aspects of arsenic contamination of
underground waters
alena vacková
bachelor thesis bakalářská práce
2006 abstract
arsenic the well-known poisonous element has been found in groundwaters of many countries in the world its presence in water used for drinking bathing and irrigation poses health risks to as many as half a billion people who are exposed to it through use of tube wells or water-piped systems the purpose of my thesis is to summarize facts around the occurrence and toxicology of arsenic and list international and national arsenic drinking water standards as well my paper also gives information on arsenic removal treatment options the well-established ones as well as those which are feasible under economically challenged conditions potential future risks and challenges concerning presence of arsenic in groundwaters are also identified keywords arsenic treatment toxicology groundwater drinking water poisoning metalloid
abstrakt
prvek proslulý svou jedovatostí arzen byl nalezen v podzemních vodách mnoha zemí světa jeho přítomnost ve vodách používaných ke konzumaci mytí a zavlažování představuje zdravotní rizika ohrožující až půl miliardy lidí kteří s ním přicházají do skytu v rámci užívání trubních studní i vodovodů účelem mé práce bylo shrnout dosavadní znalosti o výskytu a toxikologii arzenu uvést národní a mezinárodní standardy obsahu arzenu v pitných vodách má práce dále podává informace o možnostech odstraňování arzenu uvedeny jsou obecně používané metody i ty které jsou snadno proveditelné v oblastech jež vyžadují ekonomicky dostupná řešení práce uvádí možná budoucí rizika a problémy spojené s výskytem arzenu v podzemních vodách klíčová slova arzen technologie odstraňování toxikologie podzemní voda pitná voda otrava metaloid the dose makes the poison ” paracelsus 1493 1541 i would like to thank my parents ing anna vacková and ing zdeňěk vacek my brother petr vacek as well as all of my friends for the support they have always showed me i am also very grateful to my uncle ing václav vacek csc who provided me with materials and suggestions i would also like to thank my adviser prof ing jan kupec csc for the inspiration guidance and opening the world of toxicology to me very special thanks goes to kimberly jeska who kindly looked over my thesis and made suggestions concerning the english language finally i offer a special thanks to the authors of the articles used as source of information for involvement in the arsenic poisoning issue since without their work many more people would still be arsenic victims funny times may 2001 www funnytimes com table of contents
introduction 8
1 occurance of arsenic 9
1 1 arsenic in nature 9
1 1 1 arsenic in the air 9
1 1 2 arsenic in soil 9
1 2 arsenic in water 9
1 3 arsenic in food 10
1 4 global production of arsenic 11
1 5 uses of arsenic 12
1 6 arsenic and medicine 13
2 arsenic and its toxicity 14
2 1 chronic toxicity 14
2 2 metabolic pathways of arsenic 16
2 3 symptoms of arsenic poisoning 17
3 arsenic drinking water standards by country 19
4 current situation arsenic is poisoning the world 20
4 1 areas affected 20
4 1 1 argentina 20
4 1 2 bangladesh 20
4 1 3 cambodia 21
4 1 4 canada 21
4 1 5 chile 21
4 1 6 china inner mongolia 22
4 1 7 ghana 22
4 1 8 hungary 23
4 1 9 india 23
4 1 10 laos 23
4 1 11 mexico 24
4 1 12 myanmar burma 24
4 1 13 nepal 24
4 1 14 taiwan 24
4 1 15 usa 25
4 1 16 vietnam 25
4 2 global outlook 25
5 treatment of water contaminated with arsenic 27
5 1 non treatment options 27
5 1 1 alternative sources of water 27
5 1 2 seasonal use 27
5 1 3 blending 27
5 2 types of treatments 29
5 2 1 adsorption 29
5 2 2 arsenic removal by iron 30
5 2 3 oxidation filtration 30
5 2 4 coagulation filtration 31
5 2 5 ion exchange 32
5 2 6 lime softening 32
5 2 7 reverse osmosis ro 32
5 2 8 electrodialysis reversal edr 33
5 3 treatment options by site 33
5 3 1 point-of-use pou treatment 33
5 3 2 point-of-entry poe treatment 34
5 4 rescue and other treatment options 34
5 4 1 rain-water collectors 35
5 4 2 variations on adsorption while using inexpensive materials 35
5 4 3 phytoremediation 36
6 impact on the environment and communities 37
6 1 social problems 37
6 2 limited solutions 37
6 3 diet and crops challenge 38
6 4 problems concerning arsenic guidelines 38
6 5 complexity of the problem 38
conclusion 39
references 40
list of acronyms 48
list of tables 51
appendices 52
tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 8
introduction
arsenic as has been known since ancient times as a substance with a poison property some languages operate with several names for this substance such as hindi which points to its wide use as a lethal but secretive weapon the name itself was probably derived from persian az-arnikh meaning golden and inspired many to try and obtain gold from the arsenic ores 1 when the modern times struck arsenic was a favorite poison but despite of this fact it became part of coloring agents and was thus used in wallpapers paints and even items such as toys and wrapping paper 1 many people have been poisoned by arsenic either by use of these items or murdered some of these victims are listed in appendix i as arsenic poisonings started to occur people become cautious and arsenic was eliminated from commercial goods nevertheless a couple of decades ago nobody would guess that this metalloid would cause the biggest poisoning threat around the world since the 1970s international organizations and various companies have been digging tube-
wells in the third world countries in order to prevent water-borne diseases aquifers rich in arsenic were hit and the pumped water started to be used without proper tests being carried out it took 20 years before local arsenicosis patients were identified through skin cancer lung and bladder problems 2 3 arsenic poisonings through drinking water aren’t privilege of a few developing countries though millions of people are being poisoned everyday in dozens of countries around the world 3 no limit on arsenic in water has been proved safe which just emphasizes the necessity to treat drinking water with arsenic concentrations of several dozens or hundreds of micrograms l however it is necessary to treat water sources even when arsenic concentrations don't reach these extremes since this lethal element is a slow but hard worker and even in small concentrations can cause serious health problems over years 2 4 5 my thesis informs about occurrence uses and health effects of arsenic on humans lists limits on arsenic concentration in drinking waters in certain countries names areas where people are being poisoned by arsenic daily my work also summarizes possible treatment options and conditions under which they are usable and identifies complications as well as impacts of the mass arsenic poisoning which is going on around the world tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 9
1 occurance of arsenic
1 1 arsenic in nature
arsenic is a yellow or gray brittle metal-like substance which is a natural part of earth's soil and rocks 6 it is odorless and tasteless 7 arsenic compounds are found mainly in copper or lead containing ores predominantly in arsenopyrite 8 it is released into the environment naturally by erosion from mineral deposits by volcanic eruption or from forest fires we can also find it in the water air soil plants as well as in animals global natural emissions have been estimated to be 7 900 tons year 9 1 1 1 arsenic in the air
approximately half of arsenic released into the air about 8 500 ton year comes from soil dust the other half comes from industrial processes mainly metal processing such as copper smelting 75 10 mainly inorganic forms of as are present in the air concentrations can reach several hundred ng m3 in some cities and exceed 1 000 ng m3 nearby metal smelters and power plants for example in prague airborne arsenic concentrations reported in the past averaged at 450 ng m3 in winter and 70 ng m3 in summer 9 1 1 2 arsenic in soil
industrial releases account for nearly 95 of all arsenic released into soils pesticide application solid waste disposal and sewage sludge are among other sources 10 uncontaminated soil has as concentrations between 0 2 40 mg kg soil nearby copper smelters may contain 100 2 500 mg kg land after as based pesticides application may have as concentrations of 200 2 500 mg kg 9 1 2 arsenic in water
arsenic can be found in both above-ground and underground waters most of arsenic released in the water is the result of natural weather-related processes other causes include industrial facilities leaching from landfills and releases from urban runoffs 10 tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 10
