Physical Activity/Exercise and
Diabetes: A Position Statement of
the American Diabetes Association
Diabetes Care 2016;39:2065–2079 | DOI: 10.2337/dc16-1728
The adoption and maintenance of physical activity are critical foci for blood glucose
management and overall health in individuals with diabetes and prediabetes. Recommendations
and precautions vary depending on individual characteristics and health
status. In this Position Statement, we provide a clinically oriented review and evidencebased
recommendations regarding physical activity and exercise in people with type 1
diabetes, type 2 diabetes, gestational diabetes mellitus, and prediabetes.
Physical activity includes all movement that increases energy use, whereas exercise
is planned, structured physical activity. Exercise improves blood glucose control
in type 2 diabetes, reduces cardiovascular risk factors, contributes to weight loss,
and improves well-being (1,2). Regular exercise may prevent or delay type 2 diabetes
development (3). Regular exercise also has considerable health benefits for
people with type 1 diabetes (e.g., improved cardiovascular fitness, muscle strength,
insulin sensitivity, etc.) (4). The challenges related to blood glucose management
vary with diabetes type, activity type, and presence of diabetes-related complications
(5,6). Physical activity and exercise recommendations, therefore, should be
tailored to meet the specific needs of each individual.
TYPES AND CLASSIFICATIONS OF DIABETES AND PREDIABETES
Physical activity recommendations and precautions may vary by diabetes type. The
primary types of diabetes are type 1 and type 2. Type 1 diabetes (5%–10% of cases)
results from cellular-mediated autoimmune destruction of the pancreatic b-cells,
producing insulin deficiency (7). Although it can occur at any age, b-cell destruction
rates vary, typically occurring more rapidly in youth than in adults. Type 2 diabetes
(90%–95% of cases) results from a progressive loss of insulin secretion, usually also
with insulin resistance. Gestational diabetes mellitus occurs during pregnancy, with
screening typically occurring at 24–28 weeks of gestation in pregnant women not
previously known to have diabetes. Prediabetes is diagnosed when blood glucose
levels are above the normal range but not high enough to be classified as diabetes;
affected individuals have a heightened risk of developing type 2 diabetes (7) but may
prevent/delay its onset with physical activity and other lifestyle changes (8).
TYPES OF EXERCISE AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
Aerobic exercise involves repeated and continuous movement of large muscle
groups (9). Activities such as walking, cycling, jogging, and swimming rely primarily
on aerobic energy-producing systems. Resistance (strength) training includes exercises
with free weights, weight machines, body weight, or elastic resistance bands.
Flexibility exercises improve range of motion around joints (10). Balance exercises
benefit gait and prevent falls (11). Activities like tai chi and yoga combine flexibility,
balance, and resistance activities.
1
Department of Human Movement Sciences, Old
Dominion University, Norfolk, VA
2
Departments of Medicine, Cardiac Sciences, and
Community Health Sciences, Faculties of Medicine
and Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary,
Alberta, Canada
3
Department of Social Sciences, Augustana
Campus, University of Alberta, Camrose, Alberta,
Canada
4
School of Kinesiology and Health Science, York
University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
5
Baker IDI Heart & Diabetes Institute, Melbourne,
Victoria, Australia
6
Harvard Medical School and Joslin Diabetes
Center, Boston, MA
7
William Sansum Diabetes Center, Santa Barbara,
CA
8
Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of
Global Public Health, University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill, NC
Corresponding author: Sheri R. Colberg, scolberg@
odu.edu.
This position statement was reviewed and approved
by the American Diabetes Association
Professional Practice Committee in June 2016
and ratified by the American Diabetes Association
Board of Directors in September 2016.
© 2016 by the American Diabetes Association.
Readers may use this article as long as the work
is properly cited, the use is educational and not
for profit, and the work is not altered. More information
is available at http://www.diabetesjournals
.org/content/license.
