PPt_4face_021208.jpg © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Presentation_ID ‹#› Cisco_NewLogo Cisco Chapter 6: Static Routing Routing and Switching Essentials Cisco Networking Academy program Routing Protocols Chapter 6: Static Routing Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Chapter 6 §6.1 Static Routing Implementation §6.2 Configure Static and Default Routes §6.3 Review of CIDR and VLSM §6.4 Configure Summary and Floating Static Routes §6.5 Troubleshoot Static and Default Route Issues §6.6 Summary Chapter 6 Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Chapter 6: Objectives §Explain the advantages and disadvantages of static routing. §Explain the purpose of different types of static routes. §Configure IPv4 and IPv6 static routes by specifying a next-hop address. §Configure an IPv4 and IPv6 default routes. §Explain the use of legacy classful addressing in network implementation. §Explain the purpose of CIDR in replacing classful addressing. § Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Chapter 6: Objectives (cont.) §Design and implement a hierarchical addressing scheme. §Configure an IPv4 and IPv6 summary network address to reduce the number of routing table updates. §Configure a floating static route to provide a backup connection. §Explain how a router processes packets when a static route is configured. §Troubleshoot common static and default route configuration issues. Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Static Routing Reach Remote Networks §A router can learn about remote networks in one of two ways: •Manually - Remote networks are manually entered into the route table using static routes. •Dynamically - Remote routes are automatically learned using a dynamic routing protocol. 6.1.1.1 Reach Remote Networks Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Static Routing Why Use Static Routing? §Static routing provides some advantages over dynamic routing, including: §Static routes are not advertised over the network, resulting in better security. §Static routes use less bandwidth than dynamic routing protocols, no CPU cycles are used to calculate and communicate routes. §The path a static route uses to send data is known. 6.1.1.2 Why Use Static Routing? Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Static Routing Why Use Static Routing? (cont.) §Static routing has the following disadvantages: §Initial configuration and maintenance is time-consuming. §Configuration is error-prone, especially in large networks. §Administrator intervention is required to maintain changing route information. §Does not scale well with growing networks; maintenance becomes cumbersome. §Requires complete knowledge of the whole network for proper implementation. § 6.1.1.2 Why Use Static Routing? Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Static Routing When to Use Static Routes §Static routing has three primary uses: §Providing ease of routing table maintenance in smaller networks that are not expected to grow significantly. §Routing to and from stub networks. A stub network is a network accessed by a single route, and the router has no other neighbors. §Using a single default route to represent a path to any network that does not have a more specific match with another route in the routing table. Default routes are used to send traffic to any destination beyond the next upstream router. 6.1.1.3 When to Use Static Routes Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Types of Static Routes Static Route Applications §Static Routes are often used to: §Connect to a specific network. §Provide a Gateway of Last Resort for a stub network. §Reduce the number of routes advertised by summarizing several contiguous networks as one static route. §Create a backup route in case a primary route link fails. § 6.1.2.1 Static Route Applications Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Types of Static Routes Standard Static Route 6.1.2.2 Standard Static Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Types of Static Routes Default Static Route §A default static route is a route that matches all packets. §A default route identifies the gateway IP address to which the router sends all IP packets that it does not have a learned or static route. §A default static route is simply a static route with 0.0.0.0/0 as the destination IPv4 address. 6.1.2.3 Default Static Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Types of Static Routes Summary Static Route 6.1.2.4 Summary Static Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Types of Static Routes Floating Static Route §Floating static routes are static routes that are used to provide a backup path to a primary static or dynamic route, in the event of a link failure. §The floating static route is only used when the primary route is not available. §To accomplish this, the floating static route is configured with a higher administrative distance than the primary route. 