minimum address specification in the linker's -p option is badly formatted, e.g.: -pbss=data+f000 Did you forget the radix? -pbss=data+f000h (453) missing number after "%" in -P option (Linker) The % operator in a -p option (for rounding boundaries) must have a number after it. (454) link and load address can't both be set to "." in -P option (Linker) The link and load address of a psect have both been specified with a dot character. Only one of these addresses may be specified in this manner, e.g.: -Pmypsect=1000h/. -Pmypsect=./1000h Both of these options are valid and equivalent, however the following usage is ambiguous: -Pmypsect=./. What is the link or load address of this psect? 336 Error and Warning Messages (455) psect "*" not relocated on 0x* byte boundary (Linker) This psect is not relocated on the required boundary. Check the relocatability of the psect and correct the -p option. if necessary. (456) psect "*" not loaded on 0x* boundary (Linker) This psect has a relocatability requirement that is not met by the load address given in a -p option. For example if a psect must be on a 4K byte boundary, you could not start it at 100H. (461) can't create * file "*" (Assembler, Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (464) missing key in avmap file (Linker) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (465) undefined symbol "*" in FNBREAK record (Linker) The linker has found an undefined symbol in the FNBREAK record for a non-reentrant function. Contact HI-TECH Support if this is not handwritten assembler code. (466) undefined symbol "*" in FNINDIR record (Linker) The linker has found an undefined symbol in the FNINDIR record for a non-reentrant function. Contact HI-TECH Support if this is not handwritten assembler code. (467) undefined symbol "*" in FNADDR record (Linker) The linker has found an undefined symbol in the FNADDR record for a non-reentrant function. Contact HI-TECH Support if this is not handwritten assembler code. (468) undefined symbol "*" in FNCALL record (Linker) The linker has found an undefined symbol in the FNCALL record for a non-reentrant function. Contact HI-TECH Support if this is not handwritten assembler code. (469) undefined symbol "*" in FNROOT record (Linker) The linker has found an undefined symbol in the FNROOT record for a non-reentrant function. Contact HI-TECH Support if this is not handwritten assembler code. 337 Error and Warning Messages (470) undefined symbol "*" in FNSIZE record (Linker) The linker has found an undefined symbol in the FNSIZE record for a non-reentrant function. Contact HI-TECH Support if this is not handwritten assembler code. (471) recursive function calls: (Linker) These functions (or function) call each other recursively. One or more of these functions has statically allocated local variables (compiled stack). Either use the reentrant keyword (if supported with this compiler) or recode to avoid recursion, e.g.: int test(int a) { if(a == 5) { /* recursion may not be supported by some compilers */ return test(a++); } return 0; } (472) non-reentrant function "*" appears in multiple call graphs: rooted at "*" and "*" (Linker) This function can be called from both main-line code and interrupt code. Use the reentrant keyword, if this compiler supports it, or recode to avoid using local variables or parameters, or duplicate the function, e.g.: void interrupt my_isr(void) { scan(6); /* scan is called from an interrupt function */ } void process(int a) { scan(a); /* scan is also called from main-line code */ } (473) function "*" is not called from specified interrupt_level (Linker) The indicated function is never called from an interrupt function of the same interrupt level, e.g.: 338 Error and Warning Messages #pragma interrupt_level 1 void foo(void) { ... } #pragma interrupt_level 1 void interrupt bar(void) { // this function never calls foo() } (474) no psect specified for function variable/argument allocation (Linker) The FNCONF assembler directive which specifies to the linker information regarding the auto/parameter block was never seen. This is supplied in the standard runtime files if necessary. This error may imply that the correct run-time startup module was not linked. Ensure you have used the FNCONF directive if the runtime startup module is hand-written. (475) conflicting FNCONF records (Linker) The linker has seen two conflicting FNCONF directives. This directive should only be specified once and is included in the standard runtime startup code which is normally linked into every program. (476) fixup overflow referencing * * (location 0x* (0x*+*), size *, value 0x*) (Linker) The linker was asked to relocate (fixup) an item that would not fit back into the space after relocation. See the following error message (477) for more information.. (477) fixup overflow in expression (location 0x* (0x*+*), size *, value 0x*) (Linker) Fixup is the process conducted by the linker of replacing symbolic references to variables etc, in an assembler instruction with an absolute value. This takes place after positioning the psects (program sections or blocks) into the available memory on the target device. Fixup overflow is when the value determined for a symbol is too large to fit within the allocated space within the assembler instruction. For example, if an assembler instruction has an 8-bit field to hold an address and the linker determines that the symbol that has been used to represent this address has the value 0x110, then clearly this value cannot be inserted into the instruction. The causes for this can be many, but hand-written assembler code is always the first suspect. Badly written C code can also generate assembler that ultimately generates fixup overflow errors. Consider the following error message. 339 Error and Warning Messages main.obj: 8: Fixup overflow in expression (loc 0x1FD (0x1FC+1), size 1, value 0x7FC) This indicates that the file causing the problem was main.obj. This would be typically be the output of compiling main.c or main.as. This tells you the file in which you should be looking. The next number (8 in this example) is the record number in the object file that was causing the problem. If you use the DUMP utility to examine the object file, you can identify the record, however you do not normally need to do this. The location (loc) of the instruction (0x1FD), the size (in bytes) of the field in the instruction for the value (1) , and the value which is the actual value the symbol represents, is typically the only information needed to track down the cause of this error. Note that a size which is not a multiple of 8 bits will be rounded up to the nearest byte size, i.e. a 7 bit space in an instruction will be shown as 1 byte. Generate an assembler list file for the appropriate module. Look for the address specified in the error message. 7 07FC 0E21 movlw 33 8 07FD 6FFC movwf _foo 9 07FE 0012 return and to confirm, look for the symbol referenced in the assembler instruction at this address in the symbol table at the bottom of the same file. Symbol Table Fri Aug 12 13:17:37 2004 _foo 01FC _main 07FF In this example, the instruction causing the problem takes an 8-bit offset into a bank of memory, but clearly the address 0x1FC exceeds this size. Maybe the instruction should have been written as: movwf (_foo&0ffh) which masks out the top bits of the address containing the bank information. If the assembler instruction that caused this error was generated by the compiler, in the assembler list file look back up the file from the instruction at fault to determine which C statement has generated this instruction. You will then need to examine the C code for possible errors. incorrectly qualified pointers are an common trigger. (478) * range check failed (location 0x* (0x*+*), value 0x* > limit 0x*) (Linker) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. 340 Error and Warning Messages (479) circular indirect definition of symbol "*" (Linker) The specified symbol has been equated to an external symbol which, in turn, has been equated to the first symbol. (480) function signatures do not match: * (*): 0x*/0x* (Linker) The specified function has different signatures in different modules. This means it has been declared differently, e.g. it may have been prototyped in one module and not another. Check what declarations for the function are visible in the two modules specified and make sure they are compatible, e.g.: extern int get_value(int in); /* and in another module: */ /* this is different to the declaration */ int get_value(int in, char type) { (481) common symbol "*" psect conflict (Linker) A common symbol has been defined to be in more than one psect. (482) symbol "*" multiply defined in "*" (Assembler) This symbol has been defined in more than one place. The assembler will issue this error if a symbol is defined more than once in the same module, e.g.: _next: move r0, #55 move [r1], r0 _next: ; woops -- choose a different name The linker will issue this warning if the symbol (C or assembler) was defined multiple times in different modules. The names of the modules are given in the error message. Note that C identifiers often have an underscore prepended to their name after compilation. (483) symbol "*" can't be global (Linker) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. 341 Error and Warning Messages (484) psect "*" can't be in classes "*" and "*" (Linker) A psect cannot be in more than one class. This is either due to assembler modules with conflicting class= options to the PSECT directive, or use of the -C option to the linker, e.g.: psect final,class=CODE finish: /* elsewhere: */ psect final,class=ENTRY (485) unknown "with" psect referenced by psect "*" (Linker) The specified psect has been placed with a psect using the psect with flag. The psect it has been placed with does not exist, e.g.: psect starttext,class=CODE,with=rext ; was that meant to be with text? (486) psect "*" selector value redefined (Linker) The selector value for this psect has been defined more than once. (487) psect "*" type redefined: */* (Linker) This psect has had its type defined differently by different modules. This probably means you are trying to link incompatible object modules, e.g. linking 386 flat model code with 8086 real mode code. (488) psect "*" memory space redefined: */* (Linker) A global psect has been defined in two different memory spaces. Either rename one of the psects or, if they are the same psect, place them in the same memory space using the space psect flag, e.g.: psect spdata,class=RAM,space=0 ds 6 ; elsewhere: psect spdata,class=RAM,space=1 342 Error and Warning Messages (489) psect "*" memory delta redefined: */* (Linker) A global psect has been defined with two different delta values, e.g.: psect final,class=CODE,delta=2 finish: ; elsewhere: psect final,class=CODE,delta=1 (490) class "*" memory space redefined: */* (Linker) A class has been defined in two different memory spaces. Either rename one of the classes or, if they are the same class, place them in the same memory space. (491) can't find 0x* words for psect "*" in segment "*" (Linker) One of the main tasks the linker performs is positioning the blocks (or psects) of code and data that is generated from the program into the memory available for the target device. This error indicates that the linker was unable to find an area of free memory large enough to accommodate one of the psects. The error message indicates the name of the psect that the linker was attempting to position and the segment name which is typically the name of a class which is defined with a linker -A option. Section 3.9.1 lists each compiler-generated psect and what it contains. Typically psect names which are, or include, text relate to program code. Names such as bss or data refer to variable blocks. This error can be due to two reasons. First, the size of the program or the program's data has exceeded the total amount of space on the selected device. In other words, some part of your device's memory has completely filled. If this is the case, then the size of the specified psect must be reduced. The second cause of this message is when the total amount of memory needed by the psect being positioned is sufficient, but that this memory is fragmented in such a way that the largest contiguous block is too small to accommodate the psect. The linker is unable to split psects in this situation. That is, the linker cannot place part of a psect at one location and part somewhere else. Thus, the linker must be able to find a contiguous block of memory large enough for every psect. If this is the cause of the error, then the psect must be split into smaller psects if possible. To find out what memory is still available, generate and look in the map file, see Section 2.4.8 for information on how to generate a map file. Search for the string UNUSED ADDRESS RANGES. Under this heading, look for the name of the segment specified in the error message. If the name is not present, then all the memory available for this psect has been allocated. If it is present, there will be one address range specified under this segment for each free block of memory. Determine the size of each block and compare this with the number of words specified in the error message. 343 Error and Warning Messages Psects containing code can be reduced by using all the compiler's optimizations, or restructuring the program. If a code psect must be split into two or more small psects, this requires splitting a function into two or more smaller functions (which may call each other). These functions may need to be placed in new modules. Psects containing data may be reduced when invoking the compiler optimizations, but the effect is less dramatic. The program may need to be rewritten so that it needs less variables. Section 5.11.1 has information on interpreting the map file's call graph if the compiler you are using uses a compiled stack. (If the string Call graph: is not present in the map file, then the compiled code uses a hardware stack.) If a data psect needs to be split into smaller psects, the definitions for variables will need to be moved to new modules or more evenly spread in the existing modules. Memory allocation for auto variables is entirely handled by the compiler. Other than reducing the number of these variables used, the programmer has little control over their operation. This applies whether the compiled code uses a hardware or compiled stack. For example, after receiving the message: Can't find 0x34 words (0x34 withtotal) for psect text in segment CODE (error) look in the map file for the ranges of unused memory. UNUSED ADDRESS RANGES CODE 00000244-0000025F 00001000-0000102f RAM 00300014-00301FFB In the CODE segment, there is 0x1c (0x25f-0x244+1) bytes of space available in one block and 0x30 available in another block. Neither of these are large enough to accommodate the psect text which is 0x34 bytes long. Notice, however, that the total amount of memory available is larger than 0x34 bytes. (492) attempt to position absolute psect "*" is illegal (Linker) This psect is absolute and should not have an address specified in a -P option. Either remove the abs psect flag, or remove the -P linker option. (493) origin of psect "*" multiply defined (Linker) The origin of this psect is defined more than once. There is most likely more than one -p linker option specifying this psect. 344 Error and Warning Messages (494) bad -P format "*/*" (Linker) The -P option given to the linker is malformed. This option specifies placement of a psect, e.g.: -Ptext=10g0h Maybe you meant: -Ptext=10f0h (497) psect "*" exceeds max size: *h > *h (Linker) The psect has more bytes in it than the maximum allowed as specified using the size psect flag. (498) psect "*" exceeds address limit: *h > *h (Linker) The maximum address of the psect exceeds the limit placed on it using the limit psect flag. Either the psect needs to be linked at a different location or there is too much code/data in the psect. (499) undefined symbol: (Assembler, Linker) The symbol following is undefined at link time. This could be due to spelling error, or failure to link an appropriate module. (500) undefined symbols: (Linker) A list of symbols follows that were undefined at link time. These errors could be due to spelling error, or failure to link an appropriate module. (501) program entry point multiply defined (Linker) There is more than one entry point defined in the object files given the linker. End entry point is specified after the END directive. The runtime startup code defines the entry point, e.g.: powerup: goto start END powerup ; end of file and define entry point ; other files that use END should not define another entry point (502) incomplete * record body: length = * (Linker) An object file contained a record with an illegal size. This probably means the file is truncated or not an object file. Contact HI-TECH Support with details. 