Implementing Bologna in your institution C 3.4-1
Using learning outcomes and competences Planning and implementing key Bologna features
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Writing and Using Learning
Outcomes: a Practical Guide
Declan Kennedy, Áine Hyland, Norma Ryan
Abstract
Given that one of the main features of the Bologna process is the need to improve the traditional
ways of describing qualifications and qualification structures, all modules and programmes in third
level institutions throughout the European Higher Education Area should be (re)written in terms of
learning outcomes. Learning outcomes are used to express what learners are expected to achieve
and how they are expected to demonstrate that achievement. This article presents a summary of
developments in curriculum design in higher education in recent decades and, drawing on recent
practical experience, suggests a user-friendly methodology for writing modules, courses and
programmes in terms of learning outcomes.
Content Page
1. Introduction 2
2. What are learning outcomes? 3
2.1 Defining learning outcomes 4
2.2 What is the difference between aims, objectives and learning outcomes? 5
2.3 Learning outcomes and competences 6
3. How can one write learning outcomes? 7
3.1 Writing learning outcomes in the cognitive domain 8
3.2 Writing learning outcomes in the affective domain 13
3.3 Writing learning outcomes in the psychomotor domain 15
3.4 Practical advice for writing learning outcomes 17
4. How are learning outcomes linked to teaching and assessment? 19
4.1 Linking learning outcomes, teaching and assessment 20
4.2 Assessment criteria and learning outcomes 23
5. Towards the future with learning outcomes 24
5.1 Advantages of learning outcomes 24
5.2 Potential problems with learning outcomes 27
5.3 Some concluding points 28
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1. Introduction
Learning outcomes are important for recognition ... The principal
question asked of the student or the graduate will therefore
no longer be "what did you do to obtain your degree?" but
rather "what can you do now that you have obtained your degree?"
This approach is of relevance to the labour market and is
certainly more flexible when taking into account issues of lifelong
learning, non-traditional learning, and other forms of nonformal
educational experiences. (Purser, Council of Europe,
2003)
In June 1999, representatives of the Ministers of Education of 29
European countries convened in Bologna, Italy to formulate the Bologna
Declaration, aimed at establishing a common European Higher
Education Area (EHEA). The overall aim is to improve the efficiency
and effectiveness of higher education in Europe. The Bologna process
spells out a number of "action lines" in which learning outcomes
should play an important role (Adam, 2004, 2006). One of the logical
consequences is that, by 2010, all programmes and significant constituent
elements of programmes in third level institutions throughout
the European Higher Education Area should be based on the concept
of learning outcomes, and that curriculum should be redesigned to
reflect this.
At the follow-up meeting in Berlin in 2003, the Ministers for Education
issued a communiqué regarding the state of implementation of the
Bologna process. They emphasised the creation of a common model
for Higher Education in Europe, and encouraged national higher education
systems to ensure ­ through the development of national
frameworks of qualifications ­ that degrees (Bachelor and Masters)
would also be described in terms of learning outcomes, rather than
simply by number of credits and number of hours of study:
Ministers encourage the member States to elaborate a framework
of comparable and compatible qualifications for their
higher education systems, which should seek to describe qualifications
in terms of workload, level, learning outcomes, competences
and profile. They also undertake to elaborate an overarching
framework of qualifications for the European Higher
Education Area. (Berlin Communiqué 20031
)
It is worth noting that defining courses in terms of learning outcomes
is not unique to Europe. Gosling and Moon (2001) have indicated that
the outcomes-based approach to teaching is becoming increasingly
popular at an international level:
1
http://www.bologna-bergen2005.no
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The outcome-based approach has been increasingly adopted within
credit frameworks and by national quality and qualifications
authorities such as the QAA (Quality Assurance Agency for Higher
Education) in the UK, the Australian, New Zealand and South African
Qualification Authorities. (Gosling and Moon, 2001)
This article draws on the work of the higher education institutions
involved in the European University Association (EUA) Quality Culture
Network IV ­ Teaching and Learning2
­ during 2004/5, and of
academic staff from different faculties in University College Cork,
Ireland who rewrote all or part of their courses in terms of learning
outcomes during 2005/6.3
2. What are learning outcomes?
The traditional way of designing modules and programmes was to
start from the content of the course. Teachers decided on the content
that they intended to teach, planned how to teach this content and then
assessed the content. This type of approach focussed on the teacher's
input and on assessment in terms of how well the students absorbed
the material taught. Course descriptions referred mainly to the content
of the course that would be covered in lectures. This approach to
teaching has been referred to as a teacher-centred approach. Among
the criticisms of this type of approach in the literature (Gosling and
Moon, 2001) is that it can be difficult to identify precisely what the
student has to be able to do in order to pass the module or programme.
International trends in education show a shift from the traditional
"teacher centred" approach to a "student centred" approach. This alternative
model focuses on what the students are expected to be able
to do at the end of the module or programme. Hence, this approach is
commonly referred to as an outcome-based approach. Statements
called intended learning outcomes, commonly shortened to learning
outcomes, are used to express what it is expected that students should
be able to do at the end of the learning period.
The outcome-based approach can be traced back to the work of the
behavioural objectives movement of the 1960s and 1970s in the
United States. One of the advocates of this type of teaching was Robert
Mager, who proposed the idea of writing very specific statements
about observable outcomes. He called these statements instructional
2
http://www.eua.be
3
Copies of the UCC staff handbook on Learning Outcomes are available
on request from Dr Norma Ryan (n.ryan@ucc.ie).
Moving from a teachercentred
approach...
... to a student-centred
approach
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objectives (Mager, 1975). Using these instructional objectives and
performance outcomes, he attempted to define the type of learning
that would occur at the conclusion of instruction and how that learning
would be assessed. These instructional objectives later developed into
more precisely defined learning outcomes.
2.1 Defining learning outcomes
A survey of the literature on learning outcomes comes up with a number
of similar definitions of the term:
* Learning outcomes are statements of what is expected that the student will be able to do as a
result of learning the activity. (Jenkins and Unwin, 2001)
* Learning outcomes are statements that specify what learners will know or be able to do as a
result of a learning activity. Outcomes are usually expressed as knowledge, skills or attitudes.