arsenic can be present in both organic and inorganic forms in groundwater nevertheless it has been confirmed its inorganic species such as arsenite as iii and arsenate as v prevail 11 inorganic forms in particular trivalent as iii form are the most toxic besides gaseous arsine 12 soluble and mobile 13 the relative concentration of inorganic arsenic is strictly site specific and unpredictable many places around the world sunk into having problems with higher concentrations of as in drinking water after deep tube wells were drilled and became used on regular basis in cases of bangladesh vietnam or china as rich aquifers were hit by drilling concentrations of arsenic in these deep wells may increase with decreasing elevation as is the case in china 14 this could explain why mainly lower laying areas have had problems with arsenic in drinking water underground water can get contaminated with arsenic by the following ways hydrothermal volcanism 5 oxidation of arsenical sulphide minerals 15 16 reduction of feooh and release of its sorbed load to groundwater 8 desorption of as from mineral sorption sites in response to increase of ph 15 evaporative concentration 17 arsenic manifestation in water demands specific conditions those are related to geochemical conditions and to the past and present hydrogeology of the affected area arsenic contamination can be found in both reducing and oxidizing groundwater conditions and both humid temperate and arid climates 8 1 3 arsenic in food
arsenic is known to accumulate in certain organisms and agricultural products it enters the food chain by means of contaminated products and can further endanger human health hovewer most as coming from agricultural products is in organic form arsenobetaine and arsenocholine especially that is much less harmful 18 19 yet spraying plants such as grapes with arsenic-containing pesticides may result in higher arsenic concentrations in wine 19 tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 11
seafood may contain higher levels of arsenic 20 especially seaweed bivalves certain cold water and bottom-feeding fish algae clams and oysters while fish arsenic has low toxicity to humans and is rapidly excreted in urine 19 seaweed on the other hand contains the highest inorganic arsenic concentration of any seafood analyzed by food and drug administration’s fda market basket survey 21 seaweed called hijiki hizikia fusiforme has been identified by the new zelanad authorities to have high levels of naturally occuring arsenic 22 agricultural products such as sugar or rice may contain certain amounts of as especially if grown on land where arsenic-based pesticides were used 23 other commercially available food items which may contain as in high concentrations ppm include sushi sweet potatoes carrots green beans peaches and mixed cereals 21 it should be mentioned that some aquatic plants are able to accumulate more than 1 000 mg kg of as on a dry weight basis a good example might be watercress rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum which is being consumed by people in new zealand 24 the united states environmental protection agency epa has provided information that preparing foods in as-containing water increases as content by 10 30 for most foods and by 200 250 in case of beans and grains 25 1 4 global production of arsenic
almost all the world’s as is obtained as a by-product of the copper cu lead pb cobalt co and gold au ores smelting the peak of as trioxide global production was in 1970 63 939 metric tons 1 since then the quantities produced have declined production of as iii has dropped from estimated 42 100 tons per year in 1994 26 to 37 500 tons in 2004 the world reserves are estimated to be 11 million tons of arsenic in arsenopyrite copper ores and gold-copper ores 27 table 1 global production of arsenic trioxide 27 country production of as iii tons belgium 1 000
chile 8 000
tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 12
country production of as iii tons china 16 500
france 1 000
kazakhstan 1 500
mexico 2 500
peru 3 500
russia 1 500
other countries 2 000
world total 37 500
1 5 uses of arsenic
arsenic has been used in many different fields besides being used as a poison since ancient times it was used as a coloring agent in sweets under the name of scheele's green in the 19th century as a pigment called paris green insecticide on fruit trees etc 1 6 in today's world use of arsenic is being limited even banned concerning commercial products in some countries such as the usa however inorganic arsenic compounds are still used to preserve wood chromated copper arsenate cca timber was heavily used during the latter half of the 20th century as a structural and outdoor building material in cases of possible rotting or insect infestation 6 it is no longer used for residential applications but remains used in industry usa 18 among commercial products containing arsenic are cattle and sheep dips paints and pigments antifouling paints leaded gasoline and fire salts 19 arsenic enters the environment by means of certain industrial processes such as purifying industrial gases namely sulfur burning fossil fuels burning cca treated wood electronics manufacturing of microwave devices gallium arsenide gaas indium arsenide inas lasers light-emitting diodes photoelectric cells semiconductor devices arsine gas ash3 as a dopant hardening metal alloys preserving animal hides bronze plating clarifying glass and ceramics 1 9 19 arsenic trioxide is used in australia for treating termite infestations in houses 6 tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 13
the number of synthesized arsenic compounds is estimated to be 32 000 20 organic arsenic compounds are used as pesticides mainly on cotton plants 18 arsenic is a part of insecticides and herbicides such as weed killers and defoliants fungicides and algicides in some countries arsanilic acid and its derivatives 4-aminophenylarsonic and 3-nitro-4-
hydroxyphenylarsonic acids are added to cattle and poultry feed at concentrations of 25 45 mg kg as growth-stimulating agents 9 1 6 arsenic and medicine
arsenic has held a special place in medicine and until today it’s considered to be a panacea by some cultures arsenicals were mentioned as a remedy to treating ulcers and improving complexion by hippocrates aristotle pliny and others by the early 1900s physicians were using less toxic organic preparations of arsenic to treat pellagra malaria and sleeping sickness 20 until the 1940s arsphenamine was used as salvarsan the first medication to treat syphilis 1 20 arsenic is still being used as a treatment for protozoal diseases acute promyelocytic leukemia 6 and it's widely used in homeopathy as well 19 in some countries arsenic serves as a treatment for trypanosomiasis and amebians in humans 20 arsenic is also present in fowler's solution potassium arsenite antiparasitic drugs carbasone donovan's solution folk remedies such as asiatic pill kushtay yellow root kelp-containing health foods some naturopathic remedies etc 19 20 the use of some products of traditional chinese medicine produced in china has lately been compromised since the number of them was proved to contain as much as 36 000 ppm of as which is 1 200 times more than fda allows 28 this metalloid has found its place in veterinary medicine as well specifically as a antiparasitic agent 19 figure 1 the alchemical symbol for arsenic 6 tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 14
2 arsenic and its toxicity
arsenic belongs among the most explored elements of chemistry mainly due to its toxicity which is caused by the fact that as is very similar to its neighbor from the periodic table of the chemical elements phosphorus p arsenic can partly substitute p in biochemical reactions and thus be poisonous countless people have been poisoned either directly or indirectly by this lethal metalloid 6 in fact arsenic remains the most common source of acute heavy metal and metalloid poisoning and is second only to leading in chronic ingestion 20 1 1 acute toxicity
acute inhalation exposure to dust or fumes rich in arsenic may result in gastro-intestinal gi effects acute oral exposure to inorganic arsenic is manifested by gi problems such as nausea vomiting if central nervous system cns is affected patients suffer from headaches weakness and delirium the cardiovascular system liver kidney and blood may also be affected the fatal dose of ingested arsenic trioxide is about 1 25 mg as kg body weight 12 a half an hour of exposure to 25 50 ppm of arsine may result in death in humans effects from acute arsine exposure include headaches vomiting abdominal pain hemolytic anemia hemoglobinuria and jaundice which may lead to kidney failure 29 30 2 1 chronic toxicity
humans can be exposed to arsenic through drinking contaminated water ingestion of contaminated food or through work in a metal foundry mining glass production and the semiconductor industry 31 the daily dietary intake is approximately 12 60 μg other sources estimate 10 15 μg day 4 average is 30 μg day major intake comes from fish shellfish grain cereals meat and poultry 19 chronic levels of 50 μg l can cause health problems after 10-15 years of exposure after 15-30 years of exposure victims often develop lung kidney or bladder cancer 2 concentrations of inorganic as of 600 μg kg body weight day and above are lethal in humans 29 30 tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 15