345 Error and Warning Messages (503) ident records do not match (Linker) The object files passed to the linker do not have matching ident records. This means they are for different processor types. (504) object code version is greater than *.* (Linker) The object code version of an object module is higher than the highest version the linker is known to work with. Check that you are using the correct linker. Contact HI-TECH Support if the object file if you have not patched the linker. (505) no end record found in object file (Linker) An object file did not contain an end record. This probably means the file is corrupted or not an object file. Contact HI-TECH Support if the object file was generated by the compiler. (506) object file record too long: *+* (Linker) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (507) unexpected end of file in object file (Linker) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (508) relocation offset (*) out of range 0..*-*-1 (Linker) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (509) illegal relocation size: * (Linker) There is an error in the object code format read by the linker. This either means you are using a linker that is out of date, or that there is an internal error in the assembler or linker. Contact HI-TECH Support with details if the object file was created by the compiler. (510) complex relocation not supported for -R or -L options (Linker) The linker was given a -R or -L option with file that contain complex relocation. (511) bad complex range check (Linker) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. 346 Error and Warning Messages (512) unknown complex operator 0x* (Linker) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (513) bad complex relocation (Linker) The linker has been asked to perform complex relocation that is not syntactically correct. Probably means an object file is corrupted. (514) illegal relocation type: * (Linker) An object file contained a relocation record with an illegal relocation type. This probably means the file is corrupted or not an object file. Contact HI-TECH Support with details if the object file was created by the compiler. (515) unknown symbol type * (Linker) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (516) text record has bad length: *-*-(*+1) < 0 (Linker) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (520) function "*" is never called (Linker) This function is never called. This may not represent a problem, but space could be saved by removing it. If you believe this function should be called, check your source code. Some assembler library routines are never called, although they are actually execute. In this case, the routines are linked in a special sequence so that program execution falls through from one routine to the next. (521) call depth exceeded by function "*" (Linker) The call graph shows that functions are nested to a depth greater than specified. (522) library "*" is badly ordered (Linker) This library is badly ordered. It will still link correctly, but it will link faster if better ordered. (523) argument to -W option (*) illegal and ignored (Linker) The argument to the linker option -w is out of range. This option controls two features. For warning levels, the range is -9 to 9. For the map file width, the range is greater than or equal to 10. 347 Error and Warning Messages (524) unable to open list file "*": * (Linker) The named list file could not be opened. The linker would be trying to fixup the list file so that it will contain absolute addresses. Ensure that an assembler list file was generated during the compilation stage. Alternatively, remove the assembler list file generation option from the link step. (525) too many address (memory) spaces; space (*) ignored (Linker) The limit to the number of address spaces (specified with the PSECT assembler directive) is currently 16. (526) psect "*" not specified in -P option (first appears in "*") (Linker) This psect was not specified in a -P or -A option to the linker. It has been linked at the end of the program, which is probably not where you wanted it. (528) no start record; entry point defaults to zero (Linker) None of the object files passed to the linker contained a start record. The start address of the program has been set to zero. This may be harmless, but it is recommended that you define a start address in your startup module by using the END directive. (529) usage: objtohex [-Ssymfile] [object-file [hex-file]] (Objtohex) Improper usage of the command-line tool objtohex. If you are invoking objtohex directly then please refer to Section 5.13 for more details. Otherwise this may be an internal compiler error and you should contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (593) can't find 0x* words (0x* withtotal) for psect "*" in segment "*" (Linker) See error (491) on page 343. (594) undefined symbol: (Linker) The symbol following is undefined at link time. This could be due to spelling error, or failure to link an appropriate module. (595) undefined symbols: (Linker) A list of symbols follows that were undefined at link time. These errors could be due to spelling error, or failure to link an appropriate module. 348 Error and Warning Messages (596) segment "*" (*-*) overlaps segment "*" (*-*) (Linker) The named segments have overlapping code or data. Check the addresses being assigned by the -P linker option. (599) No psect classes given for COFF write (Cromwell) Cromwell requires that the program memory psect classes be specified to produce a COFF file. Ensure that you are using the -N option as per Section 5.15.2. (600) No chip arch given for COFF write (Cromwell) Cromwell requires that the chip architecture be specified to produce a COFF file. Ensure that you are using the -P option as per Section 5.15.1. (601) Unknown chip arch "*" for COFF write (Cromwell) The chip architecture specified for producing a COFF file isn't recognised by Cromwell. Ensure that you are using the -P option as per Section 5.15.1 and that the architecture specified matches one of those in Table 5.8. (602) null file format name (Cromwell) The -I or -O option to Cromwell must specify a file format. (603) ambiguous file format name "*" (Cromwell) The input or output format specified to Cromwell is ambiguous. These formats are specified with the -ikey and -okey options respectively. (604) unknown file format name "*" (Cromwell) The output format specified to CROMWELL is unknown, e.g.: cromwell -m -P16F877 main.hex main.sym -ocot and output file type of cot, did you mean cof? (605) did not recognize format of input file (Cromwell) The input file to Cromwell is required to be COD, Intel HEX, Motorola HEX, COFF, OMF51, P&E or HI-TECH. 349 Error and Warning Messages (606) inconsistent symbol tables (Cromwell) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (607) inconsistent line number tables (Cromwell) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (608) bad path specification (Cromwell) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (609) missing processor spec after -P (Cromwell) The -p option to cromwell must specify a processor name. (610) missing psect classes after -N (Cromwell) Cromwell requires that the -N option be given a list of the names of psect classes. (611) too many input files (Cromwell) To many input files have been specified to be converted by CROMWELL. (612) too many output files (Cromwell) To many output file formats have been specified to CROMWELL. (613) no output file format specified (Cromwell) The output format must be specified to CROMWELL. (614) no input files specified (Cromwell) CROMWELL must have an input file to convert. (616) option -C is illegal with options -R or -L (Linker) The linker option -Cbaseaddr cannot be used in conjunction with either the -R or -L linker options. 350 Error and Warning Messages (618) error reading COD file data (Cromwell) An error occurred reading the input COD file. Confirm the spelling and path of the file specified on the command line. (619) I/O error reading symbol table (Cromwell) The COD file has an invalid format in the specified record. (620) filename index out of range in line number record (Cromwell) The COD file has an invalid value in the specified record. (621) error writing ELF/DWARF section "*" on "*" (Cromwell) An error occurred writing the indicated section to the given file. Confirm the spelling and path of the file specified on the command line. (622) too many type entries (Cromwell) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (623) bad class in type hashing (Cromwell) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (624) bad class in type compare (Cromwell) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (625) too many files in COFF file (Cromwell) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (626) string lookup failed in COFF: get_string() (Cromwell) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (627) missing "*" in SDB file "*" line * column * (Cromwell) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. 351 Error and Warning Messages (629) bad storage class "*" in SDB file "*" line * column * (Cromwell) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (630) invalid syntax for prefix list in SDB file "*" (Cromwell) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (631) syntax error at token "*" in SDB file "*" line * column * (Cromwell) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (632) can't handle address size (*) (Cromwell) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (633) unknown symbol class (*) (Cromwell) Cromwell has encountered a symbol class in the symbol table of a COFF, Microchip COFF, or ICOFF file which it can't identify. (634) error dumping "*" (Cromwell) Either the input file to CROMWELL is of an unsupported type or that file cannot be dumped to the screen. (635) invalid HEX file "*" on line * (Cromwell) The specified HEX file contains an invalid line. Contact HI-TECH Support if the HEX file was generated by the compiler. (636) checksum error in Intel HEX file "*" on line * (Cromwell, Hexmate) A checksum error was found at the specified line in the specified Intel hex file. The HEX file may be corrupt. (637) unknown prefix "*" in SDB file "*" (Cromwell) This is an internal compiler warning. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. 352 Error and Warning Messages (638) version mismatch: 0x* expected (Cromwell) The input Microchip COFF file wasn't produced using Cromwell. (639) zero bit width in Microchip optional header (Cromwell) The optional header in the input Microchip COFF file indicates that the program or data memory spaces are zero bits wide. (668) prefix list did not match any SDB types (Cromwell) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (669) prefix list matched more than one SDB type (Cromwell) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (673) missing filename after * option (Objtohex) The indicated option requires a valid file name. Ensure that the filename argument supplied to this option exists and is spelt correctly. (674) too many references to "*" (Cref) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (677) set_fact_bit on pic17! (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (678) case 55 on pic17! (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (679) unknown extraspecial: * (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (680) bad format for -P option (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. 353 Error and Warning Messages (681) bad common spec in -P option (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (685) bad putwsize() (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (686) bad switch size (*) (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (687) bad pushreg "*" (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. See Section 5.9.2 for more information. (688) bad popreg "*" (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (689) unknown predicate "*" (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (690) interrupt function requires address (Code Generator) The Highend PIC devices support multiple interrupts. An @ address is required with the interrupt definition to indicate with which vector this routine is associated, e.g.: void interrupt isr(void) @ 0x10 { /* isr code goes here */ } This construct is not required for midrange PIC devices. (691) interrupt functions not implemented for 12 bit PIC (Code Generator) The 12-bit range of PIC processors do not support interrupts. 354 Error and Warning Messages (692) interrupt function "*" may only have one interrupt level (Code Generator) Only one interrupt level may be associated with an interrupt function. Check to ensure that only one interrupt_level pragma has been used with the function specified. This pragma may be used more than once on main-line functions that are called from interrupt functions. For example: #pragma interrupt_level 0 #pragma interrupt_level 1 /* which is it to be: 0 or 1? */ void interrupt isr(void) { (693) interrupt level may only be 0 (default) or 1 (Code Generator) The only possible interrupt levels are 0 or 1. Check to ensure that all interrupt_level pragmas use these levels. #pragma interrupt_level 2 /* woops -- only 0 or 1 */ void interrupt isr(void) { /* isr code goes here */ } (694) no interrupt strategy available (Code Generator) The processor does not support saving and subsequent restoring of registers during an interrupt service routine. (695) duplicate case label (*) (Code Generator) There are two case labels with the same value in this switch statement, e.g.: switch(in) { case '0': /* if this is case '0'... */ b++; break; case '0': /* then what is this case? */ b--; break; } 355 Error and Warning Messages (696) out-of-range case label (*) (Code Generator) This case label is not a value that the controlling expression can yield, and thus this label will never be selected. (697) non-constant case label (Code Generator) A case label in this switch statement has a value which is not a constant. (698) bit variables must be global or static (Code Generator) A bit variable cannot be of type auto. If you require a bit variable with scope local to a block of code or function, qualify it static, e.g.: bit proc(int a) { bit bb; /* woops -- this should be: static bit bb; */ bb = (a > 66); return bb; } (699) no case labels in switch (Code Generator) There are no case labels in this switch statement, e.g.: switch(input) { } /* there is nothing to match the value of input */ (701) unreasonable matching depth (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (702) regused(): bad arg to G (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (703) bad GN (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. See Section 5.9.2 for more information. 356 Error and Warning Messages (704) bad RET_MASK (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (705) bad which (*) after I (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (706) bad which in expand() (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (707) bad SX (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (708) bad mod "+" for how = "*" (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (709) metaregister "*" can't be used directly (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (710) bad U usage (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (711) bad how in expand() (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (712) can't generate code for this expression (Code Generator) This error indicates that a C expression is too difficult for the code generator to actually compile. For successful code generation, the code generator must know how to compile an expression and there must be enough resources (e.g. registers or temporary memory locations) available. Simplifying the expression, e.g. using a temporary variable to hold an intermediate result, may get around this message. Contact HI-TECH Support with details of this message. This error may also be issued if the code being compiled is in some way unusual. For example code which writes to a const-qualified object is illegal and will result in warning messages, but the code generator may unsuccessfully try to produce code to perform the write. 