(American Association of Law Libraries4
)
* Learning outcomes are an explicit description of what a learner should know, understand and be
able to do as a result of learning. (Bingham, 1999)
* Learning outcomes are statements of what a learner is expected to know, understand and/or be
able to demonstrate after completion of a process of learning. (ECTS Users' Guide, 2005)
* Learning outcomes are explicit statements of what we want our students to know, understand or
be able to do as a result of completing our courses. (University of New South Wales, Australia5
)
* Learning outcome: a statement of what a learner is expected to know, understand and/or be able
to demonstrate at the end of a period of learning". (Gosling and Moon, 2001)
* A learning outcome is a statement of what the learner is expected to know, understand and/or be
able to do at the end of a period of learning. (Donnelly and Fitzmaurice, 2005)
* A learning outcome is a statement of what a learner is expected to know, understand and be able to
do at the end of a period of learning and of how that learning is to be demonstrated". (Moon, 2002)
* Learning outcomes describe what students are able to demonstrate in terms of knowledge, skills and
attitudes upon completion of a programme. (Quality Enhancement Committee, Texas University6
)
* A learning outcome is a written statement of what the successful student/learner is expected to
be able to do at the end of the module/course unit or qualification. (Adam, 2004)
Handout C 3.4-1-1 Some definitions of the term "learning outcomes"
4
http://www.aallnet.org/prodev/outcomes.asp
5
http://www.ltu.unsw.edu.au/content/course_prog_support/outcomes.cfm?ss=0
6
http://qep.tamu.edu/documents/writing_outcomes.pdf
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Thus, we can see that the various definitions of learning outcomes do not
differ significantly from each other. From these definitions, it is clear that:
* Learning outcomes focus on what the learner has achieved rather
than the intentions of the teacher;
* Learning outcomes focus on what the learner can demonstrate at
the end of a learning activity.
The following definition (ECTS Users' Guide, p. 47) of a learning
outcome may be considered a good working definition:
Learning outcomes are statements of what a learner is expected to
know, understand and/or be able to demonstrate after completion of a
process of learning.
The process of learning could be, for example, a lecture, a module or
an entire programme.
2.2 What is the difference between aims, objectives
and learning outcomes?
The aim of a module or programme is a broad general statement of
teaching intention, i.e. it indicates what the teacher intends to cover in
a block of learning. Aims are usually written from the teacher's point
of view to indicate the general content and direction of the module.
For example, the aim of a module could be "to introduce students to
the basic principles of atomic structure" or "to provide a general introduction
to the history of Ireland in the twentieth century".
The objective of a module or programme is usually a specific statement
of teaching intention, i.e. it indicates one of the specific areas
that the teacher intends to cover in a block of learning. For example,
one of the objectives of a module could be that "students would understand
the impacts and effects of behaviours and lifestyles on both
the local and global environments". (In some contexts, objectives are
also referred to as goals).
Thus, the aim of a module gives the broad purpose or general teaching
intention of the module, whilst the objective gives more specific information
about what the teaching of the module hopes to achieve.
One of the problems caused by the use of objectives is that sometimes
they are written in terms of teaching intention and other times they are
written in terms of expected learning, i.e. there is confusion in the
literature in terms of whether objectives belong to the teacher-centred
approach or the outcome-based approach. The situation is nicely
summarised by Moon (2002) as follows:
A working definition
Aims
Objectives
Confusion
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Basically the term `objective' tends to complicate the situation, because
objectives may be written in terms of teaching intention or expected
learning... This means that some descriptions are of the
teaching in the module and some are of the learning... This general
lack of agreement as to the format of objectives is a complication, and
justifies the abandonment of the use of the term `objective' in the description
of modules or programmes. (Moon, 2002)
Most teachers who have worked on the development of objectives for
modules or programmes have encountered the above problem. One of
the great advantages of learning outcomes is that they are clear statements
of what the learner is expected to achieve and how he or she is
expected to demonstrate that achievement. Thus, learning outcomes
are more precise, easier to compose and far clearer than objectives.
From one perspective, learning outcomes can be considered as a sort
of "common currency" that assists modules and programmes to be
more transparent at both local level and at an international level.
2.3 Learning outcomes and competences
In some papers in the literature, the term "competence" is used in association
with learning outcomes. It is difficult to find a precise definition
for this term. Adam (2004) comments that "some take a narrow
view and associate competence just with skills acquired by training".
The EC Tuning project7
which was initiated in 2000 used the term
"competence" to represent a combination of attributes in terms of
knowledge and its application, skills, responsibilities and attitudes and
an attempt was made to describe the extent to which a person is capable
of performing them.
The lack of clarity or agreement in terms of defining the term competence
is apparent in the ECTS Users' Guide (2005), which describes
competences as "a dynamic combination of attributes, abilities and
attitudes". The Guide goes on to state that "Fostering these competences
is the object of educational programmes. Competences are
formed in various course units and assessed at different stages. They
may be divided into subject-area related competences (specific to a
field of study) and generic competences (common to any degree
course)".
7
Tuning Educational Structures in Europe, http://tuning.unideusto.org/tuningeu/
Advantages of learning
outcomes
Lack of clear definition
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Since there does not appear to be a common understanding of the term
competence in the literature, learning outcomes have become more
commonly used than competences when describing what students are
expected to know, understand and/or be able to demonstrate at the end
of a module or programme. For that reason, the terms "competence"
and "competency" are avoided in this article.
3. How can one write learning outcomes?
The learning outcome approach is, above all, a perspective and a mode
of thinking in order to develop valid programmes. While being an
essential part of the implementation phase, writing learning outcomes
is of course only the visible surface of this perspective, or a consequence
of its implementation. Having stated that, this article intends to
use "writing" as the key word, but the intention is of course that the
writing of these learning outcomes should be preceded by the thinking
necessary for this change in approach.
The work of Benjamin Bloom (1913 ­ 1999) was found by the staff of
University College Cork, Ireland, to provide a useful starting point
when writing learning outcomes. Bloom studied in Pennsylvania State
University, USA, and graduated with bachelor and master degrees
from that institution. He then worked with Ralph Tyler at the University
of Chicago and graduated with a PhD in Education in 1942.
Bloom was a gifted teacher who carried out research on the development
of a classification of levels of thinking during the learning process.