provided the intake is bigger than 60 μg day and on a chronic basis arsenic may cause the following hyperkeratosis hyperpigmentation eczematous and follicular dermatitis inability to coordinate voluntary muscular movements edema in face eyelids and ankles alopecia muscle-aching weakness styomatitis excessive salvation anemia leukopenia thrombocytopenia liver toxicity indicated by hepatomegaly jaundice and cirrhosis ascited peripheral neuropathy paresthesias proteinuria hematuria anuria loss of hair loss of nail hearing loss brain-wave abnormalities impaired resistance to viral infections cns peripheral nervous system and blood vessel damage 5 12 18 32-35 examples of the arsenicosis symptoms in pictures are in appendix ii arsenical dermatosis was found to be the most common and earliest manifestation of chronic arsenic poisoning in a study carried out in the bengal region 36 intake of as on a regular basis has been associated with cancer 12 such as bladder liver lung 29 lymphatic 37 and kidney cancer 38 arsenic was one of the first chemicals recognized as a carcinogen namely in 1879 when a group of miners in saxony showed high rates of lung cancer caused partly due to inhalation of arsenic in the 1930s evidence existed that drinking water contaminated with as can cause skin cancer and was found in populations from argentina taiwan etc 38 the international agency for research on cancer has classified as in drinking water to be the established cause of skin lung and bladder cancer 39 the epa has classified inorganic arsenic as a group a human carcinogen 29 35 tobacco smoking has been found to interact with arsenic in the way of increasing lung cancer risk 32 relative risk for smokers in chile who were also drinking as-rich water was about 30 times that of non-smokers with low as concentrations in their drinking water 39 the report by nas from 1999 estimates that 50 μg l in water add 1 to a person's lifetime risk of dying from cancer this is estimated to be the same risk as living with a cigarette smoker 4 even concentration as low as 1 μg l gives person a 1 1000 lifetime chance of developing cancer 5 arsenic can injure pregnant woman or their unborn babies as it is able to pass through the placenta arsenic has teratogenic mutagenic and carcinogenic effects in a fetus 12 18 chronic arsenic exposure may also result in spontaneous abortion stillbirth and tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 16
malformations of the fetus 12 40 moreover arsenic has been detected in low levels in breast milk 18 mutagenic effects include dna damage genetic alterations and changes in chromosome structure the trivalent form has manifested itself to be far more genotoxic than the pentavalent arsenic 12 moreover some studies suggest that long-term exposure to arsenic in children may result in lower iq scores as children may be less efficient at converting inorganic arsenic to the less harmful organic forms than adults 18 2 2 metabolic pathways of arsenic
water-soluble arsenic acids and their salts are rapidly absorbed after indigestion compared to poorly soluble arsenic forms such as arsenic trioxide after consumption as is stored in the liver kidneys spleen heart and lungs smaller amounts are also stored in the muscle and nerve tissues several weeks after ingestion as is deposited in the hair and nails where it remains fixed to the keratin for years besides hair it is deposited in the bones and teeth as well 41 figure 2 proposed metabolic pathways of arsenic 41 in mammals and microorganisms inorganic arsenic is known to be reduced metabolically then methylated to methanearsonic acid and finally methylated to dimethylarsinic acid dmaa in some microorganisms it can be methylated to trimethylated arsenic 41 tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 17
in mammals the reduction and methylation takes place mainly in the blood and liver while the main metabolite is dmma by reaction of oxygen with dimethylarsine a metabolite of dmma free radicals are produced as is obvious in figure 3 it is believed dimethylarsenic peroxyl radical rather than active oxygen in other cases causes dna damage 41 figure 3 proposed reaction pathway of dimethylarsine and molecular oxygen 41 some scientists suppose that as disrupts the activity of hormones called glucocorticoids regulating blood sugar and suppressing tumors arsenic binds them in cells and changes their structure the theory says arsenic doesn't cause cancer but promotes the growth of tumors caused by other carcinogens it is believed that as induced effects may appear at concentrations as low as 2 μg l 4 2 3 symptoms of arsenic poisoning garlic odor of breath and feces after arsenic trioxide 6 and metallic taste in mouth as salts can cause oral irritation and burning in the mouth and throat when ingested 20 acute poisoning adverse gi effects predominate with vomiting abdominal pain and rice-water or bloody diarrhea gi effects may also include inflammation vesicle formation and eventual sloughing of the mucosa in the mouth pharynx and esophagus patients may experience acute distress dehydration often and hypovolaemic shock 31 tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 18 cns effects are common headache dizziness drowsiness and confusion symptoms may progress to include muscle weakness and spasms hypothermia lethargy delirium coma and convulsions cardiovascular effects shock cyanosis and cardiac arrhythmia 31 liver damage may be manifested by elevated liver enzymes and jaundice injury to blood-forming tissues may cause anemia leucopenia and thrombocytopenia arsine gas exposure 31 an acute hemolytic anemia and striking chills hemoglobinuria causes the urine to appear black and the patient becomes rapidly obtunded 33 34 figure 4 55 of the children in the group suffer from arsenical mellanosis 93 tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 19
3 arsenic drinking water standards by country
the epa has recently proposed an allowed limit for arsenic in drinking water to be 5 μg l 4 some sources suggest the agency is planning to reduce the level to possibly as low as 2 ppb 42 table 2 global safety guidelines concerning concentrations of as in drinking water as of 2006
country organisation
drinking water quality guidline maximum permissible lvl of as in drinking water
source
who 10 µg l 50 ppb 32 australia 7 µg l 16 bangladesh 50 µg l 25 brazil 50 ppb 43 canada 25 µg l 44 55 cambodia 50 µg l 45 chile 50 µg l 46 china 50 µg l 14 47 czech republic 10 µg l 99 eu 10 µg l 10 µg l 2 hungary 50 µg l 48 india 10 µg l 49 japan 10 µg l 50 myanmar 50 µg l 45 new zealand 10 µg l 5 taiwan 50 µg l 51 vietnam urban rural 10 µg l
50 µg l - 45 usa 10 µg l 52 tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 20
4 current situation arsenic is poisoning the world
4 1 areas affected
there are a lot of countries in the world which face environmental problems concerning arsenic including china inner mongolia usa canada argentina india bangladesh taiwan chile new zealand mexico japan ghana hungary vietnam cambodia philippines and brazil 2-4 arsenic occurrence associated with geothermal waters has been reported in several areas including hot springs in argentina czech republic 100 japan new zealand 5 chile kamchatka iceland france dominica and the usa 8 arsenic contamination related to mining exists in ghana thailand and the usa 8 other areas such as nepal pakistan thailand laos and sumatra have not been properly examined yet even though higher concentrations of as in local ground waters are probable 2 illustrative maps of areas affected by high arsenic concentrations in drinking waters are shown in appendices iii and iv arsenic may occur in many other countries where a certain area might be affected due to industrial or mining activities such as most or chomutov areas in the czech republic the local contaminated water is not used for drinking purposes and the population is provided with as-free water 4 1 1 argentina
central argentina with the chaco-pampean plain covering over a million km2 is probably the largest region hit with higher as groundwater concentrations in the world five local provinces has had as concentrations elevated above acceptable standards arsenic concentrations in córdoba ranged from 6 11 500 μg l la pampa province as concentrations ranged between 4 5 280 μg l and tucumán province reported 12 1 660 μg l in drinking waters 8 4 1 2 bangladesh alluvial sediments in the region are believed to be the source of as in the groundwaters in this country these sediments are rich in iron pyrites containing arsenic which is released by reduction due to the presence of organic matter 53 tube-wells were drilled in the 1970s to lower the risk of cholera and other water-born diseases in the region nowadays millions tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 21