357 Error and Warning Messages (713) bad initialization list (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (714) bad intermediate code (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (715) bad pragma "*" (Code Generator) The code generator has been passed a pragma directive that it does not understand. This implies that the pragma you have used is a HI-TECH specific pragma, but the specific compiler you are using has not implemented this pragma. (716) bad argument to -M option "*" (Code Generator) The code generator has been passed a -M option that it does not understand. This should not happen if it is being invoked by a standard compiler driver. (718) incompatible intermediate code version; should be *.* (Code Generator) The intermediate code file produced by P1 is not the correct version for use with this code generator. This is either that incompatible versions of one or more compilers have been installed in the same directory, or a temporary file error has occurred leading to corruption of a temporary file. Check the setting of the TEMP environment variable. If it refers to a long path name, change it to something shorter. Contact HI-TECH Support with details if required. (720) multiple free: * (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (721) element count must be constant expression (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (722) bad variable syntax in intermediate code (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. 358 Error and Warning Messages (723) function definitions nested too deep (Code Generator) This error is unlikely to happen with C code, since C cannot have nested functions! Contact HITECH Support with details. (724) bad op (*) in revlog() (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (726) bad op "*" in uconval() (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (727) bad op "*" in bconfloat() (Code Generator) This is an internal code generator error. Contact HI-TECH technical support with details. (728) bad op "*" in confloat() (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (729) bad op "*" in conval() (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (730) bad op "*" (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (731) expression error with reserved word (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (732) initialization of bit types is illegal (Code Generator) Variables of type bit cannot be initialised, e.g.: bit b1 = 1; /* woops! b1 must be assigned a value after its definition */ 359 Error and Warning Messages (733) bad string "*" in pragma "psect" (Code Generator) The code generator has been passed a pragma psect directive that has a badly formed string, e.g.: #pragma psect text /* redirect text psect into what? */ Maybe you meant something like: #pragma psect text=special_text (734) too many "psect" pragmas (Code Generator) Too many #pragma psect directives have been used. (737) unknown argument "*" to pragma "switch" (Code Generator) The #pragma switch directive has been used with an invalid switch code generation method. Possible arguments are: auto, simple and direct. (739) error closing output file (Code Generator, Optimiser) The compiler detected an error when closing a file. Contact HI-TECH Support with details. (740) zero dimension array is illegal (Code Generator) The code generator has been passed a declaration that results in an array having a zero dimension. (741) bitfield too large (* bits) (Code Generator) The maximum number of bits in a bit field is the same as the number of bits in an int, e.g. assuming an int is 16 bits wide: struct { unsigned flag : 1; unsigned value : 12; unsigned cont : 6; /* woops -- that makes a total of 19 bits */ } object; 360 Error and Warning Messages (742) function "*" argument evaluation overlapped (Linker) A function call involves arguments which overlap between two functions. This could occur with a call like: void fn1(void) { fn3( 7, fn2(3), fn2(9)); /* Offending call */ } char fn2(char fred) { return fred + fn3(5,1,0); } char fn3(char one, char two, char three) { return one+two+three; } where fn1 is calling fn3, and two arguments are evaluated by calling fn2, which in turn calls fn3. The program structure should be modified to prevent this type of call sequence. (743) divide by zero (Code Generator) An expression involving a division by zero has been detected in your code. (744) static object "*" has zero size (Code Generator) A static object has been declared, but has a size of zero. (745) nodecount = * (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (747) unrecognized option "*" to -Z (Code Generator) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (748) variable "*" may be used before set (Code Generator) This variable may be used before it has been assigned a value. Since it is an auto variable, this will result in it having a random value, e.g.: 361 Error and Warning Messages void main(void) { int a; if(a) /* woops -- a has never been assigned a value */ process(); } (749) unknown register name "*" used with pragma (Linker) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (750) constant operand to || or && (Code Generator) One operand to the logical operators || or && is a constant. Check the expression for missing or badly placed parentheses. This message may also occur if the global optimizer is enabled and one of the operands is an auto or static local variable whose value has been tracked by the code generator, e.g.: { int a; a = 6; if(a || b) /* a is 6, therefore this is always true */ b++; (751) arithmetic overflow in constant expression (Code Generator) A constant expression has been evaluated by the code generator that has resulted in a value that is too big for the type of the expression. The most common code to trigger this warning is assignments to signed data types. For example: signed char c; c = 0xFF; As a signed 8-bit quantity, c can only be assigned values -128 to 127. The constant is equal to 255 and is outside this range. If you mean to set all bits in this variable, then use either of: c = ~0x0; c = -1; which will set all the bits in the variable regardless of the size of the variable and without warning. This warning can also be triggered by intermediate values overflowing. For example: 362 Error and Warning Messages unsigned int i; /* assume ints are 16 bits wide */ i = 240 * 137; /* this should be okay, right? */ A quick check with your calculator reveals that 240 * 137 is 32880 which can easily be stored in an unsigned int, but a warning is produced. Why? Because 240 and 137 and both signed int values. Therefore the result of the multiplication must also be a signed int value, but a signed int cannot hold the value 32880. (Both operands are constant values so the code generator can evaluate this expression at compile time, but it must do so following all the ANSI rules.) The following code forces the multiplication to be performed with an unsigned result: i = 240u * 137; /* force at least one operand to be unsigned */ (752) conversion to shorter data type (Code Generator) Truncation may occur in this expression as the lvalue is of shorter type than the rvalue, e.g.: char a; int b, c; a = b + c; /* conversion of int to char may result in truncation */ (753) undefined shift (* bits) (Code Generator) An attempt has been made to shift a value by a number of bits equal to or greater than the number of bits in the data type. This will produce an undefined result on many processors. This is non-portable code and is flagged as having undefined results by the C Standard, e.g.: int input; input < <= 33; /* woops -- that shifts the entire value out of input */ (754) bitfield comparison out of range (Code Generator) This is the result of comparing a bitfield with a value when the value is out of range of the bitfield. For example, comparing a 2-bit bitfield to the value 5 will never be true as a 2-bit bitfield has a range from 0 to 3, e.g.: struct { unsigned mask : 2; /* mask can hold values 0 to 3 */ } value; int compare(void) { return (value.mask == 6); /* test can } 363 Error and Warning Messages (755) divide by zero (Code Generator) A constant expression that was being evaluated involved a division by zero, e.g.: a /= 0; /* divide by 0: was this what you were intending */ (757) constant conditional branch (Code Generator) A conditional branch (generated by an if, for, while statement etc.) always follows the same path. This will be some sort of comparison involving a variable and a constant expression. For the code generator to issue this message, the variable must have local scope (either auto or static local) and the global optimizer must be enabled, possibly at higher level than 1, and the warning level threshold may need to be lower than the default level of 0. The global optimizer keeps track of the contents of local variables for as long as is possible during a function. For C code that compares these variables to constants, the result of the comparison can be deduced at compile time and the output code hard coded to avoid the comparison, e.g.: { int a, b; a = 5; /* this can never be false; always perform the true statement */ if(a == 4) b = 6; will produce code that sets a to 5, then immediately sets b to 6. No code will be produced for the comparison if(a == 4). If a was a global variable, it may be that other functions (particularly interrupt functions) may modify it and so tracking the variable cannot be performed. This warning may indicate more than an optimization made by the compiler. It may indicate an expression with missing or badly placed parentheses, causing the evaluation to yield a value different to what you expected. This warning may also be issued because you have written something like while(1). To produce an infinite loop, use for(;;). A similar situation arises with for loops, e.g.: { int a, b; for(a=0; a!=10; a++) /* this loop must iterate at least once */ b = func(a); In this case the code generator can again pick up that a is assigned the value 0, then immediately checked to see if it is equal to 10. Because a is modified during the for loop, the comparison 364 Error and Warning Messages code cannot be removed, but the code generator will adjust the code so that the comparison is not performed on the first pass of the loop; only on the subsequent passes. This may not reduce code size, but it will speed program execution. (758) constant conditional branch: possible use of "=" instead of "==" (Code Generator) There is an expression inside an if or other conditional construct, where a constant is being assigned to a variable. This may mean you have inadvertently used an assignment = instead of a compare ==, e.g.: int a, b; /* this can never be false; always perform the true statement */ if(a = 4) b = 6; will assign the value 4 to a, then , as the value of the assignment is always true, the comparison can be omitted and the assignment to b always made. Did you mean: /* this can never be false; always perform the true statement */ if(a == 4) b = 6; which checks to see if a is equal to 4. (759) expression generates no code (Code Generator) This expression generates no output code. Check for things like leaving off the parentheses in a function call, e.g.: int fred; fred; /* this is valid, but has no effect at all */ Some devices require that special function register need to be read to clear hardware flags. To accommodate this, in some instances the code generator does produce code for a statement which only consists of a variable ID. This may happen for variables which are qualified as volatile. Typically the output code will read the variable, but not do anything with the value read. (760) portion of expression has no effect (Code Generator) Part of this expression has no side effects, and no effect on the value of the expression, e.g.: int a, b, c; a = b,c; /* "b" has no effect, was that meant to be a comma? */ 365 Error and Warning Messages (761) sizeof yields 0 (Code Generator) The code generator has taken the size of an object and found it to be zero. This almost certainly indicates an error in your declaration of a pointer, e.g. you may have declared a pointer to a zero length array. In general, pointers to arrays are of little use. If you require a pointer to an array of objects of unknown length, you only need a pointer to a single object that can then be indexed or incremented. (763) constant left operand to "? :" operator (Code Generator) The left operand to a conditional operator ? is constant, thus the result of the tertiary operator ?: will always be the same, e.g.: a = 8 ? b : c; /* this is the same as saying a = b; */ (764) mismatched comparison (Code Generator) A comparison is being made between a variable or expression and a constant value which is not in the range of possible values for that expression, e.g.: unsigned char c; if(c > 300) /* woops -- how can this be true? */ close(); (765) degenerate unsigned comparison (Code Generator) There is a comparison of an unsigned value with zero, which will always be true or false, e.g.: unsigned char c; if(c >= 0) will always be true, because an unsigned value can never be less than zero. (766) degenerate signed comparison (Code Generator) There is a comparison of a signed value with the most negative value possible for this type, such that the comparison will always be true or false, e.g.: char c; if(c >= -128) will always be true, because an 8 bit signed char has a maximum negative value of -128. 366 Error and Warning Messages (768) constant relational expression (Code Generator) There is a relational expression that will always be true or false. This may be because e.g. you are comparing an unsigned number with a negative value, or comparing a variable with a value greater than the largest number it can represent, e.g.: unsigned int a; if(a == -10) /* if a is unsigned, how can it be -10? */ b = 9; (769) no space for macro definition (Assembler) The assembler has run out of memory. (772) include files nested too deep (Assembler) Macro expansions and include file handling have filled up the assembler's internal stack. The maximum number of open macros and include files is 30. (773) macro expansions nested too deep (Assembler) Macro expansions in the assembler are nested too deep. The limit is 30 macros and include files nested at one time. (774) too many macro parameters (Assembler) There are too many macro parameters on this macro definition. (776) can't allocate space for object "*" (offs: *) (Assembler) The assembler has run out of memory. (777) can't allocate space for opnd structure within object "*", (offs: *) (Assembler) The assembler has run out of memory. (780) too many psects defined (Assembler) There are too many psects defined! Boy, what a program! 367 Error and Warning Messages (781) can't enter abs psect (Assembler) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (782) REMSYM error (Assembler) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (783) "with" psects are cyclic (Assembler) If Psect A is to be placed "with" Psect B, and Psect B is to be placed "with" Psect A, there is no hierarchy. The with flag is an attribute of a psect and indicates that this psect must be placed in the same memory page as the specified psect. Remove a with flag from one of the psect declarations. Such an assembler declaration may look like: psect my_text,local,class=CODE,with=basecode which will define a psect called my_text and place this in the same page as the psect basecode. (784) overfreed (Assembler) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (785) too many temporary labels (Assembler) There are too many temporary labels in this assembler file. The assembler allows a maximum of 2000 temporary labels. (787) can't handle "v_rtype" of * in copyexpr (Assembler) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (788) invalid character "*" in number (Assembler) A number contained a character that was not part of the range 0-9 or 0-F. (790) end of file inside conditional (Assembler) END-of-FILE was encountered while scanning for an "endif" to match a previous "if". 