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As in many GS texts, the electtic vehicle passage (and the one on page 60)
began with a general statement. General statements of fact or tendency can
often be useful starting points of papets and sections of papers. In fact, our
small study of a subset of student papers in MICUSp2 revealed that this was
overwhelmingly the most common choice of openings among students. Other
common ways to begin a paper include providing some interesting statistics, a
quotation, or a definition.
Opening with General Statements
General statements can include those providing facts as well as broad statements
made about a topic that are usually, but not necessarily always, true.
Here are a few examples.
Individuals in organizations exhibit a wide range of behaviors,
from the minimalist who does the least possible to maintain
membership to those who go beyond expectations, engaging
in extra-role behavior to promote the effective operation of
the organization or to benefit others.
In the last decade, tremendous strides have been made in
the science and technology of organic light-emitting diodes
(OLEOs).
Medical tourism is growing in countries such as Thailand,
Malaysia, and the Philippines.
Generalizations that you anticipate readers are likely to accept can be
effective opening sentences. By beginning with information that is generally
accepted, you begin with something familiar to the readers, and ease them
into your paper. While you may worry whether starting with familiar information
is a good strategy, in many fields this may be preferred over starting
with a highly challenging or provocative claim. Why do you suppose this is?
Mter making a general statement, some support Of explanation for the
statement should be offered, which, as we have discussed, helps move the
passage from general to specific. Support can take the form ofspecific detail
or perhaps a citation to earlier work. Whether you begin a GS text with a
general statement or a definition is a matter of personal preference. However,
sometimes one may be a strategically better choice than the other.
2The Michigan Corpus of Upper-level Student Papers is available at .WWW.elicorpora.info/.
62 ACADEMIC WRITING FOR GRADUATE STUDENTS
Suppose, for instance, the topic assigned is "The English Language." Now, if
we were to write on this topic as linguists and the audience was a professor
in Linguistics, we might open the text with a definition.
English is a language that belongs to the West Germanic
subgroup of the Indo-European language family. It began its
history as a distinct tongue in England around 500 ACE.
However, in other circumstances, depending on your purpose, it may be a
better strategy to start with a generalization.
In comparison to many of the world's better-known languages,
English is relatively new. Indeed, the English of 600 years ago
can be understood only by specialists.
Although Chinese has the greatest number of native speakers,
English is the most widely distributed language in the world
today. This position derives from the fact that English is
widely taught as a second language in schools and widely
used in international communication as a lingua franca.
Trz m
TASK THREE
Three pairs of sentences are shown on page 63, each consisting of a
definition and a generalization. When would it be better to begin a
text with the first sentence in each pair rather than the second?
Example
A. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) technology is
considered a potential near-term approach to addressing
global warming and U.S. dependency on foreign oil in the
transportation sector as the cost, size, and weight of batteries
are increasingly reduced.
B. A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) combines the
propulsion capabilities of a traditional combustion engine
with an electric motor.
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Sentence A may be good for either expert or non-expert readers.
The information in Sentence A seems broadly accessible since readers
should be familiar with global warming and dependency on foreign
oil. Although most definitions often work for an audience that
is unfamiliar with the topic to be addressed, the definition in Sentence
B might be too technical for a broad audience. So, it seems
that Sentence B would be best for an audience familiar with concepts
like propulsion and traditional combustion engines. In the
end, audience matters.
1. a. Since their introduction, social network sites (SNSs) snch
as MySpace, Facebook, RenRen, and Bebo have attracted
millions of users, many ofwhom have integrated these sites
into their daily practices. As of this writing, there are
hundreds of SNSs, with various technological affordances,
supporting a wide range of interests and practices.
b. According to Messinger et al. (2009) a social networking
website is a platform in which members can (a) easily create
"profiles" with information about themselves, and (b) define
their "trusted" circle of friends.
2. a. Since their discovery in the late 1970s, hydrothermal vents
associated with mid-oceanic ridges have fascinated scientists
of various disciplines.
b. A hydrothermal vent is a fissure in a planet's surface from
which geothermally heated water emerges (Lal, 2008). Such
vents are commonly found near volcanically active places,
areas where tectonic plates are moving apart, and new crust is
being formed.
63
3. a. Folk art is often defined as an art form created out of everyday
materials by untrained artists.
b. Folk art distinguishes itself from what is commonly known as
fine art in that it has been and remains an important link in
cultural transmission.
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64 ACADEMIC WRITING FOR GRADUATE STUDENTS
Opening with Statistics
Statistics can be parricularly effective openings to GS texrs because they can
sometimes generate reader interest in the text, as demonstrated by this
excerpt from a student paper written for a mechanical engineering course.