6.1.2.5 Floating Static Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv4 Static Routes ip route Command 6.2.1.1 ip route Command Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv4 Static Routes Next-Hop Options §The next hop can be identified by an IP address, exit interface, or both. How the destination is specified creates one of the three following route types: §Next-hop route - Only the next-hop IP address is specified. §Directly connected static route - Only the router exit interface is specified. §Fully specified static route - The next-hop IP address and exit interface are specified. 6.2.1.2 Next-Hop Options Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv4 Static Routes Configure a Next-Hop Static Route §When a packet is destined for the 192.168.2.0/24 network, R1: §1. Looks for a match in the routing table and finds that it has to forward the packets to the next-hop IPv4 address 172.16.2.2. §2. R1 must now determine how to reach 172.16.2.2; therefore, it searches a second time for a 172.16.2.2 match. 6.2.1.3 Configure a Next-Hop Static Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv4 Static Routes Configure Directly Connected Static Route 6.2.1.4 Configure a Directly Connected Static Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv4 Static Routes Configure a Fully Specified Static Route §In a fully specified static route: §Both the output interface and the next-hop IP address are specified. §This is another type of static route that is used in older IOSs, prior to CEF. §This form of static route is used when the output interface is a multi-access interface and it is necessary to explicitly identify the next hop. §The next hop must be directly connected to the specified exit interface. 6.2.1.5 Configure a Fully Specified Static Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv4 Static Routes Verify a Static Route §Along with ping and traceroute, useful commands to verify static routes include: §show ip route §show ip route static §show ip route network 6.2.1.6 Verify a Static Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv4 Default Routes Default Static Route 6.2.2.1 Default Static Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv4 Default Routes Configure a Default Static Route 6.2.2.2 Configure a Default Static Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv4 Default Routes Verify a Default Static Route 6.2.2.3 Verify a Default Static Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv6 Static Routes The ipv6 route Command §Most of parameters are identical to the IPv4 version of the command. IPv6 static routes can also be implemented as: §Standard IPv6 static route §Default IPv6 static route §Summary IPv6 static route §Floating IPv6 static route 6.2.3.1 The ipv6 route Command Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv6 Static Routes Next-Hop Options §The next hop can be identified by an IPv6 address, exit interface, or both. How the destination is specified creates one of three route types: §Next-hop IPv6 route - Only the next-hop IPv6 address is specified. §Directly connected static IPv6 route - Only the router exit interface is specified. §Fully specified static IPv6 route - The next-hop IPv6 address and exit interface are specified. 6.2.3.2 Next-Hop Options Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv6 Static Routes Configure a Next-Hop Static IPv6 Route 6.2.3.3 Configure a Next-Hop Static IPv6 Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv6 Static Routes Configure Directly Connected Static IPv6 Route 6.2.3.4 Configure a Directly Connected Static IPv6 Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv6 Static Routes Configure Fully Specified Static IPv6 Route 6.2.3.5 Configure a Fully Specified Static IPv6 Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv6 Static Routes Verify IPv6 Static Routes §Along with ping and traceroute, useful commands to verify static routes include: §show ipv6 route §show ipv6 route static §show ipv6 route network § § § 6.2.3.6 Verify IPv6 Static Routes Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv6 Default Routes Default Static IPv6 Route 6.2.4.1 Default Static IPv6 Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv6 Default Routes Configure a Default Static IPv6 Route 6.2.4.2 Configure a Default Static IPv6 Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv6 Default Routes Verify a Default Static Route 6.2.4.3 Verify a Default Static Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Classful Addressing Classful Network Addressing 6.3.1.1 Classful Network Addressing Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Classful Addressing Classful Subnet Masks §Class A §Class B §Class C 6.3.1.2 Classful Subnet Masks Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Classful Addressing Classful Routing Protocol Example 6.3.1.3 Classful Routing Protocol Example Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Classful Addressing Classful Addressing Waste 6.3.1.4 Classful Addressing Waste Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png CIDR Classless Inter-Domain Routing 6.3.2.1 Classless Inter-Domain Routing Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png CIDR CIDR and Route Summarization 6.3.2.2 CIDR and Route Summarization Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png CIDR Static Routing CIDR Example 6.3.2.3 Static Routing CIDR Example Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png CIDR Classless Routing Protocol Example 6.3.2.4 Classless Routing Protocol Example Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png VLSM Fixed Length Subnet Masking 6.3.3.1 Fixed-Length Subnet Masking Figure 2 of this page (the figure shown here) reads: One subnet was further divided to create 8 smaller subnets of 4 hosts each. (not 2 hosts each as shown here.) Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png VLSM Variable Length Subnet Masking 6.3.3.2 Variable-Length Subnet Masking Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png VLSM VLSM in Action §VLSM allows the use of different masks for each subnet: §After a network address is subnetted, those subnets can be further subnetted. §VLSM is simply subnetting a subnet. VLSM can be thought of as sub-subnetting. §Individual host addresses are assigned from the addresses of "sub-subnets". 6.3.3.3 VLSM in Action Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png VLSM Subnetting Subnets 6.3.3.4 Subnetting Subnets Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png VLSM VLSM Example 6.3.3.5 VLS Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv4 Summary Routes Route Summarization §Route summarization, also known as route aggregation, is the process of advertising a contiguous set of addresses as a single address with a less-specific, shorter subnet mask: §CIDR is a form of route summarization and is synonymous with the term supernetting. §CIDR ignores the limitation of classful boundaries, and allows summarization with masks that are smaller than that of the default classful mask. §This type of summarization helps reduce the number of entries in routing updates and lowers the number of entries in local routing tables. 6.4.1.1 Route Summarization Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv4 Summary Routes Calculate a Summary Route 6.4.1.2 Calculate a Summary Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv4 Summary Routes Summary Static Route Example 6.4.1.3 Summary Static Route Example Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv6 Summary Routes Summarize IPv6 Network Addresses §Aside from the fact that IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long and written in hexadecimal, summarizing IPv6 addresses is actually similar to the summarization of IPv4 addresses. It just requires a few extra steps due to the abbreviated IPv6 addresses and hex conversion. §Multiple static IPv6 routes can be summarized into a single static IPv6 route if: •The destination networks are contiguous and can be summarized into a single network address. •The multiple static routes all use the same exit interface or next-hop IPv6 address. 6.4.2.1 Summarize IPv6 Network Addresses Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv6 Summary Routes Calculate IPv6 Network Addresses §There are seven steps to summarize IPv6 networks into a single IPv6 prefix: §Step 1. List the network addresses (prefixes) and identify the part where the addresses differ. §Step 2. Expand the IPv6 if it is abbreviated. §Step 3. Convert the differing section from hex to binary. §Step 4. Count the number of far left matching bits to determine the prefix-length for the summary route. §Step 5. Copy the matching bits and then add zero bits to determine the summarized network address (prefix). §Step 6. Convert the binary section back to hex. §Step 7. Append the prefix of the summary route (result of Step 4). 6.4.2.2 Calculate IPv6 Network Addresses Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure IPv6 Summary Routes Configure an IPv6 Summary Address 6.4.2.3 Configure an IPv6 Summary Address Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure Floating Static Routes Floating Static Routes §Floating static routes are static routes that have an administrative distance greater than the administrative distance of another static route or dynamic routes: §The administrative distance of a static route can be increased to make the route less desirable than that of another static route or a route learned through a dynamic routing protocol. §In this way, the static route “floats” and is not used when the route with the better administrative distance is active. §However, if the preferred route is lost, the floating static route can take over, and traffic can be sent through this alternate route. 