368 Error and Warning Messages (793) unterminated macro argument (Assembler) An argument to a macro is not terminated. Note that angle brackets ("< >") are used to quote macro arguments. (794) invalid number syntax (Assembler, Optimiser) The syntax of a number is invalid. This can be, e.g. use of 8 or 9 in an octal number, or other malformed numbers. (796) use of LOCAL outside macros is illegal (Assembler) The LOCAL directive is only legal inside macros. It defines local labels that will be unique for each invocation of the macro. (797) syntax error in LOCAL argument (Assembler) A symbol defined using the LOCAL assembler directive in an assembler macro is syntactically incorrect. Ensure that all symbols and all other assembler identifiers conform with the assembly language of the target device. (798) macro argument may not appear after LOCAL (Assembler) The list of labels after the directive LOCAL may not include any of the formal parameters to the macro, e.g.: mmm macro a1 move r0, #a1 LOCAL a1 ; woops -- the macro parameter cannot be used with local ENDM (799) REPT argument must be >= 0 (Assembler) The argument to a REPT directive must be greater than zero, e.g.: rept -2 ; -2 copies of this code? */ move r0, [r1]++ endm (800) undefined symbol "*" (Assembler) The named symbol is not defined in this module, and has not been specified GLOBAL. 369 Error and Warning Messages (801) range check too complex (Assembler) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (802) invalid address after END directive (Assembler) The start address of the program which is specified after the assembler END directive must be a label in the current file. (803) undefined temporary label (Assembler) A temporary label has been referenced that is not defined. Note that a temporary label must have a number >= 0. (804) write error on object file (Assembler) The assembler failed to write to an object file. This may be an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (806) attempted to get an undefined object (*) (Assembler) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (807) attempted to set an undefined object (*) (Assembler) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (808) bad size in add_reloc() (Assembler) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (809) unknown addressing mode (*) (Assembler, Optimiser) An unknown addressing mode was used in the assembly file. (814) processor type not defined (Assembler) The processor must be defined either from the command line (eg. -16c84), via the PROCESSOR assembler directive, or via the LIST assembler directive. 370 Error and Warning Messages (815) syntax error in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler) The chipinfo file contains non-standard syntax at the specified line. (816) duplicate ARCH specification in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Assembler, Driver) The chipinfo file has a processor section with multiple ARCH values. Only one ARCH value is allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact HI-TECH Support with details. (817) unknown architecture in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler, Driver) An chip architecture (family) that is unknown was encountered when reading the chip INI file. (818) duplicate BANKS for "*" in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler) The chipinfo file has a processor section with multiple BANKS values. Only one BANKS value is allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact HI-TECH Support with details. (819) duplicate ZEROREG for "*" in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler) The chipinfo file has a processor section with multiple ZEROREG values. Only one ZEROREG value is allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact HI-TECH Support with details. (820) duplicate SPAREBIT for "*" in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler) The chipinfo file has a processor section with multiple SPAREBIT values. Only one SPAREBIT value is allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact HI-TECH Support with details. (822) duplicate ROMSIZE for "*" in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler) The chipinfo file has a processor section with multiple ROMSIZE values. Only one ROMSIZE value is allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact HI-TECH Support with details. (824) duplicate LIB for "*" in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler) The chipinfo file has a processor section with multiple LIB values. Only one LIB value is allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact HI-TECH Support with details. 371 Error and Warning Messages (825) too many RAMBANK lines in chipinfo file for "*" (Assembler) The chipinfo file contains a processor section with too many RAMBANK fields. Reduce the number of values. (826) inverted ram bank in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler, Driver) The second hex number specified in the RAM field in the chipinfo file must be greater in value than the first. (828) inverted common bank in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler, Driver) The second hex number specified in the COMMON field in the chipinfo file must be greater in value than the first. Contact HI-TECH Support if you have not modified the chipinfo INI file. (829) unrecognized line in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler) The chipinfo file contains a processor section with an unrecognised line. Contact HI-TECH Support if the INI has not been edited. (830) missing ARCH specification for "*" in chipinfo file (Assembler) The chipinfo file has a processor section without an ARCH values. The architecture of the processor must be specified. Contact HI-TECH Support if the chipinfo file has not been modified. (832) empty chip info file "*" (Assembler) The chipinfo file contains no data. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact HITECH Support with details. (833) no valid entries in chipinfo file (Assembler) The chipinfo file contains no valid processor descriptions. (834) page width must be >= 60 (Assembler) The listing page width must be at least 60 characters. Any less will not allow a properly formatted listing to be produced, e.g.: LIST C=10 ; the page width will need to be wider than this 372 Error and Warning Messages (835) form length must be >= 15 (Assembler) The form length specified using the -Flength option must be at least 15 lines. Setting this length to zero is allowed and turns off paging altogether. The default value is zero (pageless). (836) no file arguments (Assembler) The assembler has been invoked without any file arguments. It cannot assemble anything. (839) relocation too complex (Assembler) The complex relocation in this expression is too big to be inserted into the object file. (840) phase error (Assembler) The assembler has calculated a different value for a symbol on two different passes. This is probably due to bizarre use of macros or conditional assembly. (842) bad bit number (Assembler, Optimiser) A bit number must be an absolute expression in the range 0-7. (843) a macro name can't also be an EQU/SET symbol (Assembler) An EQU or SET symbol has been found with the same name as a macro. This is not allowed. For example: getval MACRO mov r0, r1 ENDM getval EQU 55h ; woops -- choose a different name to the macro (844) lexical error (Assembler, Optimiser) An unrecognized character or token has been seen in the input. (845) multiply defined symbol "*" (Assembler) This symbol has been defined in more than one place. The assembler will issue this error if a symbol is defined more than once in the same module, e.g.: 373 Error and Warning Messages _next: move r0, #55 move [r1], r0 _next: ; woops -- choose a different name The linker will issue this warning if the symbol (C or assembler) was defined multiple times in different modules. The names of the modules are given in the error message. Note that C identifiers often have an underscore prepended to their name after compilation. (846) relocation error (Assembler, Optimiser) It is not possible to add together two relocatable quantities. A constant may be added to a relocatable value, and two relocatable addresses in the same psect may be subtracted. An absolute value must be used in various places where the assembler must know a value at assembly time. (847) operand error (Assembler, Optimiser) The operand to this opcode is invalid. Check your assembler reference manual for the proper form of operands for this instruction. (849) illegal instruction for this processor (Assembler) The instruction is not supported by this processor. (852) radix must be from 2 - 16 (Assembler) The radix specified using the RADIX assembler directive must be in the range from 2 (binary) to 16 (hexadecimal). (853) invalid size for FNSIZE directive (Assembler) The assembler FNSIZE assembler directive arguments must be positive constants. (855) ORG argument must be a positive constant (Assembler) An argument to the ORG assembler directive must be a positive constant or a symbol which has been equated to a positive constant, e.g.: ORG -10 /* this must a positive offset to the current psect */ 374 Error and Warning Messages (856) ALIGN argument must be a positive constant (Assembler) The align assembler directive requires a non-zero positive integer argument. (857) psect may not be local and global (Linker) A local psect may not have the same name as a global psect, e.g.: psect text,class=CODE ; text is implicitly global move r0, r1 ; elsewhere: psect text,local,class=CODE move r2, r4 The global flag is the default for a psect if its scope is not explicitly stated. (859) argument to C option must specify a positive constant (Assembler) The parameter to the LIST assembler control's C= option (which sets the column width of the listing output) must be a positive decimal constant number, e.g.: LIST C=a0h ; constant must be decimal and positive, try: LIST C=80 (861) argument to N option must specify a positive constant (Assembler) The parameter to the LIST assembler control's N option (which sets the page length for the listing output) must be a positive constant number, e.g.: LIST N=-3 ; page length must be positive (862) symbol is not external (Assembler) A symbol has been declared as EXTRN but is also defined in the current module. (863) symbol can't be both extern and public (Assembler) If the symbol is declared as extern, it is to be imported. If it is declared as public, it is to be exported from the current module. It is not possible for a symbol to be both. 375 Error and Warning Messages (864) argument to "size" psect flag must specify a positive constant (Assembler) The parameter to the PSECT assembler directive's size option must be a positive constant number, e.g.: PSECT text,class=CODE,size=-200 ; a negative size? (865) psect flag "size" redefined (Assembler) The size flag to the PSECT assembler directive is different from a previous PSECT directive, e.g.: psect spdata,class=RAM,size=400 ; elsewhere: psect spdata,class=RAM,size=500 (866) argument to "reloc" psect flag must specify a positive constant (Assembler) The parameter to the PSECT assembler directive's reloc option must be a positive constant number, e.g.: psect test,class=CODE,reloc=-4 ; the reloc must be positive (867) psect flag "reloc" redefined (Assembler) The reloc flag to the PSECT assembler directive is different from a previous PSECT directive, e.g.: psect spdata,class=RAM,reloc=4 ; elsewhere: psect spdata,class=RAM,reloc=8 (868) argument to "delta" psect flag must specify a positive constant (Assembler) The parameter to the PSECT assembler directive's DELTA option must be a positive constant number, e.g.: PSECT text,class=CODE,delta=-2 ; a negative delta value does not make sense (869) psect flag "delta" redefined (Assembler) The 'DELTA' option of a psect has been redefined more than once in the same module. 376 Error and Warning Messages (870) argument to "pad" psect flag must specify a positive constant (Assembler) The parameter to the PSECT assembler directive's 'PAD' option must be a non-zero positive integer. (871) argument to "space" psect flag must specify a positive constant (Assembler) The parameter to the PSECT assembler directive's space option must be a positive constant number, e.g.: PSECT text,class=CODE,space=-1 ; space values start at zero (872) psect flag "space" redefined (Assembler) The space flag to the PSECT assembler directive is different from a previous PSECT directive, e.g.: psect spdata,class=RAM,space=0 ; elsewhere: psect spdata,class=RAM,space=1 (873) a psect may only be in one class (Assembler) You cannot assign a psect to more than one class. The psect was defined differently at this point than when it was defined elsewhere. A psect's class is specified via a flag as in the following: psect text,class=CODE Look for other psect definitions that specify a different class name. (874) a psect may only have one "with" option (Assembler) A psect can only be placed with one other psect. A psect's with option is specified via a flag as in the following: psect bss,with=data Look for other psect definitions that specify a different with psect name. (875) bad character constant in expression (Assembler,Optimizer) The character constant was expected to consist of only one character, but was found to be greater than one character or none at all. An assembler specific example: mov r0, #'12' ; '12' specifies two characters 377 Error and Warning Messages (876) syntax error (Assembler, Optimiser) A syntax error has been detected. This could be caused a number of things. (877) yacc stack overflow (Assembler) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (878) -S option used: "*" ignored (Driver) The indicated assembly file has been supplied to the driver in conjunction with the -S option. The driver really has nothing to do since the file is already an assembly file. (880) invalid number of parameters. Use "* ­HELP" for help (Driver) Improper command-line usage of the of the compiler's driver. (881) setup succeeded (Driver) The compiler has been successfully setup using the --setup driver option. (883) setup failed (Driver) The compiler was not successfully setup using the --setup driver option. Ensure that the directory argument to this option is spelt correctly, is syntactically correct for your host operating system and it exists. (884) please ensure you have write permissions to the configuration file (Driver) The compiler was not successfully setup using the --setup driver option because the driver was unable to access the XML configuration file. Ensure that you have write permission to this file. The driver will search the following configuration files in order: * the file specified by the environment variable HTC_XML * the file /etc/htsoft.xml if the directory '/etc' is writable and there is no .htsoft.xml file in your home directory * the file .htsoft.xml file in your home directory If none of the files can be located then the above error will occur. 378 Error and Warning Messages (890) contact HI-TECH Software to purchase and re-activate this compiler (Driver) The evaluation period of this demo installation of the compiler has expired. You will need to purchase the compiler to re-activate it. If however you sincerely believe the evaluation period has ended prematurely please contact HI-TECH technical support. (891) can't open psect usage map file "*": * (Driver) The driver was unable to open the indicated file. The psect usage map file is generated by the driver when the driver option --summary=file is used. Ensure that the file is not open in another application. (892) can't open memory usage map file "*": * (Driver) The driver was unable to open the indicated file. The memory usage map file is generated by the driver when the driver option --summary=file is used. Ensure that the file is not open in another application. (893) can't open HEX usage map file "*": * (Driver) The driver was unable to open the indicated file. The HEX usage map file is generated by the driver when the driver option --summary=file is used. Ensure that the file is not open in another application. (894) unknown source file type "*" (Driver) The extension of the indicated input file could not be determined. Only files with the extensions as, c, obj, usb, p1, lib or hex are identified by the driver. (895) can't request and specify options in the one command (Driver) The usage of the driver options --getoption and --setoption is mutually exclusive. (899) can't open option file "*" for application "*": * (Driver) An option file specified by a --getoption or --setoption driver option could not be opened. If you are using the --setoption option ensure that the name of the file is spelt correctly and that it exists. If you are using the --getoption option ensure that this file can be created at the given location or that it is not in use by any other application. 