In the United States in 2006, 4,784 pedestrians were killed in traffic
accidents. Because a larger percentage of Americans use private
vehicles than walk or use public transportation compared to people
in many countries in the European Union and around the world,
less attention is given in the U.S. to pedestrian safety than in these
more pedestrian-friendly countries. In addition, though numerous
efforts have been made to improve vehicle passenger safety (air
bags, crumple zones, et cetera), no similar effort to protect pedestrians
has been initiated. While pedestrians were involved in just
over 1% of all traffic accidents in 2006, these vulnerable road users
accounted for over 12% of all traffic fatalities.
MICUSP FileMEC.GI.03.1
TASK FOUR
Discuss with a partner whether opening a GS text with some statistics
is possible in your field of study. Why are such openings potentially
interesting for readers? Now look at this GS opening from a student
paper in Economics and answer the questions on page 65.
o Between 1992 and 1995, an international lysine cartel that
included five companies illegally colluded on prices around the
world. CD Lysine is an amino acid used as a feed additive for
enhancing muscle growth in livestock. 0 Prior to the collusive
agreement, worldwide sales of lysine were over $600 million
annually and this figure increased by $200 million following the
price-fixing arrangement.
MICUSP File ECO.GO.02.2
,......--
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1. What message is the author tryiug to convey in the first three
sentences?
2. The purpose of this paper was to examine the extent to which
economic models on collusion describe collusion in the lysine
industry. Do you think this is an effective opening? Why or why
not?
3. What is the purpose of Sentence 2? How important is this
sentence?
Opening with Definitions
65
Definitions are a common way of getting started; they are "hooks" from
which GS paragraphs can be hung. Such paragraphs typically open with fullsentence
definitions. Textbooks, in contrast, often introduce the definitional
information as a minor part of the sentence, as in this example:
The majority of corporate profits, or earnings after all the
operating expenses have been deducted, are subject to tax
by the government,
Textbook definitional information is used to clarifY terms that may be unfamiliar
to the reader, However, this is not your task ifyour audience is already
familiar with the terms and expects you to write a text that demonstrates
your understanding of concepts,
In the next part of this unit, we will highlight certain aspects of the structure
of these key definitional sentences. We will then consider more
extended definitions, cOD;trastive definitions (e.g., organic versus inorganic
chemistry), and comparative definitions (i,e" discussions of the advantages
and disadvantages of competing definitions),
Writing a Definition
The term definition comes from the Latin word dejinio, which means "to
limit or bound; to interpret ideas or words in terms of each other; to understand
one thing by another." A definition sets the boundaries for a word's
meaning. As you are aware, one term can have different meanings depending
on the context. The dictionary definition of cold, for example, usually has
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To sum up, we suggest that you offer a definition of a term or concept if
one or more of the following apply
1. the term Of concept is perhaps unfamiliar to your readers
2. you need to display your understanding for a course paper or exami-
nation
3. the origin of the term is interesting or sheds light on the meaning (as
in our definition of definition earlier)
4. there is a lack of agreement on at some ambiguity surrounding the
meanmg
TASK FIVE
List some terms in your own field with meanings different from
those in everyday life. In Engineering, you might consider the word
chip Of jitter. In Business, Computer Science, or Automotive Engi~
neering, you might consider the word crash. Engineers may also
consider noise. What about a cloud? Now define one or two of those
terms as we did for tone in Linguistics and Physiology.
Some Common Ways to Define in
Academic Writing
Definitions are common in student papers and published papers. Definitions
may simply be short, parenthetical addirions to a senrence or perhaps a
larger paft of a paper. The extenr of the definition depends on the purpose of
the paper, the level of familiarity your audience has with the subject, and the
extent to which there is an agreed-upon definition of the concept. Here are
some common ways to define.
1. short definitions or "glosses" that give information about a term in a
word or phrase and are placed within either parentheses or commas in
a senrence; phtasal definitions signaled by such devices as i.e. or
phrases sucb as known as, defined as, and called
2. sentence definitions, which are brief and somewhat similar to a dictionary
definition
3. extended definitions, which are longer and more detailed than definitions
found in dictionaries
66 ACADEMIC WRITING FOR GRADUATE STUDENTS
something to do with low temperature or a deficiency of heat. But cold is a
relative term whose meaning changes with context. In the following text,
how does the author define particularly coldfor the reader?
Only when environmental conditions are particularly cold, for
example during winter conditions at latitudes above about 50'
in either hemisphere, or when cold is associated with windy and
especially wet conditions, or when the athlete exercises in cold
water for prolonged periods, does the risk arise that the athlete will
lose heat faster than he or she can produce it.
Noakes, 2000.
Words and phrases may also have different meanings depending on the field
of study. For example, tone has several definitions. In Music, a tone can be a
sound of distinct pitch, quality, and duration; while in Linguistics, tone can
refer to the rise or fall of the voice on a particular syllable (as in Chinese). In
Interior Design, tone may be a color or shade of color. And, finally, tone in
Physiology may be used to describe the normal state of elastic tension or
partial contraction in resting muscles.