6.4.3.1 Floating Static Routes Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure Floating Static Routes Configure a Floating Static Route 6.4.3.2 Configure a Floating Static Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Configure Floating Static Routes Test the Floating Static Route §To test a floating static route: §Use a show ip route command to verify that the routing table is using the default static route. §Use a traceroute command to follow the traffic flow out the primary route. §Disconnect the primary link or shutdown the primary exit interface. §Use a show ip route command to verify that the routing table is using the floating static route. §Use a traceroute command to follow the traffic flow out the backup route. § § 6.4.3.3 Test the Floating Static Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Troubleshoot Static and Default Route Issues Static Routes and Packet Forwarding 6.5.2.1 Troubleshoot a Missing Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Troubleshoot IPv4 Static and Default Route Configuration Troubleshoot a Missing Route §Common IOS troubleshooting commands include: §ping §traceroute §show ip route §show ip interface brief §show cdp neighbors detail 6.5.2.1 Troubleshoot a Missing Route Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Troubleshoot IPv4 Static and Default Route Configuration Solve a Connectivity Problem §Finding a missing (or misconfigured) route is a relatively straightforward process, if the right tools are used in a methodical manner. §Use the ping command to confirm the destination can’t be reached. §A traceroute would also reveal what is the closest router (or hop) that fails to respond as expected. In this case, the router would then send an Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) destination unreachable message back to the source. §The next step is to investigate the routing table. Look for missing or misconfigured routes. §Incorrect static routes are a common cause of routing problems. 6.5.2.2 Solve a Connectivity Problem Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Troubleshoot IPv4 Static and Default Route Configuration Solve a Connectivity Problem (cont.) 6.5.2.2 Solve a Connectivity Problem Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Troubleshoot IPv4 Static and Default Route Configuration Solve a Connectivity Problem (cont.) §Refer to the topology shown in the previous slide. §The user at PC1 reports that he cannot access resources on the R3 LAN. §This can be confirmed by pinging the LAN interface of R3 using the LAN interface of R1 as the source (see Figure 1). The results show that there is no connectivity between these LANs. §A traceroute would reveal that R2 is not responding as expected. §For some reason, R2 forwards the traceroute back to R1. R1 returns it to R2. §This loop would continue until the time to live (TTL) value decrements to zero, in which case, the router would then send an Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) destination unreachable message to R1. 6.5.2.2 Solve a Connectivity Problem Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Troubleshoot IPv4 Static and Default Route Configuration Solve a Connectivity Problem (cont.) §The next step is to investigate the routing table of R2, because it is the router displaying a strange forwarding pattern. §The routing table would reveal that the 192.168.2.0/24 network is configured incorrectly. §A static route to the 192.168.2.0/24 network has been configured using the next-hop address 172.16.2.1. §Using the configured next-hop address, packets destined for the 192.168.2.0/24 network are sent back to R1. §Based on the topology, the 192.168.2.0/24 network is connected to R3, not R1. Therefore, the static route to the 192.168.2.0/24 network on R2 must use next-hop 192.168.1.1, not 172.16.2.1. 6.5.2.2 Solve a Connectivity Problem Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Chapter 6: Summary §Static routes can be configured with a next-hop IP address, which is commonly the IP address of the next-hop router. §When a next-hop IP address is used, the routing table process must resolve this address to an exit interface. §On point-to-point serial links, it is usually more efficient to configure the static route with an exit interface. §On multi-access networks, such as Ethernet, both a next-hop IP address and an exit interface can be configured on the static route. §Static routes have a default administrative distance of "1". Chapter 6 Summary Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Chapter 6: Summary (cont.) §A static route is only entered in the routing table if the next-hop IP address can be resolved through an exit interface. §Whether the static route is configured with a next-hop IP address or exit interface, if the exit interface that is used to forward that packet is not in the routing table, the static route is not included in the routing table. §In many cases, several static routes can be configured as a single summary route. Chapter 6 Summary Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png Chapter 6: Summary (cont.) §The ultimate summary route is a default route, configured with a 0.0.0.0 network address and a 0.0.0.0 subnet mask. §If there is not a more specific match in the routing table, the routing table uses the default route to forward the packet to another router. §A floating static route can be configured to back up a main link by manipulating its administrative value. Chapter 6 Summary Presentation_ID ‹#› © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential Rev08_Cisco_BrandBar10_060408.png CNA_largo-onwhite