379 Error and Warning Messages (900) exec failed: * (Driver) The subcomponent listed failed to execute. Does the file exist? Try re-installing the compiler. (902) no chip name specified; use "* ­CHIPINFO" to see available chip names (Driver) The driver was invoked without selecting what chip to build for. Running the driver with the CHIPINFO option will display a list of all chips that could be selected to build for. (904) illegal format specified in "*" option (Driver) The usage of this option was incorrect. Confirm correct usage with ­HELP or refer to the part of the manual that discusses this option. (905) illegal application specified in "*" option (Driver) The application given to this option is not understood or does not belong to the compiler. (907) unknown memory space tag "*" in "*" option specification (Driver) A parameter to this memory option was a string but did not match any valid tags. Refer to the section of this manual that describes this option to see what tags (if any) are valid for this device. (908) exit status = * (Driver) One of the subcomponents being executed encountered a problem and returned an error code. Other messages should have been reported by the subcomponent to explain the problem that was encoun- tered. (913) "*" option may cause compiler errors in some standard header files (Driver) Using this option will invalidate some of the qualifiers used in the standard header files resulting in errors. This issue and its solution are detailed in the section of this manual that specifically discusses this option. (915) no room for arguments (Preprocessor, Parser, Code Generator, Linker, Objtohex) The code generator could not allocate any more memory. 380 Error and Warning Messages (917) argument too long (Preprocessor, Parser) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (918) *: no match (Preprocessor, Parser) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (920) empty chipinfo file (Driver, Assembler) The chip configuration file was able to be opened but it was empty. Try re-installing the compiler. (922) chip "*" not present in chipinfo file "*" (Driver) The chip selected does not appear in the compiler's chip configuration file. You may need to contact HI-TECH Software to see if support for this device is available or upgrade the version of your compiler. (923) unknown suboption "*" (Driver) This option can take suboptions, but this suboption is not understood. This may just be a simple spelling error. If not, ­HELP to look up what suboptions are permitted here. (924) missing argument to "*" option (Driver) This option expects more data but none was given. Check the usage of this option. (925) extraneous argument to "*" option (Driver) This option does not accept additional data, yet additional data was given. Check the usage of this option. (926) duplicate "*" option (Driver) This option can only appear once, but appeared more than once. (928) bad "*" option value (Driver, Assembler) The indicated option was expecting a valid hexadecimal integer argument. 381 Error and Warning Messages (929) bad "*" option ranges (Driver) This option was expecting a parameter in a range format (start_of_range-end_of_range), but the parameter did not conform to this syntax. (930) bad "*" option specification (Driver) The parameters to this option were not specified correctly. Run the driver with ­HELP or refer to the driver's chapter in this manual to verify the correct usage of this option. (931) command file not specified (Driver) Command file to this application, expected to be found after '@' or '<' on the command line was not found. (939) no file arguments (Driver) The driver has been invoked with no input files listed on its command line. If you are getting this message while building through a third party IDE, perhaps the IDE could not verify the source files to compile or object files to link and withheld them from the command line. (940) *-bit checksum * placed at * (Objtohex) Presenting the result of the requested checksum calculation. (941) bad "*" assignment; USAGE: ** (Hexmate) An option to Hexmate was incorrectly used or incomplete. Follow the usage supplied by the message and ensure that that the option has been formed correctly and completely. (942) unexpected character on line * of file "*" (Hexmate) File contains a character that was not valid for this type of file, the file may be corrupt. For example, an Intel hex file is expected to contain only ASCII representations of hexadecimal digits, colons (:) and line formatting. The presence of any other characters will result in this error. (944) data conflict at address *h between * and * (Hexmate) Sources to Hexmate request differing data to be stored to the same address. To force one data source to override the other, use the '+' specifier. If the two named sources of conflict are the same source, then the source may contain an error. 382 Error and Warning Messages (945) checksum range (*h to *h) contained an indeterminate value (Hexmate) The range for this checksum calculation contained a value that could not be resolved. This can happen if the checksum result was to be stored within the address range of the checksum calculation. (948) checksum result width must be between 1 and 4 bytes (Hexmate) The requested checksum byte size is illegal. Checksum results must be within 1 to 4 bytes wide. Check the parameters to the -CKSUM option. (949) start of checksum range must be less than end of range (Hexmate) The -CKSUM option has been given a range where the start is greater than the end. The parameters may be incomplete or entered in the wrong order. (951) start of fill range must be less than end of range (Hexmate) The -FILL option has been given a range where the start is greater than the end. The parameters may be incomplete or entered in the wrong order. (953) unknown -HELP sub-option: * (Hexmate) Invalid sub-option passed to -HELP. Check the spelling of the sub-option or use -HELP with no sub-option to list all options. (956) -SERIAL value must be between 1 and * bytes long (Hexmate) The serial number being stored was out of range. Ensure that the serial number can be stored in the number of bytes permissible by this option. (958) too many input files specified; * file maximum (Hexmate) Too many file arguments have been used. Try merging these files in several stages rather than in one command. (960) unexpected record type (*) on line * of "*" (Hexmate) Intel hex file contained an invalid record type. Consult the Intel hex format specification for valid record types. 383 Error and Warning Messages (962) forced data conflict at address *h between * and * (Hexmate) Sources to Hexmate force differing data to be stored to the same address. More than one source using the '+' specifier store data at the same address. The actual data stored there may not be what you expect. (963) checksum range includes voids or unspecified memory locations (Hexmate) Checksum range had gaps in data content. The runtime calculated checksum is likely to differ from the compile-time checksum due to gaps/unused byes within the address range that the checksum is calculated over. Filling unused locations with a known value will correct this. (964) unpaired nibble in -FILL value will be truncated (Hexmate) The hexadecimal code given to the FILL option contained an incomplete byte. The incomplete byte (nibble) will be disregarded. (965) -STRPACK option not yet implemented, option will be ignored (Hexmate) This option currently is not available and will be ignored. (966) no END record for HEX file "*" (Hexmate) Intel hex file did not contain a record of type END. The hex file may be incomplete. (967) unused function definition "*" (from line *) (Parser) The indicated static function was never called in the module being compiled. Being static, the function cannot be called from other modules so this warning implies the function is never used. Either the function is redundant, or the code that was meant to call it was excluded from compilation or misspelt the name of the function. (968) unterminated string (Assembler, Optimiser) A string constant appears not to have a closing quote missing. (969) end of string in format specifier (Parser) The format specifier for the printf() style function is malformed. 384 Error and Warning Messages (970) character not valid at this point in format specifier (Parser) The printf() style format specifier has an illegal character. (971) type modifiers not valid with this format (Parser) Type modifiers may not be used with this format. (972) only modifiers "h" and "l" valid with this format (Parser) Only modifiers h (short) and l (long) are legal with this printf format specifier. (973) only modifier "l" valid with this format (Parser) The only modifier that is legal with this format is l (for long). (974) type modifier already specified (Parser) This type modifier has already be specified in this type. (975) invalid format specifier or type modifier (Parser) The format specifier or modifier in the printf-style string is illegal for this particular format. (976) field width not valid at this point (Parser) A field width may not appear at this point in a printf() type format specifier. (978) this identifier is already an enum tag (Parser) This identifier following a struct or union keyword is already the tag for an enumerated type, and thus should only follow the keyword enum, e.g.: enum IN {ONE=1, TWO}; struct IN { /* woops -- IN is already defined */ int a, b; }; 385 Error and Warning Messages (979) this identifier is already a struct tag (Parser) This identifier following a union or enum keyword is already the tag for a structure, and thus should only follow the keyword struct, e.g.: struct IN { int a, b; }; enum IN {ONE=1, TWO}; /* woops -- IN is already defined */ (980) this identifier is already a union tag (Parser) This identifier following a struct or enum keyword is already the tag for a union, and thus should only follow the keyword union, e.g.: union IN { int a, b; }; enum IN {ONE=1, TWO}; /* woops -- IN is already defined */ (981) pointer required (Parser) A pointer is required here, e.g.: struct DATA data; data->a = 9; /* data is a structure, not a pointer to a structure */ (982) unknown op "*" in nxtuse() (Optimiser,Assembler) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (983) storage class redeclared (Parser) A variable previously declared as being static, has now be redeclared as extern. (984) type redeclared (Parser) The type of this function or object has been redeclared. This can occur because of two incompatible declarations, or because an implicit declaration is followed by an incompatible declaration, e.g.: int a; char a; /* woops -- what is the correct type? */ 386 Error and Warning Messages (985) qualifiers redeclared (Parser) This function or variable has different qualifiers in different declarations. (986) enum member redeclared (Parser) A member of an enumeration is defined twice or more with differing values. Does the member appear twice in the same list or does the name of the member appear in more than one enum list? (987) arguments redeclared (Parser) The data types of the parameters passed to this function do not match its prototype. (988) number of arguments redeclared (Parser) The number of arguments in this function declaration does not agree with a previous declaration of the same function. (989) module has code below file base of *h (Linker) This module has code below the address given, but the -C option has been used to specify that a binary output file is to be created that is mapped to this address. This would mean code from this module would have to be placed before the beginning of the file! Check for missing psect directives in assembler files. (990) modulus by zero in #if; zero result assumed (Preprocessor) A modulus operation in a #if expression has a zero divisor. The result has been assumed to be zero, e.g.: #define ZERO 0 #if FOO%ZERO /* this will have an assumed result of 0 */ #define INTERESTING #endif (991) integer expression required (Parser) In an enum declaration, values may be assigned to the members, but the expression must evaluate to a constant of type int, e.g.: enum {one = 1, two, about_three = 3.12}; /* no non-int values allowed */ 387 Error and Warning Messages (992) can't find op (Assembler, Optimiser) This is an internal compiler error. Contact HI-TECH Software technical support with details. (1005) a macro name can't also be a label (Assembler) The name of an assembler macro has also been used as an assembler label. (1015) missing "*" specification in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver) This attribute was expected to appear at least once but was not defined for this chip. (1016) missing argument* to "*" specification in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver) This value of this attribute is blank in the chip configuration file. (1018) illegal number of "*" specification* (* found; * expected) in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver) This attribute was expected to appear a certain number of times but it did not for this chip. (1019) duplicate "*" specification in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver) This attribute can only be defined once but has been defined more than once for this chip. (1020) unknown attribute "*" in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver) The chip configuration file contains an attribute that is not understood by this version of the compiler. Has the chip configuration file or the driver been replaced with an equivalent component from another version of this compiler? (1021) syntax error reading "*" value in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver) The chip configuration file incorrectly defines the specified value for this device. If you are modifying this file yourself, take care and refer to the comments at the beginning of this file for a description on what type of values are expected here. (1022) syntax error reading "*" range in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver) The chip configuration file incorrectly defines the specified range for this device. If you are modifying this file yourself, take care and refer to the comments at the beginning of this file for a description on what type of values are expected here. 388 Error and Warning Messages (1024) syntax error in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver) The chip configuration file contains a syntax error at the line specified. (1025) unknown architecture in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver) The attribute at the line indicated defines an architecture that is unknown to this compiler. (1026) missing architecture in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Assembler) The chipinfo file has a processor section without an ARCH values. The architecture of the processor must be specified. Contact HI-TECH Support if the chipinfo file has not been modified. (1029) compiler not installed correctly - error code (*) (Driver) This compiler has failed to find any activation information and cannot proceed to execute. The compiler may have been installed incorrectly or incompletely. The error code quoted can help diagnose the reason for this failure. You may be asked for this failure code if contacting HI-TECH Software for assistance with this problem. (1030) HEXMATE - Intel hex editing utility (Build 1.