He believed that teachers should design lessons and tasks to help
students to meet stated objectives. Bloom identified three domains of
learning ­ cognitive, affective and psycho-motor ­ and within each of
these domains he recognised that there was an ascending order of
complexity. His work is most advanced in the cognitive domain where
he drew up a classification (or taxonomy) of thinking behaviours from
the simple recall of facts up to the process of analysis and evaluation.
His publication Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook 1, the
Cognitive Domain (Bloom et al., 1956) has become widely used
throughout the world to assist in the preparation of curriculum and
evaluation materials. The taxonomy provides a framework in which
one can build upon prior learning to develop more complex levels of
understanding.
In recent years, attempts have been made to revise Bloom's Taxonomy
(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Krathwohl, 2002) but the original
works of Bloom and his co-workers are still the most widely quoted in
the literature.
Benjamin Bloom
Three domains of
learning
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Bloom proposed that the cognitive or knowing domain is composed of
six successive levels arranged in a hierarchy as shown in figure C 3.4-1-1.
1. Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application
4. Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation
Fig. C 3.4-1-1 Hierarchy of cognitive domain
Bloom's taxonomy was not simply a classification ­ it was an effort
by him to arrange the various thinking processes in a hierarchy. In this
hierarchy, each level depends on the student's ability to perform at the
level or levels that are below it. For example, for a student to apply
knowledge (stage 3) he or she would need to have both the necessary
information (stage 1) and understanding of this information (stage 2).
When talking about teaching, Bloom always advocated that when
teaching and assessing students one should bear in mind that learning
is a process and that the teacher should try to get the thought processes
of the students to move up into the higher order stages of synthesis
and evaluation.
3.1 Writing learning outcomes in the cognitive
domain
Bloom's taxonomy is frequently used for writing learning outcomes,
since it provides a ready-made structure and list of verbs. It can be
argued that the use of the correct verbs is the key to the successful
writing of learning outcomes. Bloom's original list of verbs was limited
and has been extended by various authors over the years. The list
of verbs given in this article has been compiled from a combination of
Bloom's original publication and from the more modern literature in
this area. It is not claimed that the list of verbs suggested for each
stage is exhaustive, but it is hoped that the reader will find the lists to
be reasonably comprehensive.
A hierarchy of thinking
processes
Using correct verbs
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In the following section, each stage of Bloom's taxonomy is considered
and the corresponding list of verbs relating to each stage is proposed.
Since learning outcomes are concerned with what the students can do at
the end of the learning activity, all of these verbs are action (active) verbs.
3.1.1 Knowledge
Knowledge may be defined as the ability to recall or remember facts
without necessarily understanding them. Some of the action verbs
used to assess knowledge are as follows:
Arrange, collect, define, describe, duplicate, enumerate, examine,
find, identify, label, list, memorise, name, order, outline, present,
quote, recall, recognise, recollect, record, recount, relate, repeat, reproduce,
show, state, tabulate, tell.
Some examples of learning outcomes for courses in various disciplines
that demonstrate evidence of knowledge include the following:
* Recall genetics terminology: homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype,
genotype, homologous chromosome pair, etc.
* Identify and consider ethical implications of scientific investigations.
* Describe how and why laws change and the consequences of such
changes on society.
* List the criteria to be taken into account when caring for a patient
with tuberculosis.
* Define what behaviours constitute unprofessional practice in the
solicitor ­ client relationship.
* Describe the processes used in engineering when preparing a design
brief for a client.
Note that each learning outcome begins with an action verb.
3.1.2 Comprehension
Comprehension may be defined as the ability to understand and interpret
learned information. Some of the action verbs used to assess
comprehension are as follows:
Associate, change, clarify, classify, construct, contrast, convert, decode,
defend, describe, differentiate, discriminate, discuss, distinguish,
estimate, explain, express, extend, generalise, identify, illustrate, indicate,
infer, interpret, locate, paraphrase, predict, recognise, report,
restate, rewrite, review, select, solve, translate.
Action verbs
Assessing knowledge
Demonstrating evidence
of knowledge
Assessing
comprehension
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Some examples of learning outcomes that demonstrate evidence of
comprehension are:
* Differentiate between civil and criminal law
* Identify participants and goals in the development of electronic
commerce.
* Predict the genotype of cells that undergo meiosis and mitosis.
* Explain the social, economic and political effects of World War I
on the post-war world.
* Classify reactions as exothermic and endothermic.
* Recognise the forces discouraging the growth of the educational
system in Ireland in the 19th century.
3.1.3 Application
Application may be defined as the ability to use learned material in
new situations, e.g. put ideas and concepts to work in solving problems.
Some of the action verbs used to assess application are shown as
follows:
Apply, assess, calculate, change, choose, complete, compute, construct,
demonstrate, develop, discover, dramatise, employ, examine,
experiment, find, illustrate, interpret, manipulate, modify, operate,
organise, practice, predict, prepare, produce, relate, schedule, select,
show, sketch, solve, transfer, use.
Some examples of learning outcomes that demonstrate evidence of
application are:
* Construct a timeline of significant events in the history of Australia
in the 19
th
century.
* Apply knowledge of infection control in the maintenance of patient
care facilities.
* Select and employ sophisticated techniques for analysing the efficiencies
of energy usage in complex industrial processes.
* Relate energy changes to bond breaking and formation.
* Modify guidelines in a case study of a small manufacturing firm to
enable tighter quality control of production.
Demonstrating evidence
of comprehension
Assessing application
Demonstrating evidence
of application
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* Show how changes in the criminal law affected levels of incarceration
in Scotland in the 19th century.
* Apply principles of evidence-based medicine to determine clinical
diagnoses.
3.1.4 Analysis
Analysis may be defined as the ability to break down information into
its components, e.g. look for inter-relationships and ideas (understanding
of organisational structure). Some of the action verbs used to
assess analysis are as follows:
Analyse, appraise, arrange, break down, calculate, categorise, classify,
compare, connect, contrast, criticise, debate, deduce, determine,
differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, divide, examine, experiment,
identify, illustrate, infer, inspect, investigate, order, outline, point out,
question, relate, separate, sub-divide, test.
Some examples of learning outcomes that demonstrate evidence of
analysis are:
* Analyse why society criminalises certain behaviours.