Apart from disciplinary differences in the meaning of a term, meanings
may differ within some fields of study; this is not uncommon in the social
sciences and the humanities. In these fields the definition of a term may not
be agreed on by members of the discipline; there may be multiple or competing
definitions, each of which has merit. An awareness of these differences
may be critical for your reading as well as your writing. Indeed, to
quote Boggs (2009), "Definitions are curious things. On the surface, one
resembles another, sometimes more closely, sometimes less. Beneath their
surface, however, lurks the essential quality that differentiates one definition
from another, a quality that makes that definition unique to its referent."
To illustrate, while we may all have an understanding offast food, definitions
of the concept differ for different research purposes and it may be necessary
to clearly state the definition so as to avoid misunderstanding or
criticism. Even within the sciences there is a need for clarifying concepts
such as high blood pressure, for which there are no universally accepted pressure
readings (which in turn can complicate comparisons of study outcomes).
Even in the sciences there are occasionally debates regarding the
meaning of important concepts such as noise. We will return to the issue of
multiple definitions later.
~--
86 ACADEMIC WRITING FOR GRADUATE STUDENTS
Here are some skeletal phrases that you could use to present the definition
that you have chosen.
While debate exists regarding a precise definition of ... , the
stance adopted in this paper is that ....
For the purposes of this paper, ... refers to/is defined as/is
considered to be ....
Here we define ... as ... In this paper I have adopted [author's]
definition of ... .
This paper follows [author's] definition of ....
TASK SIXTEEN
Take a look at this discussion of road rage aod aoswer the questions
on page 87.
o The term "road rage" was first coined in 1988 (Fumento, 1998)
and is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as "violent anger
caused by the stress and frustration of driving in heavy traffic."
49 Some researchers suggest that this definition is not entirely accurate.
0 For example, road rage has been described as a cultural
habit of retaliation that occurs as a result of frustration and can
occur independent of heavy traffic (james & Nahl, 1998). (,) Some
have even gone so far as to label road rage a mental disorder
(Schmid, 1997).41) Classifying this cultural phenomenon as a mental
disorder may be a stretch, but there is substantial evidence that
some drivers become very angry when confronted by an adverse
driving event. (I) Elevated levels of anger may prompt aggressive
and other risk-taking behavior, behavior that can increase accident
risk, and risk of other negative behavior such as physical assault
between drivers or arguments with passengers (Deffenbacher,
Oetting, & Lynch, 1994).
DePasquale et aL, 2001.
2: GENERAL-SPECIFIC/SPECIFIC-GENERAL TEXTS
1. How many and what kinds of different definitions of road rage
do the authors include? Why?
2. How is the text organized? Does it seem to be a GS text?
3. What verb tenses are used? Why?
4. In Sentence 5, what is this culturalphenomenon?
5. In which sentences do the authors seem to be cautious about
their claims? Which words or phrases suggested that the authors
were hedging (i.e., being careful)?
6. What do the authors mean when they say, Classifying this
culturalphenomenon as a mental disorder may be a stretch?
7. What is the purpose of the second sentence (i.e., Some
researchers suggest that this definition is not entirely accurate)?
8. What do you think the authors are going to write about next?
Their data? Their method? Their hypothesis? Something else?
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TASK SEVENTEEN
Read through the discussion of procrastination, which views the
term from a variety of perspectives. Answer the questions on pages
88-89. Does it seem like a competing or a contrastive definition,
or is it another kind?
o Procrastination refers to deliberately putting off one's intended
actions. 8 This means that procrastinators intend to perform an
action at a certain moment, but do not engage in it at the moment
that it was planned. 0 Instead, they postpone it, or even never do
it at all. 0 This phenomenon is defined at the behavioral level (not
doing what was intended) as well as at the cognitive level (postponing
decisions) and does not refer to the possible causes of the
dilatory behavior. 0There may be several reasons for putting off
one's intentions, some of which we are not interested in, such as
illness, technical problems, and so on. 0 Moreover, sometimes
procrastination might even be functional (for instance, postponing
a decision because crucial information is lacking, as in Ferrari,
1994). @Two types of procrastinator have been described: the
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88 ACADEMIC WRITING FOR GRADUATE STUDENTS
optimistic procrastinator and the pessimistic procrastinator. tj}Opti·
mistic procrastinators put off their intentions but do not worry
about dOing so (Milgram et aI., 1992). 0 They are confident that
they will succeed in the end, regardless of their engagement in the
intended action now or later. G> Moreover, they overestimate their
progress and their chances to succeed and underestimate the time
needed to achieve their goal (Lay, 1987, 1988). G) In contrast, pes·
simistic procrastinators do worry about their dilatory behavior (Mil·
gram et aI., 1992). G) They are aware of the fact that they get
behind schedule. G) Nevertheless, they still procrastinate because
they do not know how to deal with the task (Lay, 1987, 1988).
fDThey feel incompetent and are afraid that their involvement in
the task will prove their incompetence. EDTherefore, they procrastinate
to avoid unpleasant experiences.