%i) (Hexmate) Indicating the version number of the Hexmate being executed. (1031) USAGE: * [input1.hex] [input2.hex]... [inputN.hex] [options] (Hexmate) The suggested usage of Hexmate. (1032) use ­HELP=<option> for usage of these command line options (Hexmate) More detailed information is available for a specific option by passing that option to the HELP option. (1033) available command-line options: (Hexmate) This is a simple heading that appears before the list of available options for this application. (1034) type "*" for available options (Hexmate) It looks like you need help. This advisory suggests how to get more information about the options available to this application or the usage of these options. 389 Error and Warning Messages (1036) bad "*" optional header length (0x* expected) (Cromwell) The length of the optional header in this COFF file was of an incorrect length. (1037) short read on * (Cromwell) When reading the type of data indicated in this message, it terminated before reaching its specified length. (1038) string table length too short (Cromwell) The specified length of the COFF string table is less than the minimum. (1039) inconsistent symbol count (Cromwell) The number of symbols in the symbol table has exceeded the number indicated in the COFF header. (1040) bad checksum: record 0x*, checksum 0x* (Cromwell) A record of the type specified failed to match its own checksum value. (1041) short record (Cromwell) While reading a file, one of the file's records ended short of its specified length. (1042) unknown * record type 0x* (Cromwell) The type indicator of this record did not match any valid types for this file format. (1043) unknown optional header (Cromwell) When reading this Microchip COFF file, the optional header within the file header was of an incorrect length. (1044) end of file encountered (Cromwell, Linker) The end of the file was found while more data was expected. Has this input file been truncated? (1045) short read on block of * bytes (Cromwell) A while reading a block of byte data from a UBROF record, the block ended before the expected length. 390 Error and Warning Messages (1046) short string read (Cromwell) A while reading a string from a UBROF record, the string ended before the specified length. (1047) bad type byte for UBROF file (Cromwell) This UBROF file did not begin with the correct record. (1048) bad time/date stamp (Cromwell) This UBROF file has a bad time/date stamp. (1049) wrong CRC on 0x* bytes; should be * (Cromwell) An end record has a mismatching CRC value in this UBROF file. (1050) bad date in 0x52 record (Cromwell) A debug record has a bad date component in this UBROF file. (1051) bad date in 0x01 record (Cromwell) A start of program record or segment record has a bad date component in this UBROF file. (1052) unknown record type (Cromwell) A record type could not be determined when reading this UBROF file. (1053) additional RAM ranges larger than bank size (Driver) A block of additional RAM being requested exceeds the size of a bank. Try breaking the block into multiple ranges that do not cross bank boundaries. (1054) additional RAM range out of bounds (Driver) The RAM memory range as defined through custom RAM configuration is out of range. (1055) RAM range out of bounds (*) (Driver) The RAM memory range as defined in the chip configuration file or through custom configuration is out of range. 391 Error and Warning Messages (1056) unknown chip architecture (Driver) The compiler is attempting to compile for a device of an architecture that is either unsupported or disabled. (1057) fast double option only available on 17 series processors (Driver) The fast double library cannot be selected for this device. These routines are only available for PIC17 devices. (1058) assertion (Code Generator) This is an internal error. Contact HI-TECH Software. (1059) rewrite loop (Code Generator) This is an internal error. Contact HI-TECH Software. (1060) unknown memory model type "*"; using small. (Driver) The memory model selected is invalid. The build will default to small memory model and continue. Check your usage of the -B option. (1081) static initialization of persistent variable "*" (Parser, Code Generator) A persistent variable has been assigned an initial value. This is somewhat contradictory as the initial value will be assigned to the variable during execution of the compiler's startup code, however the persistent qualifier requests that this variable shall be unchanged by the compiler's startup code. (1090) variable "*" is not used (Code Generator) This variable is declared but has not been used by the program. Consider removing it from the program. (1091) main function "*" not defined (Code Generator) The main function has not been defined. Every C program must have a function called main. (1118) bad string "*" in getexpr(J) (Code Generator) This is an internal error. Contact HI-TECH Software. 392 Error and Warning Messages (1119) bad string "*" in getexpr(LRN) (Code Generator) This is an internal error. Contact HI-TECH Software. (1137) match() error: * (Code Generator) This is an internal error. Contact HI-TECH Software. (1138) attempt to return bit object on the stack (Code Generator) A bit type cannot be returned from a function. (1139) function's parameter area too large; must be less than 1024 bytes (Code Generator) The amount of data used by this function for parameters has exceeded its maximum limit. Reduce the amount of data passed to this function through parameters. (1141) bad interrupt vector address for "*": 0x* (Code Generator) An invalid vector address was assigned to this function. It was possibly out of range or not an even address. (1142) missing interrupt vector address for function "*" (Code Generator) This function was qualified as an interrupt function but has not been assigned a vector address. Assign a vector address to this function. (1143) function's auto area too large, must be less than 65536 bytes (Code Generator) The amount of data used by this function for auto variables has exceeded its maximum limit. Reduce the number of auto variables. (1146) unknown register index (Assembler) This is an internal error. Contact HI-TECH Software. (1147) unknown opbase (Assembler) The op-code for this instruction has not been defined. This is an internal error. Contact HI-TECH Software. 393 Error and Warning Messages (1148) unknown status bit (*) in nxtuse() (Assembler) This is an internal error. Contact HI-TECH Software. (1150) constant operand must be one of: -6, -4, -2, 2, 4, 6 (Assembler) An illegal value was used in this increment/decrement of this instruction. Only values of -6, -4, -2, 2, 4 and 6 are permitted. (1151) write back register must be W13 (Assembler) The working register W13 must be selected as the write back destination. (1152) increment must be a constant (Assembler) An invalid increment value was used in this instruction. Negative values are not permitted. (1153) increment must be 2 (Assembler) An invalid increment value was used in this instruction. The value 2 was expected. (1154) prefetch W register must be W8 or W9 (Assembler) An illegal working register was selected as a prefetch destination register. For this prefetch, valid destinations are W8 or W9. (1155) prefetch W register must be W10 or W11 (Assembler) An illegal working register was selected as a prefetch destination register. For this prefetch, valid destinations are W10 or W11. (1156) prefetch destination register must be one of: W4, W5, W6, W7 (Assembler) An illegal working register was selected as a prefetch destination register. For this prefetch, valid destinations are W4, W5, W6 or W7. (1158) W register must be W12 (Assembler) The working register required here has to be W12, but an other working register was selected. 394 Error and Warning Messages (1160) invalid W register (Assembler) An incorrect working register was selected for this instruction. Some instructions have restrictions on which working registers they can use in certain modes. Refer to the device's programming guide to learn more about what working registers can be used here. (1161) invalid addressing mode (Assembler) The addressing mode used is not suitable for this instruction. Refer to the device's programming guide to find what addressing modes are permitted for this instruction. (1162) byte operation not permitted (Assembler) This instruction does not have a byte mode but a byte mode was requested. (1163) invalid writeback mode (Assembler) This instruction used an access mode which is not supported in the write back feature. (1164) psect flag "width" must specify a positive constant 1,2,3 (Assembler) The width flag used when declaring or resuming this psect has an invalid value. (1165) psect width redefined (Assembler) The value of a psect's width flag differs between declarations of a given psect. All values of width should be the same for all declarations of a given psect. (1166) psect flag "pad" redefined (Assembler) The value of a psect's pad flag differs between declarations of a given psect. All values of pad should be the same for all declarations of a given psect. (1168) unknown conditional type * (Assembler) A conditional branch instruction tests an unknown condition. This is an internal error. Contact HI-TECH Software. (1169) constant out of range (Assembler) The literal value used in this instruction exceeds the valid range that is expected. 395 Error and Warning Messages (1170) unknown operand type in emobj() (Assembler) This is an internal error. Contact HI-TECH Software. (1171) unknown constant size in emobj() (Assembler) This is an internal error. Contact HI-TECH Software. (1172) * constant out of range (Assembler) The literal value used in this instruction exceeds the valid range that is expected. For example using the value 300h in an instruction that accepts an 8 bit value would exceed the expected range for this instruction. (1173) phase error * != * (Assembler) This is an internal error. Contact HI-TECH Software. (1174) invalid psect width size, must be 0, 1 or 2 (Assembler) The width flag used when declaring or resuming this psect has an invalid value. A valid values of width are 0, 1 or 2. (1175) branch out of range (Assembler) The destination or the offset given to this branch instruction exceeds the maximum range of a branch instruction. If this instruction is branching to a label, move the label within the reach of the branch instruction. (1176) call address must be even (Assembler) The destination of a call or goto instruction has been declared absolute and is not an even address. Adjust the address value so that it is an even number. (1177) invalid register combination (Assembler) The source and destination operands for this instruction did not conform to an expected relationship. For example, in this mode: mov [Ws + Wb],[Wd + Wb] ; expects the same Wb in both source and destination 396 Error and Warning Messages (1178) the "*" option has been removed and has no effect (Driver) This option no longer exists in this version of the compiler and has been ignored. Use the compiler's ­help option or refer to the manual to find a replacement option. (1180) directory "*" does not exist (Driver) The directory specified in the setup option does not exist. Create the directory and try again. (1182) near variables must be global or static (Code Generator) A variable qualified as near must also be qualified with static or made global. An auto variable cannot be qualified as near. (1189) only interrupt functions may be qualified "fast" (Code Generator) The fast qualifier can only be used on a function that is also qualified with interrupt. As this qualifier affects the context switching code used by an interrupt function, it serves no purpose in any other function. (1190) FAE license only - not for use in commercial applications (Driver) Indicates that this compiler has been activated with an FAE licence. This licence does not permit the product to be used for the development of commercial applications. (1191) licensed for educational use only (Driver) Indicates that this compiler has been activated with an education licence. The educational licence is only available to educational facilities and does not permit the product to be used for the development of commercial applications. (1192) licensed for evaluation purposes only (Driver) Indicates that this compiler has been activated with an evaluation licence. (1193) this licence will expire on * (Driver) The compiler has been installed as a time-limited trial. This trial will end on the date specified. 397 Error and Warning Messages (1195) invalid syntax for "*" option (Driver) A command line option that accepts additional parameters was given inappropriate data or insufficient data. For example an option may expect two parameters with both being integers. Passing a string as one of these parameters or supplying only one parameter could result in this error. (1198) too many "*" specifications; * maximum (Hexmate) This option has been specified too many times. If possible, try performing these operations over several command lines. (1199) compiler has not been activated (Driver) The trial period for this compiler has expired. The compiler is now inoperable until activated with a valid serial number. Contact HI-TECH Software to purchase this software and obtain a serial number. (1200) Found %0*lXh at address *h (Hexmate) The code sequence specified in a -FIND option has been found at this address. (1201) all FIND/REPLACE code specifications must be of equal width (Hexmate) All find, replace and mask attributes in this option must be of the same byte width. Check the parameters supplied to this option. For example finding 1234h (2 bytes) masked with FFh (1 byte) will result in an error, but masking with 00FFh (2 bytes) will be Ok. (1202) unknown format requested in -FORMAT: * (Hexmate) An unknown or unsupported INHX format has been requested. Refer to documentation for supported INHX formats. (1203) unpaired nibble in * value will be truncated (Hexmate) Data to this option was not entered as whole bytes. Perhaps the data was incomplete or a leading zero was omitted. For example the value Fh contains only four bits of significant data and is not a whole byte. The value 0Fh contains eight bits of significant data and is a whole byte. 398 Error and Warning Messages (1204) * value must be between 1 and * bytes long (Hexmate) An illegal length of data was given to this option. The value provided to this option exceeds the maximum or minimum bounds required by this option. (1205) using the configuration file *; you may override this with the environment variable HTC_XML (Driver) This is the compiler configuration file selected during compiler setup. This can be changed via the HTC_XML environment variable. This file is used to determine where the compiler has been installed. (1207) some of the command line options you are using are now obsolete (Driver) Some of the command line options passed to the driver have now been discontinued in this version of the compiler, however during a grace period these old options will still be processed by the driver. (1208) use ­help option or refer to the user manual for option details (Driver) An obsolete option was detected. Use ­help or refer to the manual to find a replacement option that will not result in this advisory message. (1209) An old MPLAB tool suite plug-in was detected. (Driver) The options passed to the driver resemble those that the Microchip MPLAB IDE would pass to a previous version of this compiler. Some of these options are now obsolete, however they were still interpreted. It is recommended that you install an updated HI-TECH options plug-in for the MPLAB IDE. (1210) Visit the HI-TECH Software website (www.htsoft.com) for a possible update (Driver) Visit our website to see if an update is available to address the issue(s) listed in the previous compiler message. Please refer to the on-line self-help facilities such as the Frequently asked Questions or search the On-line forums. In the event of no details being found here, contact HI-TECH Software for further information. (1212) Found * (%0*lXh) at address *h (Hexmate) The code sequence specified in a -FIND option has been found at this address. 