* Compare and contrast the different electronic business models.
* Debate the economic and environmental effects of energy conversion
processes.
* Compare the classroom practice of a newly qualified teacher with
that of a teacher of 20 years teaching experience.
* Calculate gradient from maps in m, km, % and ratio.
3.1.5 Synthesis
Synthesis may be defined as the ability to put parts together. Some of
the action verbs used to assess synthesis are the following:
Argue, arrange, assemble, categorise, collect, combine, compile, compose,
construct, create, design, develop, devise, establish, explain,
formulate, generalise, generate, integrate, invent, make, manage,
modify, organise, originate, plan, prepare, propose, rearrange, reconstruct,
relate, reorganise, revise, rewrite, set up, summarise.
Assessing analysis
Demonstrating evidence
of analysis
Assessing synthesis
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Some examples of learning outcomes that demonstrate evidence of
synthesis are:
* Recognise and formulate problems that are amenable to energy
management solutions.
* Propose solutions to complex energy management problems both
verbally and in writing.
* Summarise the causes and effects of the 1917 Russian revolutions.
* Relate the sign of enthalpy changes to exothermic and endothermic
reactions.
* Organise a patient education programme.
3.1.6 Evaluation
Evaluation may be defined as the ability to judge the value of material
for a given purpose. Some of the action verbs used to assess evaluation
are:
Appraise, ascertain, argue, assess, attach, choose, compare, conclude,
contrast, convince, criticise, decide, defend, discriminate, explain,
evaluate, grade, interpret, judge, justify, measure, predict, rate, recommend,
relate, resolve,
The following are some examples of learning outcomes that demonstrate
evidence of evaluation are:
* Assess the importance of key participants in bringing about change
in Irish history Evaluate marketing strategies for different electronic
business models.
* Summarise the main contributions of Michael Faraday to the field
of electromagnetic induction.
* Predict the effect of change of temperature on the position of equi-
librium.
* Evaluate the key areas contributing to the craft knowledge of experienced
teachers.
Note that the verbs used in the above six categories are not exclusive
to any one particular category. Some verbs appear in more than one
category. For example, a mathematical calculation may involve
merely applying a given formula (application ­ stage 3) or it may involve
analysis (stage 4) as well as application.
Demonstrating evidence
of synthesis
Assessing evaluation
Demonstrating evidence
of evaluation
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3.2 Writing learning outcomes in the affective
domain
Whilst the cognitive domain is the most widely used of Bloom's Taxonomy,
Bloom and his co-workers also carried out research on the
affective ("attitudes", "feelings", "values") domain (Bloom et al.,
1964). This domain is concerned with issues relating to the emotional
component of learning and ranges from basic willingness to receive
information to the integration of beliefs, ideas and attitudes.
In order to describe the way in which we deal with things emotionally,
Bloom and his colleagues developed five major categories:
1. Receiving. This refers to a willingness to receive information, e.g.
the individual accepts the need for a commitment to service, listens
to others with respect, shows sensitivity to social problems, etc.
2. Responding. This refers to the individual actively participating in
his or her own learning, e.g. shows interest in the subject, is willing
to give a presentation, participates in class discussions, enjoys
helping others, etc.
3. Valuing. This ranges from simple acceptance of a value to one of
commitment, e.g. the individual demonstrates belief in democratic
processes, appreciates the role of science in our everyday lives,
shows concern for the welfare of others, shows sensitivity towards
individual and cultural differences, etc.
4. Organisation. This refers to the process that individuals go through
as they bring together different values, resolve conflicts among them
and start to internalise the values, e.g. recognises the need for balance
between freedom and responsibility in a democracy, accepts responsibility
for his or her own behaviour, accepts professional ethical
standards, adapts behaviour to a value system, etc.
5. Characterisation. At this level the individual has a value system
in terms of their beliefs, ideas and attitudes that control their behaviour
in a consistent and predictable manner, e.g. displays self
reliance in working independently, displays a professional commitment
to ethical practice, shows good personal, social and emotional
adjustment, maintains good health habits, etc.
Emotional component of
learning
Five major categories
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The major categories of the affective domain and some active verbs
commonly used when writing learning outcomes for this domain are
shown in Fig. C 3.4-1-2. Some examples of learning outcomes in the
affective domain are:
5. Characterisation
3. Valuing
4. Organisation
2. Responding
1. Receiving
act, adhere, appreciate, ask, accept,
answer, assist, attempt, challenge,
combine, complete, conform, cooperate,
defend, demonstrate (a belief in),
differentiate, discuss, display, dispute,
embrace, follow, hold, initiate, integrate,
justify, listen, order, organise, participate,
practice, join, share, judge, praise,
question, relate, report, resolve, share,
support, synthesise, value
Fig. C 3.4-1-2 Hierarchy of affective domain and some action verbs
Bloom and his colleagues (and subsequent authors) have linked the
various levels in the affective domain to specific verbs. However, this
level of detail will not be explored in this article.
Some examples of learning outcomes relevant to the affective domain
are as follows:
* Accept the need for professional ethical standards.
* Appreciate the need for confidentiality in the professional client
relationship.
* Value a willingness to work independently.
* Relate well to pupils of all abilities in the classroom.
* Appreciate the management challenges associated with high levels
of change in the public sector.
* Display a willingness to communicate well with patients.
* Resolve conflicting issues between personal beliefs and ethical
considerations.
* Participate in class discussions with colleagues and with teachers.
* Embrace a responsibility for the welfare of children taken into care.
* Display a professional commitment to ethical practice.
Major affective categories
and active verbs
Examples of learning
outcomes
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3.3 Writing learning outcomes in the psychomotor
domain
The psychomotor domain mainly emphasises physical skills involving
co-ordination of the brain and muscular activity. From a study of the
literature, it would appear that this domain has been less well developed
in the field of education than either the cognitive or affective
domain. The psychomotor domain is commonly used in areas like
laboratory science subjects, health sciences, art, music, engineering,
drama and physical education. Bloom and his research team did not
complete detailed work on the psychomotor domain as they claimed
lack of experience in teaching these skills. However, a number of
authors have suggested various versions of taxonomies to describe the
development of skills and co-ordination.