of tube wells exist estimated 3 5 millions 54 which pump water from the as-rich aquifers in the area these contaminated wells have become in many cases the only source of water for local residents in the late 1980s the first cases of arsenicosis were reported today approximately half of the country's population alarming amount of 70 million people 54 are at risk and the situation is rightfully nicknamed the biggest arsenic calamity in the world ” some wells in use contain as much as 400 μg l the treatment is still scarce and the population through the whole country suffers from as related cancers and other symptoms of arsenicosis 27 4 1 3 cambodia the mekong floodplains had wells tested for arsenic with results exceeding who limits the population at risk might be 70 000 300 000 people 45 4 1 4 canada
arsenic has been found in higher concentrations in hard rock areas of the canadian shield in ontario 55 elevated as concentrations in water supplies were also identified in nova scotia particularly in halifax and guysborough counties in the 1970s 56 the canadian government is considering lowering the allowed as limit from 25 μg l to the current who limit of 10 μg l 56 more research is required in order to identify areas with elevated as concentrations 4 1 5 chile the northern region of antofagasta in chile shows higher concentrations of as in water soil and air arsenic can be found in volcanic rocks within the region rivers originating there carry the lethal metalloid and serve as a drinking water supply and water used for irrigation moreover there are two copper refineries emitting thousands of tonnes year of arsenic as a byproduct into the air the level or as in water supplies peaked in the 1960s being as high as 850 μg l levels gradually decreased to meet the chilean standard due to the new water treatment plant built in 1970 however the chilean standard for drinking water is set to 50 μg l and some measurements still show levels of as of up to 75 μg l 57 higher numbers of lung and bladder cancer cases exist in the region compared to the tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 22
rest of the country 46 it is estimated that 7 of death among people over 30 can be attributed to as 4 8 4 1 6 china inner mongolia
in 2003 higher as concentrations were reported from eight provinces and 37 counties in china in 1980 cases of arsenicosis were reported in the xinjiang autonomy region of china where more than 100 000 people are at risk in 1989 the inner mongolia was identified as another region with cases of arsenicosis more than 600 000 people are exposed to as in their drinking water in the area in 1994 vast parts of shanxi province followed with about 900 000 people at risk these cases were caused by using contaminated water from pump wells 14 the chinese population also suffers from a special kind of arsenicosis due to burning coal certain local small-scale coal mines rich in as have been opened to the public where they were allowed to excavate coal this coal has concentrations from 826 2 578 mg kg in which the highest concentration measured was 9 600 mg kg local people use the coal for cooking heating drying corn and hot peppers local staples and in open stoves without chimneys arsenicosis of this type originates from breathing arsenic-rich air and consumption of contaminated corn and peppers about 200 000 people are at risk 14 others estimate that as many as 2 million people in the area are at risk 51 in 1994 the chinese government declared arsenicosis to be an endemic disease throughout the nation due to the amount of people and areas affected 14 4 1 7 ghana arsenic contamination is bound mainly to gold and silver mining since gold is being found in close association with arsenopyrite in sulphide-mineralized veins 58 the gold mining area of obuasi shows higher levels of as in groundwater with maximum measured concentration of 64 μg l in bolgatanga minimum samples showed as levels above the guideline value but one sample had as concentration of 140 μg l other mining regions especially the gold belt” in the sw should be investigated since the population is showing signs similar to arsenic poisoning 58 tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 23
4 1 8 hungary arsenic has been problem in the se part of the country with population at risk of 400 000 people 59 the highest measured as concentration in a town waterworks was 220 μg l and in a village waterworks 330 μg l bekes county the project of lowering as concentration took place 1981 1995 and involved 80 settlements in seven counties the limit was then 50 μg l lower as concentrations were reached by building new piped systems in different aquifers as well as incorporating the old waterworks mixing the waters 60 arsenic exposure pertains to 1 2 million people using potable water in hungary today 20 000 people are at high risk 61 4 1 9 india in 1983 arsenic contamination in drinking water was identified in the lower ganges plain in the state of west bengal neighbor to bangladesh the region’s main source of water are tube wells being dug since the 1970s arsenic concentrations are as high as 814 μg l in some areas testing has been taking place and thousands of water hair and urine samples were taken in the bengal region the upper middle and lower ganges plains are home to 500 million people since as contamination is obvious in the lower delta namely west bengal and bangladesh as well as in the upper ganges region in nepal it is logical to suppose that as contamination might be widespread along the whole ganges river plain arsenic-rich sediments from the himalayas are the most probable source of as the study from bihar 62 has identified wells with concentrations as high as 1 025 μg l and patients suffering from arsenicosis as well as many deaths due to cancers in the area 62 63 other reports estimate that 443 million people to be at risk in the indian states of uttar pradesh bihar jharjhand west bengal assam and manipur in the ganga-meghna-brahmaputra plain 64 4 1 10 laos the area affected by elevated arsenic contamination of groundwater seems small it is estimated that several hundred to several thousand people might be affected highest measured concentration was 120 μg l 45 tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 24
4 1 11 mexico the region of la gunera of north central mexico has groundwater with as concentrations from 8 624 μg l and with average of 100 μg l the problem was identified as long ago as 1958 65 the estimated population exposed to drinking water containing more than 50 μg l is about 400 000 the state of sonora in the nw mexico has also had cases of higher as concentrations in groundwaters ranging 2 305 μg l with the highest measured concentration being 7 400 μg l 8 several more areas in mexico morelos chihuahua puebla nuevo león hidalgo are known to have populations exposed to higher as concentrations 65 4 1 12 myanmar burma the affected area is located in the river basin of the irrawaddy river and about 3 4 million people are at risk 45 the area is yet to be properly tested 4 1 13 nepal the area affected is a flat land in the southern part of nepal the terai region with half of the country's population 11 000 000 people where hundreds of thousands tube-wells were drilled in order to supply drinking water in the 1970s and 1980s about 500 000 people are at risk of as poisoning from the water estimates are that 1 in 20 people may show skin lesions indicating arsenicosis 25 a significant number of tested wells exceed allowed who limits while the highest measured as concentration in the region's well was 1 200 µg l and the highest measured concentration in the country was 2 620 µg l 66 4 1 14 taiwan
the sw coast of taiwan has become dubbed the blackfoot disease endemic area” since many farmers suffer from this malady due to drinking water contaminated with arsenic range of as concentration in local drinking waters is 170 800 μg l 51 the ne of the country has been affected as well the highest measured concentration 1968 was 1 800 μg l 8 tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 25
4 1 15 usa
the sw states such as nevada california and arizona in the united states have been known to have groundwaters with higher as concentrations other states have been recently identified with levels exceeding the allowed limit of 10 μg l namely maine michigan minnesota south dakota oklahoma and wisconsin concentrations scarcely exceed the level of 50 μg l and only locally reach concentrations as high as 2 600 μg l tulare basin of the san joaqin valley ca 8 recently the epa has lowered as standard for drinking water to 10 μg l ppb the water systems have to comply with the standard by january 23 2006 which will result in further protection of about 13 million people who were drinking water with higher as concentrations 52 4 1 16 vietnam