399 Error and Warning Messages (1213) duplicate ARCH for * in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler, Driver) The chipinfo file has a processor section with multiple ARCH values. Only one ARCH value is allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact HI-TECH Support with details. (1218) can't create cross reference file * (Assembler) The assembler attempted to create a cross reference file, but it could not be created. Check that the file's pathname is correct. (1226) invalid instruction or instruction mode for this architecture: "*" (Assembler) An instruction or instruction mode has been used that is not implemented in this particular device. This may be because code has been ported to a lesser device that does not implement all of the features of the original device. Rewrite the section of code that is affected to avoid the use of this instruction or select another device. (1227) support for device * in this compiler version is * (Driver) The chip selected may have a limited or preliminary level of support. Contact HI-TECH Software for specific details of the limitations to the compiler's support of this device. (1228) unable to locate installation directory (Driver) The compiler cannot determine the directory where it has been installed. (1229) only vec_reset or vec_func may be selected (Driver) The --RUNTIME sub-options vec_reset and vec_func are considered mutually exclusive and cannot be used simultaneously. (1230) dereferencing uninitialized pointer "*" (Code Generator) A pointer that has not yet been assigned a value has been dereferenced. This can result in erroneous behaviour at runtime. (1236) invalid argument to *: * (Driver) An option that can take additional parameters was given an invalid parameter value. Check the usage of the option or the syntax or range of the expected parameter. 400 Error and Warning Messages (1240) can't create error file "*" (Driver) The error file specified after the -Efile or -E+file options could not be opened. Check to ensure that the file or directory is valid and that has read only access. delete what ? (Libr) The librarian requires one or more modules to be listed for deletion when using the d key, e.g.: libr d c:\ht-pic\lib\pic704-c.lib does not indicate which modules to delete. try something like: libr d c:\ht-pic\lib\pic704-c.lib wdiv.obj incomplete ident record (Libr) The IDENT record in the object file was incomplete. Contact HI-TECH Support with details. incomplete symbol record (Libr) The SYM record in the object file was incomplete. Contact HI-TECH Support with details. library file names should have .lib extension: * (Libr) Use the .lib extension when specifying a library filename. module * defines no symbols (Libr) No symbols were found in the module's object file. This may be what was intended, or it may mean that part of the code was inadvertently removed or commented. replace what ? (Libr) The librarian requires one or more modules to be listed for replacement when using the r key, e.g.: libr r lcd.lib This command needs the name of a module (.obj file) after the library name. 401 Error and Warning Messages 402 Appendix C Chip Information The following table lists all devices currently supported by HI-TECH PICC-Lite. Table C.1: Devices supported by HI-TECH PICC-Lite DEVICE ARCH ROMSIZE RAMBANK EEPROMSIZE 10F200 PIC12 100 10-1F 10F202 PIC12 200 08-1F 10F204 PIC12 100 10-1F 10F206 PIC12 200 08-1F 10F220 PIC12 100 10-1F 10F222 PIC12 200 09-1F 12C508 PIC12 200 07-1F 12F508 PIC12 200 07-1F 12C509 PIC12 400 07-1F,30-3F 12F509 PIC12 400 07-1F,30-3F 12F510 PIC12 400 0A-1F,30-3F 12F519 PIC12 400 07-1F,30-3F 12C508A PIC12 200 07-1F 12C509A PIC12 400 07-1F,30-3F 12C509AG PIC12 400 07-1F,30-3F RF509AG PIC12 400 07-1F,30-3F 12C509AF PIC12 400 07-1F,30-3F RF509AF PIC12 400 07-1F,30-3F 12CR509A PIC12 400 07-1F,30-3F 12CE518 PIC12 200 07-1F 12CE519 PIC12 400 07-1F,30-3F 16C505 PIC12 400 08-1F,30-3F,50-5F,70-7F 16F505 PIC12 400 08-1F,30-3F,50-5F,70-7F 16F506 PIC12 400 0D-1F,30-3F,50-5F,70-7F continued... 403 Chip Information Table C.1: Devices supported by HI-TECH PICC-Lite DEVICE ARCH ROMSIZE RAMBANK EEPROMSIZE 16C52 PIC12 180 07-1F 16C54 PIC12 200 07-1F 16CR54A PIC12 200 07-1F 16CR54B PIC12 200 07-1F 16CR54C PIC12 200 07-1F 16HV540 PIC12 200 08-1F 16C54A PIC12 200 07-1F 16C54B PIC12 200 07-1F 16C54C PIC12 200 07-1F 16F54 PIC12 200 07-1F 16C55 PIC12 200 08-1F 16C55A PIC12 200 08-1F 16C56 PIC12 400 07-1F 16C56A PIC12 400 07-1F 16CR56A PIC12 400 07-1F 16C57 PIC12 800 08-1F,30-3F,50-5F,70-7F 16C57C PIC12 800 08-1F,30-3F,50-5F,70-7F 16CR57B PIC12 800 08-1F,30-3F,50-5F,70-7F 16CR57C PIC12 800 08-1F,30-3F,50-5F,70-7F 16F57 PIC12 800 08-1F,30-3F,50-5F,70-7F 16C58 PIC12 800 07-1F,30-3F,50-5F,70-7F 16C58A PIC12 800 07-1F,30-3F,50-5F,70-7F 16C58B PIC12 800 07-1F,30-3F,50-5F,70-7F 16CR58A PIC12 800 07-1F,30-3F,50-5F,70-7F 16CR58B PIC12 800 07-1F,30-3F,50-5F,70-7F 16F59 PIC12 800 0A-1F,30-3F,50-5F,70-7F 16C84 PIC14 400 0C-2F 40 16F84 PIC14 400 0C-4F 40 16F84A PIC14 400 0C-4F 40 16F627 PIC14 400 20-7F,A0-EF 80 16F627A PIC14 400 20-7F,A0-EF 80 12F629 PIC14 3FF 20-5F 80 12F675 PIC14 3FF 20-5F 80 16F684 PIC14 400 20-7F 100 16F877 PIC14 800 20-7F,A0-EF 100 16F877A PIC14 800 20-7F,A0-EF 100 16F690 PIC14 800 20-7F,A0-EF 100 16F887 PIC14 800 20-7F,A0-EF 100 16F917 PIC14 800 20-7F,A0-EF 100 404 Index ! macro quote character, 100 . psect address symbol, 129 ... symbol, 54 .as files, 37 .c files, 37 .cmd files, 138 .crf files, 15, 83 .lib files, 37, 38, 137, 138 .lnk files, 133 .lst files, 14 .obj files, 37, 129, 138 .opt files, 83 .pro files, 21 .sdb files, 37 .sym files, 37, 128, 131 / psect address symbol, 129 ;; comment suppression characters, 100 <> macro quote characters, 100 ? character in assembler labels, 86 ??_xxxx type symbols, 110 ??nnnn type symbols, 87, 101 ?_xxxx type symbols, 110, 134 ?a_xxxx type symbols, 110, 134 #asm directive, 68 #define, 8 #endasm directive, 68 #pragma directives, 70 #undef, 13 $ character in assembler labels, 86 $ location counter symbol, 87 % macro argument prefix, 100 & assembly macro concatenation character, 100 _ character in assembler labels, 86 _BANKBITS_, 72 _COMMON_, 72 _EEPROMSIZE, 33, 72 _GPRBITS_, 72 _HTC_EDITION_, 72 _HTC_VER_MAJOR_, 72 _HTC_VER_MINOR_, 72 _HTC_VER_PATCH_, 72 _MPC_, 72 _PIC12, 72 _PIC14, 72 _PIC16, 72 _READ_OSCCAL_DATA, 36 _ROMSIZE, 72 __Bxxxx type symbols, 79 __CONFIG, 30 __CONFIG macro, 158 __DATE__, 72 __EEPROM_DATA, 31, 32 __EEPROM_DATA macro, 159 __FILE__, 72 __Hxxxx type symbols, 79 __IDLOC, 30 __IDLOC macro, 160 405 INDEX INDEX __IDLOC7, 30 __IDLOC7 macro, 161 __LINE__, 72 __Lxxxx type symbols, 79 __MPLAB_ICD__, 72 __PICC__, 72 __TIME__, 72 __ram_cell_test, 162 ASPIC expressions, 89 special characters, 85 ASPIC controls, 103 COND, 103 EXPAND, 103 INCLUDE, 104 LIST, 104 NOCOND, 104 NOEXPAND, 105 NOLIST, 105 NOXREF, 105 PAGE, 105 SPACE, 105 SUBTITLE, 105 TITLE, 106 XREF, 106 ASPIC directives ALIGN, 101 DB, 96 DS, 96 DW, 96 ELSE, 99 ELSIF, 99 END, 91 ENDIF, 99 ENDM, 99 EQU, 95 GLOBAL, 88, 91 IF, 99 IRP, 102 IRPC, 102 LOCAL, 87, 100 MACRO, 99 PROCESSOR, 103 PSECT, 89, 93 REPT, 101 SET, 95 SIGNAT, 103 SIGNAT directive, 78 ASPIC operators, 89 24-bit doubles, 16 32-bit doubles, 16 abs function, 163 abs PSECT flag, 93 absolute object files, 129 absolute psects, 93, 94 absolute variables, 53, 74 accessing SFRs, 69 acos function, 164 additional memory ranges, 23, 24 addresses byte, 149 link, 109, 129 load, 109, 129 word, 149 addressing unit, 93 ALIGN directive, 101 alignment within psects, 101 ANSI standard conformance, 26 implementation-defined behaviour, 29 argument passing, 54 ASCII characters, 44 asctime function, 165 asin function, 167 asm() C directive, 68 ASPIC 406 INDEX INDEX directives, 91 ASPIC directives org, 95 ASPIC options, 82 -A, 83 -C, 83 -Cchipinfo, 83 -E, 83 -Flength, 83 -H, 83 -I, 83 -Llistfile, 83 -O, 83 -Ooutfile, 84 -Twidth, 84 -V, 84 -X, 84 -processor, 84 assembler, 81 accessing C objects, 69 comments, 84 controls, 103 directives, 91 label field, 84 line numbers, 84 mixing with C, 66 pseudo-ops, 91 assembler code called by C, 66 assembler files preprocessing, 21 assembler listings, 14 expanding macros, 83 generating, 83 hexadecimal constants, 83 page length, 83 page width, 84 assembler optimizer enabling, 83 assembler options, see ASPIC options assembler-generated symbols, 87 assembly, 81 character constants, 86 character set, 85 conditional, 99 constants, 86 default radix, 86 delimiters, 85 expressions, 89 generating from C, 13 identifiers, 86 data typing, 87 include files, 104 initializing bytes, 96 words, 96 location counter, 87 multi-character constants, 86 radix specifiers, 86 relative jumps, 87 relocatable expression, 89 repeating macros, 101 reserving locations, 96 special characters, 85 special comment strings, 85 strings, 86 volatile locations, 85 assembly labels, 88 scope, 88, 91 assembly listings blank lines, 105 disabling macro expansion, 105 enabling, 104 excluding conditional code, 104 expanding macros, 103 including conditional code, 103 new page, 105 407 INDEX INDEX subtitles, 105 titles, 106 assembly macros, 99 ! character, 100 % character, 100 & symbol, 100 concatenation of arguments, 100 quoting characters, 100 suppressing comments, 100 assembly statements format of, 84 assert function, 168 atan function, 169 atof function, 170 atoi function, 171 atol function, 172 auto variables, 53 Avocet symbol file, 132 bank1 keyword, 49 bank1 qualifier, 49 bank2 keyword, 49 bank2 qualifier, 49 bank3 keyword, 49 bank3 qualifier, 49 base specifier, see radix specifier baseline PIC special instructions, 35 bases C source, 41 batch files, 18 biased exponent, 45 big endian format, 150 binary constants assembly, 86 C, 41 bit PSECT flag, 93 bit clear instruction, 31 Bit instructions, 31 bit manipulation macros, 31 bit set instruction, 31 bit types in assembly, 93 bit-fields, 46 initializing, 47 unamed, 47 bitwise complement operator, 58 blocks, see psects bootloader, 24, 25, 147, 153 bootloaders, 151 bsearch function, 173 bss psect, 40, 108 clearing, 108 btemp, 76 byte addresses, 149 calibration data PIC14000, 36 call graph, 115, 134 can't generate code, 32 ceil function, 175 cgets function, 176 char types, 14, 44 char variables, 14 character constants, 42 assembly, 86 checksum endianism, 14, 150 checksum psect, 60 checksum specifications, 141 checksums, 14, 146, 147, 149 algorithms, 15, 150 endianism, 14, 150 chipinfo files, 83 class PSECT flag, 93 classes, 126 address ranges, 126 boundary argument, 131 upper address limit, 131 408 INDEX INDEX clrtext psect, 60 CLRWDT macro, 178 COD file, 21 command line driver, 3 command lines HLINK, long command lines, 133 long, 4, 138 verbose option, 14 compiled stack, 115, 134 compiler options, 5 compiler errors format, 17 compiler generated psects, 60 compiling to assembly file, 13 to object file, 7 COND assembler control, 103 conditional assembly, 99 config psect, 60 Configuration Bits, 30 Configuration Fuses, 30 Configuration Word, 30 console I/O functions, 79 const qualifier, 48 constants assembly, 86 C specifiers, 41 character, 42 string, see string literals context retrieval, 64 context saving, 63 highend processors, 64 in-line assembly, 75 midrange processors, 63 copyright notice, 13 cos function, 179 cosh function, 180 cputs function, 181 creating libraries, 138 creating new, 60 CREF, 83 CREF application, 141 CREF option -Fprefix, 142 -Hheading, 142 -Llen, 142 -Ooutfile, 142 -Pwidth, 143 -Sstoplist, 143 -Xprefix, 143 CREF options, 141 cromwell application, 143 cromwell option -B, 146 -C, 145 -D, 145 -E, 146 -F, 145 -Ikey, 146 -L, 146 -M, 146 -N, 145 -Okey, 146 -P, 143 -V, 146 cromwell options, 143 cross reference disabling, 105 generating, 141 list utility, 141 cross reference file, 83 generation, 83 cross reference listings, 15 excluding header symbols, 142 excluding symbols, 143 headers, 142 409 INDEX INDEX output name, 142 page length, 142 page width, 143 cross referencing enabling, 106 cstrings psect, 60 ctime function, 182 data psect, 108 copying, 109 data psects, 39 data types, 41 16-bit integer, 44 8-bit integer, 44 assembly, 87 char, 44 floating point, 45 int, 44 short, 44 DB directive, 96 debug information, 9, 37 assembler, 84 optimizers and, 83 debugger requirements, 16 debugger selection, 16 default libraries, 4 default psect, 91 default radix assembly, 86 delta PSECT flag, 93 delta psect flag, 127 dependencies, 24 device selection, 15 DI macro, 183 di(), 66 directives asm, C, 68 assembler, 91 EQU, 88 disabling interrupts, 66 div function, 184 divide by zero result of, 59 double type, 16 driver option ­ERRFORMAT=format, 16 ­ERRORS=number, 18 ­LANG=language, 19 ­MSGFORMAT=format, 16 ­OUTPUT=type, 21 ­WARN=level, 28 ­WARNFORMAT=format, 16 -Efile, 8 -G, 9 -I, 9 -L, 10 -M, 12 -S, 13 driver options ­WARNFORMAT=format, 28 DS directive, 96 DW directive, 96 EEPROM Data, 32 eeprom memory initializing, 32 reading, 33 writing, 33 eeprom qualifier, 31, 50 eeprom variables, 31 eeprom_data psect, 32, 60 EEPROM_READ, 34 eeprom_read, 33 eeprom_read function, 185 EEPROM_WRITE, 33 eeprom_write, 33 eeprom_write function, 185 EI macro, 183 410 INDEX INDEX ei(), 66 ellipsis symbol, 54 ELSE directive, 99 ELSIF directive, 99 embedding serial numbers, 154 enabling interrupts, 66 END directive, 91 end_init psect, 60 ENDIF directive, 99 ENDM directive, 99 enhanced symbol files, 128 environment variable HTC_ERR_FORMAT, 17 HTC_WARN_FORMAT, 17 EQU directive, 88, 95 equ directive, 84 equating assembly symbols, 95 error files creating, 127 error messages, 8 formatting, 17 LIBR, 139 eval_poly function, 186 exceptions, 62 exp function, 187 EXPAND assembler control, 103 exponent, 45 expressions assembly, 89 relocatable, 89 extern keyword, 66 fabs function, 188 far pointers, 51 fast doubles, 16 fast floating point library, 46 file formats assembler listing, 14 Avocet symbol, 132 command, 138 creating with cromwell, 143 cross reference, 83, 141 cross reference listings, 15 dependency, 24 DOS executable, 129 enhanced symbol, 128 library, 37, 137, 138 link, 133 object, 7, 129, 138 preprocessor, 21 prototype, 21 specifying, 21 symbol, 128 symbol files, 37 TOS executable, 129 files intermediate, 20, 21 output, 21 source, 37 temporary, 20 fill memory, 147 filling unused memory, 15, 18, 151 flash memory erasing, 35 reading, 34, 35 writing, 34, 35 flash_copy, 35 flash_copy function, 189 flash_erase, 35 flash_erase function, 191 FLASH_READ, 34 flash_read, 35 flash_read function, 191 FLASH_WRITE, 34 float_text psect, 60 floating point data types, 45 biased exponent, 45 exponent, 45 411 INDEX INDEX format, 45 mantissa, 45 floating suffix, 41 floor function, 193 fnconf directive, 135 fnroot directive, 135 frexp function, 194 fsr, 76 function prototypes, 78, 103 ellipsis, 54 function return values, 55 function signatures, 103 functions argument passing, 54 bank selection on return, 57 calling convention, 56 fastcall, 57 getch, 79 interrupt, 62 interrupt qualifier, 62 kbhit, 79 putch, 79 return values, 55 signatures, 78 stack usage, 56 structure return values, 56 written in assembler, 66 get_cal_data, 36 get_cal_data function, 198 getch function, 79, 195 getchar function, 196 getche function, 195 gets function, 197 GLOBAL directive, 88, 91 global PSECT flag, 93 global symbols, 108 gmtime function, 199 hardware initialization, 40 header files problems in, 27 HEX file format, 153 HEX file map, 154 hex files address alignment, 18, 151 address map, 147 calculating check sums, 146 converting to other Intel formats, 147 data alignment, 25 data padding, 25 detecting instruction sequences, 147 embedding serial numbers, 147 filling unused memory, 18, 147 find and replacing instructions, 147 for bootloaders, 25 merging multiple, 147 multiple, 127 record length, 18, 147, 151, 153 hexadecimal constants assembly, 86 hexmate application, 146 hexmate option +prefix, 149 -CK, 149 -FILL, 151, 153 -FIND, 151 -FIND...,REPLACE, 152 -FORMAT, 153 -HELP, 154 -LOGFILE, 154 -O, 154 -SERIAL, 26, 154 -STRING, 155 -addressing, 149 file specifications, 148 hexmate options, 147 HI-TIDE, 19 412 INDEX INDEX HI_TECH_C, 72 htc.h, 69 HTC_ERR_FORMAT, 17 HTC_WARN_FORMAT, 17 I/O console I/O functions, 79 serial, 79 STDIO, 79 ID Locations, 30 idata psect, 25 idata_n psect, 60 identifier length, 12 identifiers assembly, 86 IDLOC, 30 idloc psect, 60 IEEE floating point format, 45 IF directive, 99 Implementation-defined behaviour division and modulus, 59 shifts, 59 implementation-defined behaviour, 29 INCLUDE assembler control, 104 include files assembly, 104 INHX32, 147, 153 INHX8M, 147, 153 init psect, 60 int data types, 44 intcode psect, 60 integer suffix long, 41 unsigned, 41 integral constants, 41 integral promotion, 57 intentry psect, 60 interrupt context saving highend processors, 64 midrange processors, 63 interrupt functions, 62 context retrieval, 64 context saving, 63, 75 