For example, Dave (1970) proposed a hierarchy consisting of five
levels:
1. Imitation: Observing the behaviour of another person and copying
this behaviour. This is the first stage in learning a complex skill.
2. Manipulation: Ability to perform certain actions by following
instructions and practicing skills.
3. Precision: At this level, the student has the ability to carry out a
task with few errors and become more precise without the presence
of the original source. The skill has been attained and proficiency
is indicated by smooth and accurate performance.
4. Articulation: Ability to co-ordinate a series of actions by combining
two or more skills. Patterns can be modified to fit special
requirements or solve a problem.
5. Naturalisation: Displays a high level of performance naturally
("without thinking"). Skills are combined, sequenced and performed
consistently with ease.
Physical skills
Five levels
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This hierarchy and some examples of action verbs for writing learning
outcomes in the psychomotor domain are shown in figure C 3.4-1-3:
1. Imitation
2. Manipulation
3. Precision
4. Articulation
5. Naturalisation Adapt, adjust, administer, alter, arrange,
assemble, balance, bend, build, calibrate,
choreograph, combine, construct, copy,
design, deliver, detect, demonstrate,
differentiate (by touch), dismantle, display,
dissect, drive, estimate, examine, execute, fix,
grasp, grind, handle, heat, manipulate,
identify, measure, mend, mime, mimic, mix,
operate, organise, perform (skilfully), present,
record, refine, sketch, react, use.
Fig. C 3.4-1-3 Hierarchy of psychomotor domain and some action verbs
Subsequently, Simpson (1972) developed a more detailed hierarchy
consisting of seven levels:
1. Perception: The ability to use observed cues to guide physical
activity.
2. Set (mindset): The readiness to take a particular course of action.
This can involve mental, physical and emotional disposition.
3. Guided response: The trial-an-error attempts at acquiring a physical
skill. With practice, this leads to better performance.
4. Mechanism: The intermediate stage in learning a physical skill.
Learned responses become more habitual and movements can be
performed with some confidence and level of proficiency.
5. Complex Overt Responses: Physical activities involving complex
movement patterns are possible. Responses are automatic and proficiency
is indicated by accurate and highly coordinated performance
with a minimum of wasted effort.
6. Adaptation: At this level, skills are well developed and the individual
can modify movements to deal with problem situations or to
fit special requirements.
7. Origination: The skills are so highly developed that creativity for
special situations is possible.
Other taxonomies
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Other taxonomies in the psychomotor domain have been developed by
Harrow (1972) and Dawson (1998). Ferris and Aziz (2005) developed
a taxonomy in the psychomotor domain specifically for engineering
students.
In general, all of the various taxonomies in the psychomotor domain
describe a progression from simple observation to mastery of physical
skills.
3.4 Practical advice for writing learning outcomes
Fry et al (2000) when giving practical advice for writing learning outcomes
recommend the use of "unambiguous action verbs" and list
many examples of verbs from Bloom's Taxonomy. In order to show
the differences between the vocabulary used in writing aims and
learning outcomes, the authors listed some examples of verbs as
shown in Table C 3.4-1-1.
Table C 3.4-1-1 Examples of verbs used in writing aims and
learning outcomes. (Fry et al., 2000 p. 51)
Aims Outcomes
Know
Understand
Determine
Appreciate
Grasp
Become familiar
Distinguish between
Choose
Assemble
Adjust
Identify
Solve, apply, list
The following guidelines may be of assistance when writing learning
outcomes:
Unambiguous action
verbs
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* Begin each learning outcome with an action verb, followed by the object of the verb followed by a
phrase that gives the context.
* Use only one verb per learning outcome.
* Avoid vague terms like know, understand, learn, be familiar with, be exposed to, be acquainted
with, and be aware of. These terms are associated with teaching objectives rather than learning
outcomes.
* Avoid complicated sentences. If necessary use more one than one sentence to ensure clarity.
* Ensure that the learning outcomes of the module relate to the overall outcomes of the
programme.
* The learning outcomes must be observable and measurable.
* Ensure that the earning outcomes are capable of being assessed.
* When writing learning outcomes, bear in mind the timescale within which the outcomes are to be
achieved. There is always the danger that one can be over-ambitious when writing learning
outcomes. Ask yourself if it is realistic to achieve the learning outcomes within the time and
resources available.
* As you work on writing the learning outcomes, bear the mind how these outcomes will be
assessed, i.e. how will you know if the student has achieved these learning outcomes? If the
learning outcomes are very broad, they may be difficult to assess effectively. If the learning
outcomes are very narrow, the list of learning outcomes may be too long and detailed.
* Before finalising the learning outcomes, ask your colleagues and possibly former students if the
learning outcomes make sense to them.
* When writing learning outcomes, for students at levels beyond first year, try to avoid overloading
the list with learning outcomes which are drawn from the bottom of Bloom's taxonomy ( e.g.
Knowledge and Comprehension in the cognitive domain). Try to challenge the students to use
what they have learned by including some learning outcomes drawn from the higher categories
(e.g. Application, Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation).
Handout C 3.4-1-2 Guidelines for writing learning outcomes
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4. How are learning outcomes linked to
teaching and assessment?
When writing learning outcomes, it is important to write them in such
a way that they are capable of being assessed. Clearly, it is necessary
to have some form of assessment tool or technique in order to determine
the extent to which learning outcomes have been achieved. Examples
of direct assessment techniques are the use of written examinations,
project work, portfolios, grading system with rubrics, theses,
reflective journals, performance assessment, etc. Examples of indirect
assessment methods are surveys of employers, comparison with peer
institutions, surveys of past graduates, retention rates, analysis of curriculum,
etc.
The challenge for teachers is to ensure that there is alignment between
teaching methods, assessment techniques, assessment criteria and
learning outcomes. This connection between teaching, assessment and
learning outcomes helps to make the overall learning experience more
transparent. Student course evaluations show that clear expectations
are a vitally important part of effective learning. Lack of clarity in this
area is almost always associated with negative evaluations, learning
difficulties, and poor student performance. Toohey (1999) recommends
that the best way to help students understand how they must
achieve learning outcomes is by clearly setting out the assessment
techniques and the assessment criteria.
In terms of teaching and learning, there is a dynamic equilibrium between
teaching strategies on one side and learning outcomes and assessment
on the other side.