sampling of the red river delta including the hanoi urban area in september 1999 revealed that 50 of the tested family-based tube wells were exceeding the vietnamese guideline of 50 μg l while the average concentration measured was 159 μg l the peak value measured was 3 000 μg l the worst affected area is south of hanoi where the average value measured was 432 μg l and 90 of these samples revealed concentrations above the vietnamese guideline the city of hanoi water treatment accepts water containing up to 430 μg l of arsenic where the treatment is able to reduce the arsenic to roughly 90 μg l at the time of the study the population did not show any symptoms of as poisoning which was probably due to the fact that the groundwater was in use for 7 8 years while symptoms usually occur after 10 years of exposure 2 approximately 11 million people are at potential risk 63 4 2 global outlook
arsenic didn't belong among elements routinely tested in groundwater until recently 8 nowadays more areas are carrying out testing of possible sources of as in drinking water in order to determine risk factors for local populations due to global awareness and education potentially arsenic-rich areas are being discovered all over the world the arsenic exposure through water usually began when waterworks started to be used for example in the 1940s within the affected villages of hungary 60 in this case the poisoning was ongoing for decades another example might be the bengal region who tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 26
experts have predicted based on long-term exposure of the population that about 10 of adult deaths in the region will be due to as poisoning in the coming decades 67 in some areas it might be a real challenge to comply with the who limit of 10 μg l for example certain areas in hungary might reach aquifers with waters low in as but the water might not be of good quality from other points of view high oncentrations of ammonia 60 while in other areas the opposite might be the case the water meets all other standards but arsenic concentration is elevated arsenic limit will probably be lowered in the future and thus more areas will need to have the water tested and treated for as 4 42 certain countries such as czech republic already follow strict standard of 5 g l for nursing water and bottled water in order toμ ensure low intake of this toxic element by infants 101 tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 27
5 treatment of water contaminated with arsenic
5 1 non treatment options
it is cost-effective and environmentally friendly to use non treatment options such as using alternative sources of water seasonal use of water contaminated with as while maintaining allowed annual concentration level blending high and low-arsenic water 11 5 1 1 alternative sources of water
this technique involves abandonment of water source contaminated with as and finding a new source which wouldn't impose any health and environmental risks because arsenic is many times present in underground water systems it might be improbable to find such a source in certain locations for example bangladesh chapter 4 1 2 if the area affected by high concentration of as is small as-free water can be purchased or connection to a nearby as-free water distribution system can be provided 11 5 1 2 seasonal use
this method involves seasonal use of water contaminated with as while maintaining allowed annual concentration level possible remedy may be to find another source of water while the old as-contaminated site may be used seasonally or when the new one doesn't provide enough water monitoring of arsenic concentrations at the point-of-entry poe to the water distribution system should be conducted 11 5 1 3 blending
multiple sources of water both low and high in arsenic are mixed in a common header to achieve the final concentration which should be 10-20 under the allowed limit the treated and untreated sources can be mixed which brings financial relief 11 tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 28
1 2 pretreatment
in order to determine the right choice of treatment it is important to know the form and species of arsenic in water it is known that arsenate as v is more effectively removed than arsenite as iii thus if we are able to transform as iii presented in the water into as v by an oxidant removal will be more efficient 69 70 the data in the table below is based on results of the study which can be accessed at 69 the tabular data is used here to illustrate which oxidants can be used to effectively transform as iii to as v and consequently increase further treatment efficiency table 3 ability of oxidants to oxidize as iii to as v oxidant general conditions
fe mn present
sulfide present
toc present temperature drop 25°c to 5°c chlorine ro ro slower o slower o ro
permanganate ro ro
ozone 1 ro ro slower o slow o ro
chlorine dioxide i i i i i
monochloramine i i i i i
filox media 2 ro
uv radiation i ro
ro rapid oxidation
o oxidation
i ineffective for oxidation
1 ph = 6 3-8 3
2 ph = 8 3
according to other sources 71 the preferred oxidant is kmno4 followed by filtration precipitation step or chlorine or hydrochlorine where legally possible tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 29
5 2 types of treatments
the us epa has identified seven best available technologies bat for as removal activated alumina aa ion exchange reverse osmosis ro modified coagulation filtration modified lime softening electrodialysis reversal edr and oxidation filtration 72 main considerations concerning selection of treatment are as follows water quality characteristics such as ph iron fe concentration fe as ratio form of as present ease of implementation in specific site residual management cost besides these points several more things have to be considered before deciding which treatment is the most suitable for a specific site such as existing treatment processes target final as concentration disposal of waste waste discharge land available labor acceptable percentage of water loss maximum flow rate average source flow rate and specific requirements concerning the water quality characteristics iron can play a vital role in arsenic removal from water thus fe concentration and fe as ratio in water points out which as removal treatment to use 11 high iron level 0 3 mg l high fe as ratio 20 1 → adsorption as removal by iron co precipitation high iron levels 0 3 mg l low fe as ratio 20 1 → coagulation filtration use of iron salts low iron levels 0 3 mg l → adsorptive media ion exchange 11 5 2 1 adsorption
adsorption is a process that takes place when a liquid accumulates on the surface of a solid material adsorbent removal of arsenic from water based on adsorption involves the contaminated water running through adsorptive granular material in a pressure vessel tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 30
negatively charged arsenic particles of as v are adsorbed on the surface of the positively charged adsorbents adsorbent materials available aa titanium oxide based media zirconium based media fe oxide fe hydroxide based media 11 73 iron oxide-coated sand mno2-coated sand bauxite hematite feldspar clay minerals kaolinite bentonite bijoypur clay synthetic anion exchange resins chitin and chitosan bone char and cellulose materials sawdust newspaper pulp 74 advantages low-cost simple operation of the system both manual and automatic operation possible and good performance in high silicate and high phosphate waters titanium oxide adsorbent 73 disadvantages aa ph sensitive shorter run lengths when ph higher regeneration of the adsorbent is partial and high as concentrations in brine stream after regeneration 75 5 2 2 ar senic removal by iron
the affinity of fe media for as is strong under natural ph conditions this allows the fe based sorbents to decontaminate larger volumes compared to aa and the ph does not have to be adjusted however lower ph offers better results 11 76 presence of dissolved oxygen is also beneficial since it increases the rate of fe corrosion and as removal 76 advantages natural ph conditions removal efficiency 80 90 if the fe as ratio is at least 20 1 1 mg of fe removes 50 μg of as 11 76 disadvantages certain chemicals such as phosphate and silicate bind to fe prior to as and may significantly decrease efficiency of as removal 54 solid waste water and backwash water is produced during the process 11 5 2 3 oxidation filtration
oxidation filtration is a process commonly used in fe and manganese mn removal from water the process involves oxidation of their soluble forms to their insoluble forms and consequent removal by filtration process if as is present in the water as well both fe and as can be oxidized arsenic will bind itself to iron depending on their initial concentrations special pressurized granular media can be used such as manganese oxide media including manganese greensand glauconite coated with mn dioxide and pyrolucite ore composed of tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 31
solid mn dioxide which serve both as catalysts and media for precipitation of iron and manganese water is passed through column of manganese oxide which adsorbs fe mn and as ferric chloride might be added prior to the treatment sludge and waste water are created 11 74 5 2 4 coagulation filtration