Sheri R. Colberg,1
Ronald J. Sigal,2
Jane E. Yardley,3
Michael C. Riddell,4
David W. Dunstan,5
Paddy C. Dempsey,5
Edward S. Horton,6
Kristin Castorino,7
and
Deborah F. Tate8
Diabetes Care Volume 39, November 2016 2065
POSITIONSTATEMENT
BENEFITS OF EXERCISE AND
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
Aerobic Exercise Benefits
Aerobic training increases mitochondrial
density, insulin sensitivity, oxidative
enzymes, compliance and reactivity of
blood vessels, lung function, immune
function, and cardiac output (12). Moderate
to high volumes of aerobic activity
are associated with substantially lower
cardiovascular and overall mortality
risks in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes
(13). In type 1 diabetes, aerobic training
increases cardiorespiratory fitness, decreases
insulin resistance, and improves
lipid levels and endothelial function
(14). In individuals with type 2 diabetes,
regulartrainingreducesA1C,triglycerides,
blood pressure, and insulin resistance
(15). Alternatively, high-intensity interval
training (HIIT) promotes rapid enhancement
of skeletal muscle oxidative capacity,
insulin sensitivity, and glycemic
control in adults with type 2 diabetes
(16,17) and can be performed without
deterioration in glycemic control in
type 1 diabetes (18,19).
Resistance Exercise Benefits
Diabetes is an independent risk factor
for low muscular strength (20) and
accelerated decline in muscle strength
and functional status (21). The health
benefits of resistance training for all
adults include improvements in muscle
mass, body composition, strength, physical
function, mental health, bone mineral
density, insulin sensitivity, blood
pressure, lipid profiles, and cardiovascular
health (12). The effect of resistance
exercise on glycemic control in type 1
diabetes is unclear (19). However, resistance
exercise can assist in minimizing
risk of exercise-induced hypoglycemia
in type 1 diabetes (22). When resistance
and aerobic exercise are undertaken in
one exercise session, performing resistance
exercise first results in less hypoglycemia
than when aerobic exercise is
performed first (23). Resistance training
benefits for individuals with type 2 diabetes
include improvements in glycemic
control, insulin resistance, fat mass,
blood pressure, strength, and lean body
mass (24).
Benefits of Other Types of Physical
Activity
Flexibility and balance exercises are
likely important for older adults with diabetes.
Limited joint mobility is frequently
present, resulting in part from the formation
of advanced glycation end products,
which accumulate during normal aging
and are accelerated by hyperglycemia
(25). Stretching increases range
of motion around joints and flexibility
(10) but does not affect glycemic control.
Balance training can reduce falls risk
by improving balance and gait, even
when peripheral neuropathy is present
(11). Group exercise interventions (resistance
and balance training, tai chi
classes) may reduce falls by 28%229%
(26). The benefits of alternative training
like yoga and tai chi are less established,
although yoga may promote improvement
in glycemic control, lipid levels,
and body composition in adults with
type 2 diabetes (27). Tai chi training
may improve glycemic control, balance,
neuropathic symptoms, and
some dimensions of quality of life in
adults with diabetes and neuropathy,
although high-quality studies on this
training are lacking (28).
BENEFITS OF AND
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
REDUCED SEDENTARY TIME
Recommendations
c All adults, and particularly those
with type 2 diabetes, should decrease
the amount of time spent
in daily sedentary behavior. B
c Prolonged sitting should be interrupted
with bouts of light activity
every 30 min for blood glucose
benefits, at least in adults with
type 2 diabetes. C
c The above two recommendations
are additional to, and not a replacement
for, increased structured
exercise and incidental
movement. C
Sedentary behaviordwaking behaviors
with low energy expenditure (TV viewing,
desk work, etc.)dis a ubiquitous
and significant population-wide influence
on cardiometabolic health (29,30). Higher
amounts of sedentary time are associated
with increased mortality and morbidity,
mostly independent of moderate-tovigorous
physical activity participation
(31–35). In people with or at risk for
developing type 2 diabetes, extended
sedentary time is also associated with
poorer glycemic control and clustered
metabolic risk (36–39). Prolonged sitting
interrupted by brief (#5 min) bouts of
standing (40–42) or light-intensity ambulation
(41,43,44) every 20–30 min improves
glycemic control in sedentary
overweight/obese populations and in
women with impaired glucose regulation.