It is important that the assessment tasks mirror the learning outcomes
since, as far as the students are concerned, the assessment is the curriculum:
"From our students' point of view, assessment always defines
the actual curriculum" (Ramsden, 2003). This situation is represented
graphically by Biggs (2003b) as follows:
Teacher
Perspectives: Objectives DLOs* Teaching Activities Assessment
Student
Perspectives: Assessment Learning activities Outcomes
* Desired Learning Outcomes
Fig. C 3.4-1-4 Teacher and student perspectives regarding assessment
Assessing learning
outcomes
Aligning teaching,
assessment and
learning outcomes
Assessment must mirror
learning outcomes
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In stressing this point, Biggs (2003) emphasises the strong link between
the curriculum and assessment as follows:
To the teacher, assessment is at the end of the teaching-learning sequence
of events, but to the student it is at the beginning. If the curriculum
is reflected in the assessment, as indicated by the downward
arrow, the teaching activities of the teacher and the learner activities
of the learner are both directed towards the same goal. In preparing
for the assessment, students will be learning the curriculum. (Biggs
2003)
One cannot over-emphasise the importance of assessment in the
teaching and learning process. As already stated (Ramsden, 2003) as
far as the students are concerned, the assessment is the curriculum.
They will learn what they think will be assessed, not what may be on
the curriculum or even what has been covered in lectures! The old
adage that "assessment is the tail that wags the dog" is very true.
4.1 Linking learning outcomes, teaching and
assessment
Assessment is often described in terms of formative assessment or
summative assessment. Formative assessment has been described as
being assessment FOR learning. It has been described as assessment
that "refers to all those activities undertaken by teachers, and by the
students in assessing themselves, which provide information to be
used as feedback to modify the teaching and learning activities in
which they are engaged" (Black and Williams, 1998). In other words,
formative assessment helps to inform the teacher and the students as
to how the students are progressing. Formative assessment is usually
carried out at the beginning of a programme or during a programme.
The students' performance on the assessment tasks can help the
teacher to make decisions about the direction of the teaching to help
the learning process. It has been clearly shown (Black and Williams,
1998) that by giving feedback to learners, formative assessment can
help improve the learning and performance of students.
The main characteristics of formative assessment include:
* Identification by teachers and students of the learning outcomes
and the criteria for achieving these.
* The provision of clear and rich feedback in an effective and timely
fashion.
* The active involvement of students in their own learning.
* Good communication between teacher and students.
* The response by the teacher to the needs of the students.
Link between curriculum
and assessment
Formative assessment
Main characteristics
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In short, formative assessment is part of the teaching process rather
than the grading process.
Summative assessment is assessment that tries to summarise student
learning at some point in time ­ usually at the end of a module or programme.
Summative assessment has been described as "end-of-course
assessment and essentially means that this is assessment which produces
a measure which sums up someone's achievement and which
has no other real use except as a description of what has been
achieved" (Brown and Knight, 1994).
Thus, the use of summative assessment enables a grade to be generated
that reflects the student's performance. Unfortunately, summative
assessment is often restricted to just the traditional examination paper
and does not involve other areas like project work, portfolios or essays.
Because of the nature of summative assessment, not all learning
outcomes can be assessed at any one time. Assessment of just a sample
of learning outcomes is common.
In theory, continuous assessment is a combination of summative and
formative assessment. In practice, continuous assessment often
amounts to repeated summative assessments with marks being recorded
but little or no specific feedback being given to students.
Clearly, it is important that the method of assessment that we use
should attempt to test whether or not the learning outcomes have been
achieved. Interestingly, it has been found that the range of assessment
of students is very limited, with approximately 80 % of assessment
being in the form of exams, essays and reports of some kind.
(Brown,1999). For example, a study of assessment practices in University
College, Dublin, Ireland found that a random sample of 83
teaching staff used a total of 256 assessments when asked to describe
one of their courses, i.e. approximately 3 assessments per course. Of
these assessments, the majority were summative (84 %) and a minority
were formative (16 %).
Developing links between learning outcomes, teaching strategies,
student activities and assessment tasks is very challenging for the
teacher. The following table may be of help in developing these links.
Summative assessment
Continuous assessment
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Table C 3.4-1-2 Linking learning outcomes, teaching and learning activities and
assessment
Learning outcomes Teaching and Learning
Activities
Assessment
Cognitive
Affective
Psychomotor
Lectures
Tutorials
Discussions
Laboratory work
Clinical work
Group work
Seminar
Peer group presentation
End of module exam
Multiple choice tests
Essays
Practical assessment.
Fieldwork
Clinical practice
Presentation
Project work
There may not be just one method of assessment to satisfy all learning
outcomes and it may be necessary to choose a number of assessment
methods.
The curriculum should be designed so that the teaching activities,
learning activities and assessment tasks are co-ordinated with the
learning outcomes. Biggs (2003) refers to this type of process as involving
constructive alignment. (The constructive part refers to the
type of learning and what the learner does. The alignment part refers
to what the teacher does). Biggs points out that in a good teaching
system, the method of teaching, learning activities and method of assessment
are all co-ordinated to support student learning.
Constructive alignment
Demonstrate
knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
Integration of
beliefs, ideas
and attitudes
Acquisition of
physical skills
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When there is alignment between what we want, how we teach and
how we assess, teaching is likely to be much more effective than
when it is not (aligned)... Traditional transmission theories of
teaching ignore alignment. (Biggs 2003a)
It is clear from the above that there are three basic tasks involved in
the constructive alignment of any module:
1. Clearly defining the learning outcomes.
2. Selecting teaching and learning methods that are likely to ensure
that the learning outcomes are achieved.
3. Assessing the student learning outcomes and checking to see how
well they match with what was intended.
4.2 Assessment criteria and learning outcomes
Learning outcomes specify the minimum acceptable standard to enable
a student to pass a module. Student performances above this basic
threshold level are differentiated by applying grading criteria. Grading
criteria are statements that indicate what a student must demonstrate to
achieve a higher grade. These statements help to differentiate the levels
of performance of a student. By making these criteria clear to students,
it is hoped that students will aim for the highest levels of performance.