pretreatment in form of oxidation is necessary in order to transform as iii to as v coagulants hydrolyze to form hydroxide particles which adsorb arsenic and the solid material created is then filtered out in a pressure filter vessel appendix v coagulants available aluminum al salts ferric salts ferric salts have shown better results than al salts since fe hydroxides create solution in the ph 5 5 8 5 and fe has stronger affinity to as v 71 which is illustrated by figure 5 filters used media filters micro-filters membranes efficiency depends on type and dosage of coagulant mixing intensity ph advantages up to 90 of dissolved as v can be removed from water disadvantages ph might need to be adjusted sludge and backwash water is created 11 74 70 figure 5 influence of ph on the removal of as iii and as v from groundwater by fe and al ions initial as concentration 0 3 ppm dosage of metal ions 0 09 mmol l 71 tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 32
5 2 5 ion exchange
ion exchange is a physical-chemical process in which a solution and solid resin are present they swap ions as in the cases mentioned above as iii has to be oxidized to as v form first resin is usually an elastic 3-dimensional hydrocarbon network with large ionizable groups electrostatically bound to the resin these groups are exchanged for ions with stronger affinity from the solution a similar process is used for softening and nitrate removal from drinking water contaminated water is running through columns packed with the resin strong base anion which isn't sensitive towards ph from 6 5 9 0 efficiency depends on the presence of other anions which compete with as in binding to the resin in the following order so4-2 haso4-2 no-3 co3-2 no-2 cl- this process isn't suitable if contaminated water contains over 500 mg l of tds or and over 50 mg l of so4-2 or and over 5 mg l of no-3 disadvantages chromatographic peaking as v and nitrate levels in effluent stream can exceed levels in influent stream when sulfate ions displace as ions previously bound to the resin resin fouling ions bonding the active sites can't be removed by any regeneration method backwash water brine solution rinse water spent resin are usually produced 11 74 5 2 6 lime softening
lime softening is commonly used to reduce hardness which is caused by the presence of calcium ca and magnesium mg ions in source waters the lime provides hydroxide ions increasing ph which results in ca and mg removal this process has been used for removal of heavy metals radionuclides dissolved organics and viruses through adsorption on calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide disadvantages strong ph dependency low removal is reached at ph less than 10 ph near 11 allows precipitation of magnesium hydroxide and efficiency of as removal is then up to 90 77 production of large volume of sludge recarbonation of water required 78 5 2 7 reverse osmosis ro ro is a treatment for small water systems which may be installed on a faucet reverse osmosis can be used to treat various water quality problems removal of organic carbon tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 33
salts dissolved minerals microorganisms color metals and as 11 79 high pressure 5-
20 mpa 80 is used to force water through a semipermeable membrane while contaminants do not pass through the membrane the membrane has usually two layers a top layer of less then 1 μm thick and a porous sublayer of 50 150 μm thick 11 appendix v advantages low sensitivity towards ph easy manipulation and cost effective as a small scale treatment 11 79 disadvantages presence of ca and mg in water can cause scaling of the membrane silicon si metal hydroxides colloid bacteria can block the membrane high sensitivity towards cl 11 fairly slow process producing 15 gallons of purified water day large quantities of wasted water since ro may require 3 10 gallons of untreated water to make one gallon of purified water 79 5 2 8 electrodialysis reversal edr edr is comparable to ro it is usually used to treat brackish waters or in wastewater recovery edr is a process reversing the polarity of electrodes on a controlled time cycle the direction of ion movement in a membrane stack is reversed and thus automatic flushing of forming scales from the membrane surface is ensured 81 advantages fully automated little operation required no chemical additions disadvantages more expensive then ro large amounts of water are wasted 75 5 3 treatment options by site
5 3 1 point of-use pou treatment
this treatment is installed on a single tap when water is used for drinking and cooking purposes only it is usually plumbed in at the kitchen sink 75 advantages lower costs if treatment needed for up to 500 people
pou available for piped water systems aa preoxidation necessary usable for 25 to 10 000 people 11 chapter 5 2 1 ro 11 chapter 5 2 7 tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 34
pou example for areas with no piped water systems iron-coated sand a by-product of large-scale water treatment in filters no chemical additives needed gravity powered system 82 pou treatment has been the only solution for communities not connected to town piped water systems which is quite common in australia new zealand argentina hungary and serbia as well as in many rural areas of developing countries such as bangladesh and india 82 5 3 2 point of-entry poe treatment
poe treatment is for the entire building poe treatment includes ion exchange adsorptive media reverse osmosis etc chapter 5 2 1 5 2 8 5 4 rescue and other treatment options
when the affected areas are financially challenged it is necessary to find an inexpensive instant solution until a long-term solution such as a piped water system can be implemented this poses a challenge to those trying to solve the situation locally as it is necessary to ensure that the contaminated sources are properly marked in case of wells red paint signals not to use the water source green color signals the arsenic concentration is acceptable and not used any longer people have to be educated about the problem as to why the clear clean water is a poison to them an alternative source of water or instant solution has to be found as soon as possible in order to prevent further poisoning 39 several instant treatment options have been discovered and are in trial table 4 many people institutions and organizations have been involved in order to find a solution the urgency of the problem is well illustrated by the fact that the united states academy of engineering and the grainger foundation offered the grainger challenge prizes of $1 000 000 $200 000 and $100 000 for first second and third place for the design and creation of a workable sustainable economical pou water treatment system for arsenic-
contaminated groundwaters in developing countries 84 tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 35
5 4 1 rain water collectors
where as contamination has been proven a simple and less expensive solution of rain water collectors may be used in such cases tanks or roof collectors can be arranged regular maintanance is necessary especially in tropical areas where mosquito larvae might contaminate the water 32 83 86 5 4 2 variations on adsorption while using inexpensive materials
since the biggest problem in most developing countries is affordability unesco and other agencies have been supporting simple solutions by implementing simple technologies and cheaper materials a good working example might be the so called four pitcher system where water is poured in the first pitcher charcoal and brick chips in the second pitcher while sand in the third one and as-free water is in the fourth pitcher arsenic is oxidized while it flows from the first pitcher to the second and is adsorbed to iron the ground-water has to be rich in iron for the system to be effective another example might be the two bucket system the contaminated water is poured into the top bucket to which potassium permanganate and aluminium sulfate is added the tube well water is then filtered through the sand in the bottom bucket 86 appendix v table 4 point-of-use methods that have been applied for arsenic removal from groundwater or shallow aquifiers 70 removal method name
summary of known operating principles 2005 double bucket or buet
coagulation co-precipitation adsorption bucket 1 followed by sand filtration bucket 2 dphe or danida oxidation coagulation co-precipitation stirred tank followed by sand filtration second smaller tank aiiph in india mixing oxidation tank 1 followed by flocculation tank 2 followed by sedimentation tank 3 followed by filtration tank 4 alcan activated alumina adsorption in a two bucket series
buet activated alumina oxidation coagulation co-precipitation adsorption filtration
followed by activated alumina adsorption
tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 36