highend processors, 63 levels, 64 midrange processors, 62 interrupt keyword, 62 interrupt level pragma, 64 interrupt levels, 64 interrupt qualifier, 62 interrupt service routines, 62 interrupts handling in C, 62 intret psect, 61 intsave psect, 61 intsave_n psect, 61 IRP directive, 102 IRPC directive, 102 isalnum function, 201 isalpha function, 201 isdigit function, 201 islower function, 201 Japanese character handling, 73 JIS character handling, 73 jis pragma directive, 73 jmp_tab psect, 61 kbhit function, 79 keyword auto, 53 bank1, 49 bank2, 49 bank3, 49 control, 35 eeprom, 31 interrupt, 62 persistent, 49 413 INDEX INDEX keywords disabling non-ANSI, 26 label field, 84 labels assembly, 88 local, 100 ldexp function, 203 ldiv function, 204 LIBR, 136, 137 command line arguments, 137 error messages, 139 listing format, 139 long command lines, 138 module order, 139 librarian, 136 command files, 138 command line arguments, 137, 138 error messages, 139 listing format, 139 long command lines, 138 module order, 139 libraries, 40 adding files to, 138 creating, 138 default, 4 deleting files from, 138 excluding, 25 format of, 137 linking, 132 listing modules in, 138 module order, 139 scanning additional, 10 standard, 37 used in executable, 129 library difference between object file, 136 manager, 136 library function __CONFIG, 158 __EEPROM_DATA, 159 __IDLOC, 160 __IDLOC7, 161 __ram_cell_test, 162 abs, 163 acos, 164 asctime, 165 asin, 167 assert, 168 atan, 169 atof, 170 atoi, 171 atol, 172 bsearch, 173 ceil, 175 cgets, 176 cos, 179 cosh, 180 cputs, 181 ctime, 182 div, 184 eeprom_read, 185 eeprom_write, 185 eval_poly, 186 exp, 187 fabs, 188 flash_copy, 189 flash_erase, 191 flash_read, 191 floor, 193 frexp, 194 get_cal_data, 198 getch, 195 getchar, 196 getche, 195 gets, 197 gmtime, 199 isalnum, 201 414 INDEX INDEX isalpha, 201 isdigit, 201 islower, 201 ldexp, 203 ldiv, 204 localtime, 205 log, 207 log10, 207 longjmp, 208 memchr, 210 memcmp, 212 memcpy, 214 memmove, 216 memset, 217 modf, 218 persist_check, 219 persist_validate, 219 pow, 221 printf, 222 putch, 225 putchar, 226 puts, 228 qsort, 229 ram_test_failed, 231 rand, 232 scanf, 234 setjmp, 236 sin, 238 sinh, 180 sprintf, 239 sqrt, 240 srand, 241 strcat, 242 strchr, 244 strcmp, 246 strcpy, 248 strcspn, 250 strichr, 244 stricmp, 246 stristr, 262 strlen, 251 strncat, 252 strncmp, 254 strncpy, 256 strnicmp, 254 strpbrk, 258 strrchr, 259 strrichr, 259 strspn, 261 strstr, 262 strtok, 263 tan, 265 tanh, 180 time, 266 toascii, 268 tolower, 268 toupper, 268 ungetch, 269 va_arg, 270 va_end, 270 va_start, 270 vscanf, 234 xtoi, 272 library macro CLRWDT, 178 DI, 183 EI, 183 limit PSECT flag, 94 limiting number of error messages, 18 link addresses, 109, 129 linker, 107 command files, 133 command line arguments, 124, 133 invoking, 133 long command lines, 133 passes, 137 symbols handled, 108 linker defined symbols, 79 415 INDEX INDEX linker errors aborting, 128 undefined symbols, 129 linker option -Aclass=low-high, 126, 131 -Cpsect=class, 126 -Dsymfile, 127 -Eerrfile, 127 -F, 127 -Gspec, 127 -H+symfile, 128 -Hsymfile, 128 -I, 129 -Jerrcount, 128 -K, 128 -L, 129 -LM, 129 -Mmapfile, 129 -N, 129 -Nc, 129 -Ns, 129 -Ooutfile, 129 -Pspec, 129 -Qprocessor, 131 -Sclass=limit[,bound], 131 -Usymbol, 132 -Vavmap, 132 -Wnum, 132 -X, 132 -Z, 132 linker options, 124 adjusting use driver, 10 numbers in, 126 linking programs, 77 LIST assembler control, 104 list files, see assembler listings assembler, 14 little endian format, 44, 150 load addresses, 109, 129 LOCAL directive, 87, 100 local PSECT flag, 94 local psects, 108 local symbols, 14 suppressing, 84, 132 local variables, 52 auto, 53 static, 53 localtime function, 205 location counter, 87, 95 log function, 207 LOG10 function, 207 long data types, 44 long integer suffix, 41 longjmp function, 208 MACRO directive, 99 macro directive, 84 macros disabling in listing, 105 expanding in listings, 83, 103 nul operator, 100 predefined, 70 repeat with argument, 102 undefining, 13 unnamed, 101 maintext psect, 61 mantissa, 45 map files, 129 call graph, 115 call graphs, 134 generating, 12 processor selection, 131 segments, 113, 133 symbol tables in, 129 width of, 132 maximum number of errors, 18 memchr function, 210 memcmp function, 212 416 INDEX INDEX memcpy function, 214 memmove function, 216 memory reserving, 23, 24 specifying, 23, 24 specifying ranges, 126 unused, 18, 129 memory pages, 94 memory summary, 27 memset function, 217 merging hex files, 149 messages disabling, 20 warning, 20 Microchip COF file, 21 modf function, 218 modules in library, 137 list format, 139 order in library, 139 used in executable, 129 moving code, 15 MPLAB, 19 build options, 10 MPLAB ICD, 16 multi-character constants assembly, 86 multiple hex files, 127 NOCOND assembler control, 104 NOEXPAND assembler control, 105 nojis pragma directive, 73 NOLIST assembler control, 105 non-volatile RAM, 48 NOXREF assembler control, 105 numbers C source, 41 in linker options, 126 nvbit_n psect, 61 nvram psect, 49 nvram_n psect, 61 object code, version number, 129 object files, 7 absolute, 129 relocatable, 107 specifying name of, 84 suppressing local symbols, 84 symbol only, 127 OBJTOHEX, 139 command line arguments, 139 offsetting code, 15 optimizations assembler, 20, see assembler optimizer code generator, 20 debugging, 20 global, 20 space, 20 speed, 20 option instruction, 35 options ASPIC, see ASPIC options ORG directive, 95 osccal runtime option, 25 oscillator calibration constants, 36 oscillator constant, 25 oscillator initialization, 25 output specifying name of, 12 output file, 12 output file formats, 129 American Automation HEX, 21 Binary, 21 Bytecraft COD, 21 COFF, 21 ELF, 21 Intel HEX, 21 library, 21 417 INDEX INDEX Microchip COFF, 21 Motorola S19 HEX, 21 specifying, 21, 139 Tektronic, 21 UBROF, 21 overlaid memory areas, 128 overlaid psects, 94 ovrld PSECT flag, 94 pack pragma directive, 73 PAGE assembler control, 105 parameter passing, 54, 66 persist_check function, 219 persist_validate function, 219 persistent keyword, 49 persistent qualifier, 49 pic.h, 69 PIC14000 calibration space, 36 PICC command format, 3 file types, 3 long command lines, 4 options, 5 predefined macros, 70 supported data types, 41 version number, 27 PICC options ­ASMLIST, 14 ­CHAR, 14, 44 ­CHECKSUM, 14 ­CHIP=processor, 15 ­CHIPINFO, 15 ­CODEOFFSET, 15 ­CR=file, 15 ­DEBUGGER=type, 16 ­DOUBLE=type, 16 ­ECHO, 16 ­ERRFORMAT=format, 16 ­ERRORS, 18 ­FILL, 18 ­GETOPTION, 18 ­HELP, 19 ­IDE, 19 ­LANG, 19 ­MEMMAP, 19 ­MSGDISABLE, 20 ­MSGFORMAT, 20 ­NODEL, 20 ­NOEXEC, 20 ­OPT=type, 20 ­OUTDIR, 20 ­OUTPUT, 21 ­PRE, 21 ­PROTO, 21 ­RAM, 23 ­ROM, 23 ­RUNTIME=type, 24, 39 ­SCANDEP, 24 ­SERIAL, 24 ­SETOPTION=app,file, 26 ­SETUP, 26 ­STRICT, 26 ­SUMMARY, 27 ­SUMMARY=type, 77 ­TIME, 27 ­VER, 27 ­WARN, 27 ­WARNFORMAT, 28 ­WARNFORMAT=format, 16 -C, 7, 77 -D, 7 -E, 8 -G, 9, 37 -I, 9 -L, 10 -M, 12 -Nsize, 12 -Ofile, 12 418 INDEX INDEX -P, 13 -Q, 13 -S, 13, 77 -U, 13 -V, 13 -X, 14 PIC assembly language functions, 66 PIC MCU assembly language, 84 pointer qualifiers, 50 pointers, 50 16bit, 50 32 bit, 50 baseline, 50 highend, 51 midrange, 51 to functions, 50 pow function, 221 power-down status bit, 25 powerup, 39 powerup psect, 61 powerup routine, 4, 40 pragma directives, 70 predefined symbols preprocessor, 70 preprocessing, 13 assembler files, 13 preprocessor macros, 8 path, 9 preprocessor directives, 70 #asm, 68 #endasm, 68 in assembly files, 84 preprocessor symbols predefined, 70 preserving power-down and time-out status bits, 25 printf format checking, 74 printf function, 222 printf_check pragma directive, 74 processor ID data, 30 processor range double type, 38 libraries, 37 printf type, 38 RAM banks, 38 ROM pages, 37 processor selection, 15, 103, 131 program sections, 89 psect bss, 40, 108 checksum, 60 clrtext, 60 config, 60 cstrings, 60 data, 108 eeprom_data, 32, 60 end_init, 60 float_text, 60 idata, 25 idata_n, 60 idloc, 60 init, 60 intcode, 60 intentry, 60 intret, 61 intsave, 61 intsave_n, 61 jmp_tab, 61 maintext, 61 nvbit_n, 61 nvram, 49 nvram_n, 61 powerup, 61 pstrings, 61 419 INDEX INDEX ramdata, 39 rbit_n, 62 rbss, 25 rbss_n, 62 rdata_n, 62 reset_vec, 61 reset_wrap, 61 romdata, 39 strings, 61 stringtable, 61 struct, 62 temp, 62 text, 61 textn, 61 xtemp, 62 PSECT directive, 89, 93 PSECT directive flag limit, 131 PSECT flags abs, 93 bit, 93 class, 93 delta, 93 global, 93 limit, 94 local, 94 ovrld, 94 pure, 94 reloc, 94 size, 94 space, 94 with, 94 psect flags, 93 psect pragma directive, 11, 74 psects, 60, 89, 108 absolute, 93, 94 aligning within, 101 alignment of, 94 basic kinds, 108 class, 126, 131 compiler generated, 60 default, 91 delta value of, 127 differentiating ROM and RAM, 94 linking, 107 listing, 27 local, 108 maximum size of, 94 page boundaries and, 94 renaming, 74 specifying address ranges, 131 specifying addresses, 126, 129 user defined, 74 pseudo-ops assembler, 91 pstrings psect, 61 pure PSECT flag, 94 putch function, 79, 225 putchar function, 226 puts function, 228 qsort function, 229 qualifier bank1, 49 bank2, 49 bank3, 49 interrupt, 62 persistent, 49 volatile, 85 qualifiers, 48 and auto variables, 53 auto, 53 const, 48 pointer, 50 special, 48 volatile, 48 quiet mode, 13 radix specifiers 420 INDEX INDEX assembly, 86 binary, 41 C source, 41 decimal, 41 hexadecimal, 41 octal, 41 RAM integrity test, 25, 162, 231 ram_test_failed function, 231 ramdata psect, 39 rand function, 232 rbit_n psect, 62 rbss psect, 25 rbss_n psect, 62 rdata_n psect, 62 read-only variables, 48 redirecting errors, 8 reference, 113, 125, 133 registers special function, see special function regis- ters regsused pragma directive, 75 relative jump, 87 RELOC, 127, 129 reloc PSECT flag, 94 relocatable object files, 107 relocation, 107 relocation information preserving, 129 renaming psects, 74 REPT directive, 101 reserving memory, 23, 24 reset, 40 code executed after, 40 reset_vec psect, 61 reset_wrap psect, 61 resetbits runtime option, 25 return values, 55 romdata psect, 39 runtime environment, 24 runtime module, 4 RUNTIME option clear, 25 clib, 25 download, 25 init, 25 keep, 25 osccal, 25 ramtest, 25 resetbits, 25 runtime startup variable initialization, 39 runtime startup code, 38 runtime startup module, 25 scale value, 93 scanf function, 234 search path header files, 9 segment selector, 127 segments, see psects, 113, 127, 133 serial I/O, 79 serial numbers, 26, 154 SET directive, 95 set directive, 84 setjmp function, 236 shift operations result of, 59 shifting code, 15 sign extension when shifting, 59 SIGNAT directive, 103 signat directive, 78 signature checking, 78 signatures, 103 sin function, 238 sinh function, 180 size of doubles, 16 size PSECT flag, 94 421 INDEX INDEX skipping applications, 26 source file extensions, 37 source files, 37 SPACE assembler control, 105 space PSECT flag, 94 special characters, 85 special function registers, 69 in assembly code, 88 special type qualifiers, 48 sports cars, 87 sprintf function, 239 sqrt function, 240 srand function, 241 stack, 29 stack pointer, 29 standard libraries, 37 standard type qualifiers, 48 startup module, 4, 25 clearing bss, 108 data copying, 109 startup.as, 39 static variables, 53 STDIO, 79 storage class, 52 strcat function, 242 strchr function, 244 strcmp function, 246 strcpy function, 248 strcspn function, 250 strichr function, 244 stricmp function, 246 string literals, 42, 155 concatenation, 42 strings assembly, 86 storage location, 42, 155 type of, 42 strings psect, 61 stringtable psect, 61 stristr function, 262 strlen function, 251 strncat function, 252 strncmp function, 254 strncpy function, 256 strnicmp function, 254 strpbrk function, 258 strrchr function, 259 strrichr function, 259 strspn function, 261 strstr function, 262 strtok function, 263 struct psect, 62 structures alignment,padding, 73 bit-fields, 46 qualifiers, 47 SUBTITLE assembler control, 105 SUMMARY option file, 27 hex, 27 mem, 27 psect, 27 switch pragma directive, 76 switch type auto, 76 direct table lookup, 76 symbol files, 9, 37 Avocet format, 132 enhanced, 128 generating, 128 local symbols in, 132 old style, 127 removing local symbols from, 14 removing symbols from, 131 source level, 9 symbol tables, 129, 132 sorting, 129 422 INDEX INDEX symbols assembler-generated, 87 global, 108, 138 linker defined, 79 undefined, 132 tablreg, 76 tan function, 265 tanh function, 180 temp psect, 62 text psect, 61 textn psect, 61 time function, 266 time-out status bit, 25 TITLE assembler control, 106 toascii function, 268 tolower function, 268 toupper function, 268 tris instruction, 35 type qualifiers, 48 typographic conventions, 1 unamed structure members, 47 ungetch function, 269 unnamed psect, 91 unsigned integer suffix, 41 unused memory filling, 15, 147 utilities, 107 va_arg function, 270 va_end function, 270 va_start function, 270 variable argument list, 54 variable initialization, 39 variables absolute, 53 accessing from assembler, 69 auto, 53 char types, 44 floating point types, 45 int types, 44 local, 52 static, 53 unique length of, 12 verbose, 14 version number, 27 volatile qualifier, 48, 85 vscanf function, 234 W register, 76 warning level, 28 setting, 132 warning message format, 28 warnings level displayed, 28 suppressing, 132 with PSECT flag, 94 word addresses, 149 word boundaries, 94 XREF assembler control, 106 xtemp psect, 62 xtoi function, 272 423 INDEX INDEX 424 PICC Command-line Options Option Meaning -C Compile to object files only -Dmacro Define preprocessor macro -E+file Redirect and optionally append errors to a file -Gfile Generate source-level debugging information -Ipath Specify a directory pathname for include files -Llibrary Specify a library to be scanned by the linker -L-option Specify -option to be passed directly to the linker -Mfile Request generation of a MAP file -Nsize Specify identifier length -Ofile Set basename for output files -P Preprocess assembler files -Q Specify quiet mode -S Compile to assembler source files only -Usymbol Undefine a predefined preprocessor symbol -V Verbose: display compiler pass command lines -X Eliminate local symbols from symbol table --ASMLIST Generate assembler .LST file for each compilation --CHAR=type Make the default char signed or unsigned --CHECKSUM=start-end@dest Calculate a checksum over an address range --CHIP=processor Selects which processor to compile for --CHIPINFO Displays a list of supported processors --CODEOFFSET=address Offset program code to address --CR=file Generate cross-reference listing --DEBUGGER=type Select the debugger that will be used --DOUBLE=type Selects size/kind of double types --ECHO Echo the PICL command line --ERRFORMAT<=format> Format error message strings to the given style --ERRORS=number Sets the maximun number of errors displayed --FILL=opcode Fill unused program locations with this hexadecimal code --GETOPTION=app,file Get the command line options for the named applica- tion --HELP<=option> Display the compiler's command line options --IDE=ide Configure the compiler for use by the named IDE continued... PICC Command-line Options Option Meaning --LANG=language Specify language for compiler messages --MEMMAP=file Display memory summary information for the map file --MSGFORMAT<=format> Format general message strings to the given style --MSGDISABLE<=numbers> Disable these warning or advisory messages --NODEL Do not remove temporary files generated by the com- piler --NOEXEC Go through the motions of compiling without actually compiling --OPT<=type> Enable general compiler optimizations --OUTDIR Specify output files directory --OUTPUT=type Generate output file type --PRE Produce preprocessed source files --PROTO Generate function prototype information --RAM=lo-hi<,lo-hi,...> Specify and/or reserve RAM ranges --ROM=lo-hi<,lo-hi,...> Specify and/or reserve ROM ranges --RUNTIME=type Configure the C runtime libraries to the specified type --SCANDEP Generate file dependency ".DEP files" --SERIAL=code@address Store this hexadecimal code at an address in program memory --SETOPTION=app,file Set the command line options for the named applica- tion --SETUP=argument Setup the product --STRICT Enable strict ANSI keyword conformance --SUMMARY=type Selects the type of memory summary output --TIME Show execution time in each stage of build process --VER Display the compiler's version number --WARN=level Set the compiler's warning level --WARNFORMAT=format Format warning message strings to given style