Giving a bare grade to a student does not provide adequate feedback
on their performance since the grade simply indicates an overall level
of competence. This overall grade does not identify strengths and
weaknesses on specific learning outcomes. However, if the grading
system is tied to some form of scoring guide, it can be a very useful
way of identifying areas for improvement that need to be addressed.
A scoring guide that is used in assessment is often referred to as a rubric.
A rubric is a grading tool used to describe the criteria used in grading the
performance of students. In general, each rubric
consists of a set of criteria and marks or
grades associated with these criteria. Thus,
rubrics help to define the criteria of the system
of assessment by describing performance at
different points on a rating scale.
For example, a scoring rubric used for one of
the learning outcomes in module ED6001 of
the Master's Degree in Science Education at
University College Cork, Ireland, is as follows:
Three basic tasks
Grading criteria
Grading tool
Further information on creating and using
detailed rubrics for various types of student
assessment can be found on the website of the
University of Monmouth, USA:
http://its.monmouth.edu/FacultyResourceCenter
/rubrics.htm
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Table C 3.4-1-3 Linking learning outcomes and assessment criteria
Learning out-
come
Assessment criteria
Grade 1 Grade 2 : 1 Grade 2 : 2 Pass Fail
On successful
completion of
this module,
students should
be able to:
Summarise
evidence from
the science
education literature
to support
development
of a line
of argument.
Outstanding
use of literature
showing excellent
ability to
synthesise
evidence in
analytical way
to formulate
clear conclu-
sions.
Very good use
of literature
showing high
ability to synthesise
evidence
in analytical
way to
formulate clear
conclusions.
Good use of
literature
showing good
ability to synthesise
evidence
in analytical
way to
formulate clear
conclusions.
Limited use of
literature
showing fair
ability to synthesise
evidence
to formulate
conclu-
sions.
Poor use of
literature
showing lack of
ability to synthesise
evidence
to formulate
conclu-
sions
5. Towards the future with learning
outcomes
As already indicated, international trends in education show a shift
from the traditional "teacher-centred" approach to a more "studentcentred"
approach. While traditionally the focus was on what the
teacher did, in recent years the focus has been on what students have
learned and can demonstrate at the end of a module or programme.
Among the key characteristics of outcome-based education listed by
Harden (2002) are:
* The development of clearly defined and published learning outcomes
that must be achieved before the end of the programme.
* The design of a curriculum, learning strategies and learning opportunities
to ensure the achievement of the learning outcome.
* An assessment process matched to the learning outcomes and the
assessment of individual students to ensure that they achieve the
outcomes.
5.1 Advantages of learning outcomes
Whilst there has been some criticism of outcome-based education in
the literature, a learning outcomes approach to teaching and learning
has received strong support at an international level. For example,
Jenkins and Unwin (2001) assert that learning outcomes:
Key characteristics
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* Help teachers to tell students more precisely what is expected of
them.
* Help students to learn more effectively: students know where they
stand and the curriculum is made more open to them.
* Help teachers to design their materials more effectively by acting
as a template for them.
* Make it clear what students can hope to gain from following a particular
course or lecture.
* Help teachers select the appropriate teaching strategy matched to
the intended learning outcome, e.g. lecture, seminar, group work,
tutorial, discussion, peer group presentation or laboratory class.
* Help teachers to tell their colleagues more precisely what a particular
activity is designed to achieve.
* Assist in setting examinations based on the materials delivered.
* Ensure that appropriate teaching and assessment strategies are em-
ployed.
When writing about the embracing of learning outcomes in medical
education, Harden (2002a) comments that "where it has been implemented,
outcome based education has had a significant and beneficial
impact. Clarification of the learning outcomes in medical education
helps teachers, wherever they are, to decide what they should teach
and assess, and students what they are expected to learn". In another
paper, Harden (2002b) describes how learning outcomes have been
used to develop a model for use in medical training:
Learning outcomes can be specified in a way that covers the range of
necessary competences and emphasises the integration of different
competences in the practice of medicine. An important feature of the
three-circle model of learning outcomes is that it does just that. In the
inner circle are the seven learning outcomes relating to what a doctor
is able to do, i.e. the technical competences expected of a doctor
(`doing the right thing'); in the middle circle the learning outcomes
relating to how the doctor approaches his or her task with knowledge
and understanding and appropriate attitude and decision-making
strategies (`doing the thing right'); and in the outer circle the ongoing
development of the doctor as an individual and as a professional (`the
right person doing it'). Harden, 2002b, p. 153
Adam (2004) summarises the advantages of learning outcomes under
4 main headings:
Learning outcomes in
medical education
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1. Course and module design
Learning outcomes can:
* Help to ensure consistency of delivery across modules and pro-
grammes.
* Aid curriculum design by clarifying areas of overlap between
modules and programmes.
* Help course designers to determine precisely the key purposes
of a course and to see how components of the syllabus fit and
how learning progression is incorporated.
* Highlight the relationship between teaching, learning and assessment
and help improve course design and the student expe-
rience.
* Promote reflection on assessment and the development of assessment
criteria and more effective and varied assessment.
2. Quality assurance
Learning outcomes:
* Increase transparency and the comparability of standards between
and within qualifications.
* Possess greater credibility and utility than traditional qualifica-
tions.
* Play a key role by acting as points of reference for establishing
and assessing standards.
3. Students
Learning outcomes provide:
* Comprehensive sets of statements of exactly what the students
will be able to achieve after successful study.
* Clear information to help students with their choice of module
and programme. This can lead to more effective learning.
* Clear information to employers and higher education institutions
on the achievements and characteristics associated with
particular qualifications.
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4. Mobility
Learning outcomes:
* Contribute to the mobility of students by facilitating the recognition
of their qualifications.
* Improve the transparency of qualifications.
* Simplify credit transfer.
* Provide a common format that helps promote lifelong learning
and can assist in creating multiple routes through and between
different educations systems.
For further development of the advantages of using learning outcomes,
particularly in an educational reform context, please see Adam, S.
(2006) An introduction to learning outcomes, Article B.2.3-1 of this
Handbook.
5.2 Potential problems with learning outcomes
One of the main concerns about the adoption of learning outcomes is
the philosophical one that academic study should be open-ended and
that learning outcomes do not fit in with this liberal view of learning
(Adam, 2004). This need not be the case if learning outcomes are
written with a focus on higher-order thinking and application skills.