removal method name
summary of known operating principles 2005 sono-3-kolshi sand iron brick filter bucket 1 followed by sand charcoal brick filter bucket 2 followed by clean water collection bucket 3 sono 45-25 iron filings oxidation bucket 1 followed by sand filtration bucket 2 read-f copolymer cerium oxide adsorption followed by sand filtration
safi kaolin adsorption simultaneous with ferric oxide oxidation
tetrahedron chlorination pre-filtration column 1 followed by ion exchange column 2 5 4 3 phytoremediation
this technology uses plants to stabilize as in situ or extract it from the soil in order to be stored in an area where it doesn't pose an environmental risk this technology has proved to be effective for mitigation of as leaching from a disused wood-waste pile ferns especially such as brake fern pteris vittata 6 may be used to extract as from contaminated soil arsenic enriched plants should be disposed at sealed landfills 24 an example of such a remedy on the market can be edenfern™ which is able to extract arsenic from soil having as concentrations from 1 2 500 mg kg ppm the accumulation of as takes place in the plant's fronds into which the arsenic is soaked up by the plant the fern is then harvested while topsoil is preserved it can typically take 2 4 months to reduce arsenic in soil by 10 mg kg in case the soil has 50 mg kg total arsenic 87 88 figure 6 edenfern™ 88 tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 37
6 impact on the environment and communities
6 1 social problems
when assessing the impact of arsenic poisoning we have to take socio-economic consequences into account as well since most of the cases of arsenicosis have been recorded in developing countries the level of education nutrition and health treatment might be limited in many cases people with arsenicosis have been ostracized from village communities since their skin condition left the impression of leprosies or a hereditary disease as a result arsenic has produced not only physical but also psychological pain as daughters and sons became orphans and women and men lost their life partners families or jobs 42 6 2 limited solutions
even though solutions chapter 5 are available certain communities are left with as rich water as their only source of drinking water reasons may vary people can’t afford the treatment none as-free water sources have been found in the area the water testing was improper etc people in such communities have no other chance than to return to the contaminated source and keep using it 3 figure 7 a newly installed shallow dug-well which replaced a tube well with as concentration of 220 μg l as concentration in this dug-well was 6 μg l but concentrations in similar ones may be in range from 2 50 μg l 39 tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 38
6 3 diet and crops challenge
some of the small scale solutions available to the locals address only drinking issues leaving contaminated water for bathing and irrigation use if such water is used for irrigation people are poisoned by the agricultural products if the products such as rice are exported people in farther areas are being poisoned unknowingly by buying the contaminated products alternatively if the products originating from arsenic-rich land are proved to have elevated concentrations of as they may be refused by the market presence of arsenic in groundwater may then induce crisis economical in cases of dependency on the agriculture which is quite typical for developing countries 23 the top 10 rice-producing countries in the world are china india indonesia bangladesh vietnam thailand myanmar japan philippines brazil 98 eight out of these 10 countries are listed in chapter 4 1 among countries with areas having as-rich groundwaters nutrition may play a crucial role in susceptibility to arsenic-caused skin lesions low intake of calcium animal protein folate and fiber may increase susceptibility a study from west bengal suggests undernourishment may double effects of arsenic poisoning 39 89 6 4 problems concerning arsenic guidelines
setting of the as guidelines is also an issue in many cases the standard is set to 50 μg l which is easier to meet than 10 μg l but might still pose risk of health problems including cancers in some areas meeting the limit of 50 μg l is a challenge so far such as the bengal region it is advisable to leave the standard at that level and lower it as much as possible in a span of next decades 39 6 5 complexity of the problem
while accessing problematic areas all possible sources of contamination have to be considered a good example might be contamination of wells and a lake nearby an old abandoned gold mine in the shubenacadie river lakes area in nova scotia canada where wildlife and humans were affected 56 thus it is necessary to look into possible contamination caused by no longer as producing plants mines etc in order to prevent further damage done by this dangerous metalloid tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 39
conclusion
arsenic contamination is a problem affecting approximately 500 million people worldwide this poisonous metalloid occurring in groundwaters used as drinking waters is a known carcinogen mutagen and teratogen in humans while symptoms of chronic exposure may become obvious in approximately 10 15 years the overall effect on the human body depends on the dose health and nutritional conditions of individuals children for example in general are physically less equipped to convert inorganic arsenic into less harmful organic forms and thus represent the most endangered part of the population arsenic imposes high risk in pregnant women since this lethal element penetrates through the placenta and threatens both the fetus and the mother since who lowered its limit for as concentration in drinking water to 10 μg l various technologies have to be implemented in order to meet the set standard in dozens of countries worldwide if health risks want to be eliminated however a lot of national standards have remained at the level of 50 μg l which has been proved to be a hazardous amount if taken on consistent basis this policy seems logical since various areas have not been able to meet the old standard yet the us epa has identified seven bat technologies for as treatment in drinking waters activated alumina ion exchange reverse osmosis modified coagulation filtration modified lime softening electrodialysis reversal and oxidation filtration not all of them can be readily implemented in the affected areas due to economical and various other reasons numerous other aspects of as poisoning have not been issued yet more tests have to be carried out in order to identify all affected areas and populations as well as impact on the food chain sociological aspects have to be addressed in order to ensure normal lives to arsenic victims education seems to be the key in the fight against arsenic poisoning since the higher the awareness of the problem the larger chance of saving victims worldwide the winner of the grainger challenge first prize of $1 000 000 for the design and creation of a workable sustainable economical pou water treatment system for as-contaminated groundwaters in developing countries will be known in february 2007 hopefully the world will also see the arsenic victims as winners in the battle with this lethal element as more awareness will be raised proper testings carried out and useful technologies implemented tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 40
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mentgateway org water rc filedownload do itemid=1060998 71 jekel m r 1994 removal of arsenic in drinking water treatment arsenic in the environment part i cycling and characterization isbn 0-471-57929-7 edited by jerome o nriagu 1994 john wiley & sons inc pp 119-132 72 wickramasinghe s r han b zimbron j shen z karim m n 2004 arsenic removal by coagulation and filtration comparison of groundwaters from the united states and bangladesh desalination 169 2004 231-244 2004 el­
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tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 46 76 bang s korfiatis g p meng x 2005 removal of arsenic from water by zero-valent iron journal of hazardous materials 121 2005 61-67 2005 elsevier b v 77 fields k a chen a wang l 2000 arsenic removal from drinking water by coagulation filtration and lime softening plants epa 600 r-00 063 june 2000 available from html http www epa gov ord nrmrl pubs 600r00063 600r00063 pdf 78 us epa 2002 using dwsrf funds to comply with the new arsenic rule epa 816-f-02-004 march 2002 available from html http www epa gov safewater dwsrf fund-arsenic pdf 79 reverse osmosis ro water filters homewaterpurifiersandfilters com 2006 available from url http www home-water-purifiers-and-filters com reverse-os­
mosis-filter php 80 wikipedia the free encyklopedia updated may 2006 reverse osmosis available from html http en wikipedia org wiki reverse_osmosis reverse_osmosis_in_use 81 baumann f 2004 the removal of arsenic form potable water bulletin a2 9432 4 pureflow filtration systems available at html http www mhra­