Dewitte and Lens, 2000.
1. "What elements make the passage seem "academic"?
2. Why do the authors indude the general discussion of procrastination
in Sentences 1-6?
3. What is the purpose of Sentence 7? Is this sentence helpful to a
reader? Why?
4. Underline the sentence connectors in the text. What kinds of
connector did the author use (see page 37)? How do these affect
the How of ideas?
5. In Sentence 4 there is a summary phrase. What does this
phenomenon rerer to?
6. Why do you suppose the authors used sometimes and might in
Sentence 6?
7. If, during the revision process, you thought that the passage
would be improved by breaking it into two paragraphs, where
would you put the paragraph break?
2: GENERAL-SPECIFIC/SPECIFIC-GENERAL TEXTS 89
8. The authors have chosen to place the references to previous work
in parentheses. What wonld be the effect of clearly making the
reference part of the sentences, as in this example?
They are aware of the fact that they get behind schedule.
Nevertheless, Lay (1987, 1988) states that they still procrastinate
because they do not know how to deal with the task.
How do writers refer to previous work in your field? Do they use
numbers, parentheses, or something else? Ifyou do not know,
check a journal in your field.
9. What might the authors of this text discuss next?
10. What question (or questions) might this passage be part of an
answer to?
11. What field do you think the passage is from?
TASK EIGHTEEN
We offer two choices here. Write an extended definition of a term
for which there are competing definitions. Or write a contrastive
definition for a term in your field. Remember to use citations ifyou
refer to sources.
J £J U'k\l!%lU
Discussions of Schools ofThought
Many fields have controversies that have led to competing schools of
thought. Examples are schools of thought in Economics, the different categorizations
of intelligence, or disagreements about the origins of the universe.
Passages outlining these schools of thought often involve highlighting
contrasts. Notice how this is done in the sample text in Task Nineteen.
284 ACADEMIC WRITING FOR GRADUATE STUDENTS
Longer Research Papers
When you read an RP, you may think that it is a fairly straightforward
account of an investigation. Indeed, RPs afe often designed to create this
impression so that authors can appear more convincing to their readers.
However, we believe that such impressions are largely misleading and may
lead novice authors to conclude that writing up research should be an
uncomplicated process for those with some experience. A more accurate picture
is that RP authors typically operate in a highly competitive environment.
They need to establish that their research questions are sufficiently interesting
for others to read. They need to demonstrate that they are familiar with the
relevant literature to demonstrate that the research questions have not
already been answered. And they need to compete against other RPs for
acceptance and recognition. As a result, RP authors are very much concerned
with positioning-with showing that their studies are relevant and
make some new contribution to the field.
The overall rhetorical shape of a typical RP is shown in Figure 14. The
arrows indicate that the sections are closely connected. In fact, some journal
editors have suggested that authors try to create a strong connection between
the Introduction and Discussion. In addition, authors should make sure that
every method described is related to some results and all results are related to
a method.
Some empirical papers will follow a slightly different pattern in which the
Results and Discussion sections appear in the same section. This eliminates
the difficult task of deciding in which section authors should interpret or
give meaning to their results. In other types of papers, several studies may be
discussed, which results in some cycling of the Methods-Results-Discussions
sections. Despite these and other variations, the basic format remains rele-
vant.
7: CONSTRUCTING A RESEARCH PAPER I 285
FIGURE 14. Overall Shape of a Research Paper
0
General
Introduction ~
Specific
t
Methods
D~
Results
D~
0
Specific
Discussion
~
General
Figure 14 gives a useful indication of the broad-narrow-broad or generalspecific-general
movement of the typical RP. As the RP in English has developed
over the last hundred years or so. the four different sections have
become identified with four different purposes.
Introduction (I) The main purpose of the Introduction is to provide the rationale for the
paper, moving from a general discussion of the topic to the particular
question, issue, or hypothesis being investigated. A secondary purpose
is to attract interest in the topic-and hence readers.
Methods (M)
Results (R)
Discussion (D)
The Methods section describes, in various degrees of detail, methodology,
materials (or subjects), and procedures. This is the narrowest part of the RP.
In the Results section, the findings are described, accompanied by variable
amounts of commentary.
The Discussion section gives meaning to and interprets the results in a variety
of ways. Authors make a series of "points," at least some of which refer to
statements made in the Introduction.