However, if learning outcomes are written within a very narrow
framework, this could limit learning and result in a lack of intellectual
challenge to learners.
Other potential problems are:
* There is a danger of an assessment-driven curriculum if learning
outcomes are too confined.
* Learning outcomes could give rise to confusion among students
and staff if guidelines are not adhered to when drawing up these
learning outcomes.
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5.3 Some concluding points
The international movement away from a "teacher-centred" approach
to a more "outcome-based" approach to education has gained increased
momentum from the Bologna process, with its emphasis on
student-centred learning and the need to have more precision and
clarity in the design and content of curricula. It is clear that learning
outcomes play a key role in ensuring transparency of qualifications
and of qualification frameworks. They are also central to contributing
to the implementation of the various action lines of the Bologna process
throughout the European Higher Education Area.
The requirement to make the teaching and learning process more
transparent and more explicit presents a challenge to all involved in
education. In the short term, this involves preparing for the immediate
challenge of expressing modules and programmes in terms of learning
outcomes. In the longer term, the adoption of the learning outcomes
approach has the potential to help embrace a more systematic approach
to the design of programmes and modules.
References
All websites valid as of October 2006.
[1] Adam, S. (2004) Using Learning Outcomes: A consideration of the nature, role,
application and implications for European education of employing learning outcomes
at the local, national and international levels. Report on United Kingdom
Bologna Seminar, July 2004, Herriot-Watt University.
[2] Adam, S. (2006) An introduction to learning outcomes, in EUA Bologna Handbook,
Froment E., Kohler J, Purser L, Wilson L (Eds), article B.2.3-1. Berlin,
Raabe.
[3] Allan, J. (1996) Learning outcomes in higher education, Studies in Higher Education,
21 (10) p. 93 ­ 108.
[4] Anderson, L.W., & Krathwohl, D. (Eds.) (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning,
Teaching and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.
New York: Longman.
[5] Biggs, J. (2003a) Teaching for Quality Learning at University. Buckingham:
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[6] Biggs J. (2003b) Aligning teaching and assessing to course objectives. Teaching
and Learning in Higher Education: New Trends and Innovations. University of
Aveiro, 13 ­ 17 April 2003.
[7] Bingham, J. (1999), Guide to Developing Learning Outcomes. The Learning and
Teaching Institute Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield: Sheffield Hallam Uni-
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[8] Black, P and William, D (1998) Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards through
Classroom Assessment, London: Kings College.
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[9] Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M., D., Furst, E.J, Hill, W. and Krathwohl, D. (1956)
Taxonomy of educational objectives. Volume I: The cognitive domain. New York:
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[10] Bloom, B.S., Masia, B.B. and Krathwohl, D. R. (1964). Taxonomy of Educational
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[12] British Columbia Institute of Technology (1996), Writing Learning Outcomes,
British Colombia, Canada: Learning Resources Unit.
[13] Brown, S. (1999) Institutional Strategies for Assessment. In Brown, S. and
Glasner, A. (Eds), Assessment Matters in Higher Education. Buckingham:
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=36&lang=EN&produit_aliasid=1618
[16] Dave, R. H. (1970). Developing and Writing Behavioural Objectives. (R J Armstrong,
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Sydney, Australia: Putney Publishing.
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G et al. Dublin : AISHE.
[19] ECTS Users' Guide (2005) Brussels: Directorate-General for Education and
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ects/doc/guide_en.pdf
[20] Ferris, T and Aziz S (2005) A psychomotor skills extension to Bloom's Taxonomy
of Education Objectives for engineering education. Exploring Innovation in
Education and Research, March 2005.
[21] Fry, H., Ketteridge, S., Marshall (2000) A Handbook for Teaching and Learning
in Higher Education. London: Kogan Page.
[22] Gosling, D. and Moon, J. (2001) How to use Learning Outcomes and Assessment
Criteria. London: SEEC Office.
[23] Harden, R. M. (2002a). Developments in outcome-based education. Medical
Teacher, 24(2) 117 ­ 120.
[24] Harden, R. M. (2002b). Learning outcomes and instructional objectives: is there
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behavioral objectives. New York: David McKay.
[26] Jenkins, A. & Unwin, D. (2001) How to write learning outcomes. Available
online: http://www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/education/curricula/giscc/units/format/
outcomes.html
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[27] Krathwohl, David, R. (2002) A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy: An Overview.
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[28] Mager, R. F. (1984). Preparing instructional objectives . 2nd
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prog_support/outcomes.cfm?ss=0
[30] Moon, J. (2002) The Module and Programme Development Handbook. London:
Kogan Page Limited.
[31] O'Neill, G. (2002) Variables that influence a teacher versus student-focused
approach to teaching. UCD, Centre for Teaching and Learning report.
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[36] Toohey, S, (1999) Designing Courses for Higher Education. Buckingham:
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[37] University of Central England Educational and Staff Development Unit
http://lmu.uce.ac.uk/OUTCOMES/UCE %20Guide %20to %20Learning %20
Outcomes %202006.pdf, http://lmu.uce.ac.uk/outcomes/#4. %20What %20are
%20the %20benefits %20of %20Learning %20Outcomes
Biographies:
Dr. Declan Kennedy graduated with a BSc in chemistry from University College Cork (UCC), Ireland
in 1976 and subsequently studied for his Higher Diploma in Education (1977) and an MSc in x-ray
crystallography (1979). He taught in Colaiste Muire, Cobh from 1976 to 1998 and as a part-time
lecturer in the Education Department at UCC from 1980 to 1998. He joined the Education
Department at UCC in 1998 as a full time lecturer in science education. He completed his MEd
(1999) and PhD (2004) in Education at the University of York, UK.
Áine Hyland has recently retired as Professor of Education and Vice-President of University College
Cork. She has represented UCC on a number of European and U.S. based teaching and learning
projects, including an EUA Quality Culture Network project and an Institutional Leadership project on
Teaching and Learning at the Carnegie Institute for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in
the U.S.
Dr. Norma Ryan is a lecturer in biochemistry at University College Cork (UCC), Ireland and since
1999 has been Director of the UCC Quality Promotion Unit. She is an Irish Bologna Promoter.