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search headlines news article_06_02_06_en html 83 arsenic found in tsf wells solution to be found in simple rain water collectors september 2003 the sharing foundation available from url http www sharing­
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tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 47 90 wikipedia the free encyklopedia updated may 2006 arsenic poisoning famous victims available from www http en wikipedia org wiki arsenicosis 91 more symptoms of chronic arsenic poisoning 2002 better life laboratories inc available from www http www betterlifelabs org overview05 html 92 bengal engineering college a deemed university arsenic project affected areas available from url http www becs ac in 1 2 7 96 999 affected 20areas htm 93 arsenic symptoms the impact of the arsenic crisis people are at cancer risk in bangledesh avilable from www http arsenic tamu edu symptoms html 94 the world bank group 2005 study arsenic contamination of groundwater in south and east asian countries available from url http web worldbank org wbsite external countries southasiaext extsaregtopwatres 0 contentmdk 20450010 pagepk 34004173 pipk 34
003707 thesitepk 494236 00 html 95 natural resources defense council arsenic and old laws available from url http www nrdc org water drinking arsenic map asp 96 hydrology slides 40 arsenic distribution georgia college & state university available from www http hercules gcsu edu sdatta home teaching hydro slides 97 dryden aqua drinking water systems how to choose your filter drinking water filters & home environmental product available from www http www 1x1x1 co uk water index_page_for_water_home_section htm 98 irri updated 2006 rice around the world available from www http www ir­
ri org science cnyinfo index asp 99 sbírka zákonů č 252 2004 česká republika částka 82 příloha č 1 b fyzikální chemické a organoleptické ukazatele pp 5406 100 pitter p 1990 hydrochemie sntl nakladatelství technické literatury isbn 80-03-00525-6 pp 219-221 101 sbírka zákonů č 275 2004 česká republika částka 88 příloha č 2 b fyzikální chemické a organoleptické ukazatele pp 5799
tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 48
list of acronyms
aa activated alumina
aiiph all india institute of hygiene and public health al aluminium
as arsenic
ash3 arsine gas
atsdr agency for toxic substances and disease registry usa
au gold
bat best available technology
buet bangladesh university of engineering and technology
ca calcium
cca chromated copper arsenate
cl chlorine
cns central nervous system
co cobalt
co3-2 carbonate anion
cu copper
dept department
dmma dimethylarsinic acid
dna deoxyribonucleic acid
dphe department of public health engineering bangladesh
edr electrodialysis reversal
epa environmental protection agency usa
eu european union
fda food and drug administration usa
fe ferrum iron
feooh hydrous ferric oxide gaas gallium arsenide
gi gastrointestinal
haso4-2 hydrogen arsenate anion
i ineffective for oxidation
inas indium arsenide
km2 square kilometer
kmno4 potassium permanganate tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 49
μg l microgram per liter
mg magnesium
mg kg milligram per kilogram
mmol l millimol per liter mn manganese
mno2 manganese dioxide
nas national academy of sciences usa
niosh national institute for occupational safety and health usa
ne north-east north-eastern
ng m3 nanogram per cubic meter
no number
no-2 nitrite anion
no-3 nitrate anion
nw north-west north-western
o oxidation
p phosphorus
pb lead
poe point-of-entry
pou point-of-use
pp pages
ppb parts per billion
ppm parts per million
ro rapid oxidation
tds total dissolved solids
si silicon
se south-east south-eastern
so4-2 sulfate anion
sw south-west south-western
unesco united nations educational scientific and cultural organization
us united states
usa united states of america
uv ultra-violet
vol volume
who world health organization
tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 50
list of figures
figure 1 the alchemical symbol for arsenic 6 13
figure 2 proposed metabolic pathways of arsenic 41 16
figure 3 proposed reaction pathway of dimethylarsine and molecular oxygen 41 17
figure 4 55 of the children in the group suffer from arsenical mellanosis 93 18
figure 5 influence of ph on the removal of as iii and as v from groundwater by fe and al ions initial as concentration 0 3 ppm dosage of metal ions 0 09 mmol l 71 31
figure 6 edenfern™ 88 36
figure 7 a newly installed shallow dug-well which replaced a tube well with as concentration of 220 μg l as concentration in this dug-well was 6 μg l but concentrations in similar ones may be in range from 2 50 μg l 37 tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 51
list of tables
table 1 global production of arsenic trioxide 27 11 12
table 2 global safety guidelines concerning concentrations of as in drinking water as of 2006 19
table 3 ability of oxidants to oxidize as iii to as v 28
table 4 point-of-use methods that have been applied for arsenic removal from groundwater or shallow aquifiers 70 35 36
tbu in zlín faculty of technology utb ve zlíně fakulta technologická 52
appendices
appendix i famous cases of arsenic poisoning
appendix ii common symptoms of arsenic poisoning
appendix iii maps arsenic contamination in groundwaters
appendix iv maps arsenic contamination in groundwaters 2
appendix v examples of arsenic removal systems
appendix i famous cases of arsenic poisoning
napoleon on his imperial throne by jean auguste dominique ingres 1780 1867 painted 1806 a theory says that napoleon bonaparte 1769 1821 suffered and died from as poisoning during his imprisonment on the island of saint helena forensic samples of his hair did show high levels 13 times the normal amount of the element 90 composite of three images of monet's paintings emerald green a pigment frequently used by impressionist painters is based on as cezanne developed severe diabetes symptom of chronic as poisoning monet’s blindness and van gogh’s neurological disorders could have been partially due to their use of emerald green 90 clare boothe luce 1903 1987 carl van vechten’s photograph the american ambassador to italy in the years just following world war ii although she did not die from her poisoning she suffered an increasing variety of physical and psychological symptoms until arsenic poisoning was diagnosed and its source traced to the old arsenic-laden flaking paint on the ceiling of her bedroom 90 appendix ii common symptoms of arsenic poisoning
the blackfoot disease typical for farmers
exposed to as in taiwan 91 keratosis on feet and hands
of people exposed to as in
the bengal region 92 93 appendix iii arsenic groundwaters contamination
global arsenic occurrence map 94 us national arsenic occurrence map 95 appendix iv arsenic groundwaters contamination 2
map of arsenic occurrence in asia 94 bangladesh national arsenic occurrence map 96 appendix v examples of arsenic removal systems
coagulation filtration process for arsenic removal 81 arsenic removal system the two bucket system” 86 reverse osmosis connected to a kitchen sink 97 evidenční list bakalářské práce bc thesis file
místo uložení práce thesis stored at ústřední knihovna utb ve zlíně
autor práce author alena vacková
název práce name of the thesis
česky czech problematika arzenu v podzemních vodách
anglicky english aspects of arsenic contamination of underground waters
vedoucí práce supervisor prof ing jan kupec csc vysoká škola název a adresa university name and address univerzita tomáše bati ve zlíně mostní 5139 760 01 zlín
fakulta technologická nám t g masaryka 275 762 72 zlín
ústav inženýrství ochrany životního prostředí
rok obhájení práce year of defense 2006
počet stran obrázků tabulek no of pages figures tables 57 7 4
předmětová hesla keywords česky czech arzen technologie odstraňování toxikologie podzemní voda pitná voda otrava metaloid
anglicky english arsenic treatment toxicology groundwater drinking water poisoning metalloid
souhrn summary
česky czech tato práce informuje o výskytu použití a zdravotních důsledcích arzenu na lidký organismus uvádí povolené koncentrační limity arzenu v pitných vodách jednotlivých zemí světa jmenuje oblasti kde lidé trpí otravami arzenem v důsledku konzumace místní vody tato práce se dále zabývá technologiemi odstraňování arzenu z vod podmínkami v nichž jsou různé technologie aplikovatelné a identifikuje dopady masových otrav arzenem anglicky english the thesis informs about occurrence uses and health effects of arsenic on humans lists limits on arsenic concentration in drinking waters in certain countries names areas where people are being poisoned by arsenic daily through drinking of local water this paper also summarizes possible treatment options and conditions under which they are feasible and identifies impacts of the mass arsenic poisonings