In adults with type 2 diabetes, interrupting
prolonged sitting with 15 min
of postmeal walking (45) and with 3 min
of light walking and simple body-weight
resistance activities every 30 min (46)
improves glycemic control. The longerterm
health efficacy and durability of
reducing and interrupting sitting time
remain to be determined for individuals
with and without diabetes.
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND TYPE 2
DIABETES
Recommendations
c Daily exercise, or at least not allowing
more than 2 days to elapse between
exercise sessions, isrecommended to
enhance insulin action. B
c Adults with type 2 diabetes should
ideally perform both aerobic and
resistance exercise training for optimal
glycemic and health outcomes.
C
c Children and adolescents with
type 2 diabetes should be encouraged
to meet the same physical
activity goals set for youth in
general. C
c Structured lifestyle interventions
that include at least 150 min/week
of physical activity and dietary
changes resulting in weight loss
of 5%–7% are recommended to
prevent or delay the onset of
type 2 diabetes in populations at
high risk and with prediabetes. A
Insulin Action and Physical Activity
Insulin action in muscle and liver can be
modified by acute bouts of exercise and
by regular physical activity (47). Acutely,
aerobic exercise increases muscle glucose
uptake up to fivefold through
insulin-independent mechanisms. After
exercise, glucose uptake remains elevated
by insulin-independent (;2 h)
and insulin-dependent (up to 48 h)
mechanisms if exercise is prolonged
(48), which is linked with muscle glycogen
repletion (49,50). Improvements in insulin
action may last for 24 h following shorter
duration activities (;20 min) if the intensity
is elevated to near-maximal effort
2066 Position Statement Diabetes Care Volume 39, November 2016
intermittently (51,52). Even low-intensity
aerobicexerciselasting$60min enhances
insulin action in obese, insulin-resistant
adults for at least 24 h (53). If enhanced
insulin action is a primary goal, then daily
moderate- or high-intensity exercise is
likely optimal (54).
Regular training increases muscle
capillary density, oxidative capacity,
lipid metabolism, and insulin signaling
proteins (47), which are all reversible
with detraining (55). Both aerobic and
resistance training promote adaptations
in skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, and
liver associated with enhanced insulin
action, even without weight loss (56,57).
Regular aerobic training increases muscle
insulin sensitivity in individuals with prediabetes
(58) and type 2 diabetes (59) in
proportion to exercise volume (60). Even
low-volume training (expending just
400 kcal/week) improves insulin action
in previously sedentary adults (60).
Those with higher baseline insulin resistance
have the largest improvements,
and a dose response is observed up
to about 2,500 kcal/week (60). Resistance
training enhances insulin action
similarly (56), as do HIIT and other
modes (2,15–17). Combining endurance
exercise with resistance exercise
may provide greater improvements
(61), and HIIT may be superior to continuous
aerobic training in adults with
diabetes (16).
Physical Activity in Adults With Type 2
Diabetes
The Look AHEAD (Action for Health in
Diabetes) trial (62) was the largest randomized
trial evaluating a lifestyle intervention
in older adults with type 2
diabetes compared with a diabetes support
and education control group. The
intensive lifestyle intervention group
targeted weight loss of at least 7%
through a modest dietary energy deficit
and at least 175 min/week of unsupervised
exercise. Major cardiovascular
events were the same in both groups,
possibly in part due to greater use of
cardioprotective medications in the diabetes
support and education group (62).
However, as reviewed by Pi-Sunyer (63),
the intensive lifestyle intervention group
achieved significantly greater sustained
improvements in weight loss, cardiorespiratory
fitness, blood glucose control,
blood pressure, and lipids with fewer
medications; less sleep apnea, severe
diabetic kidney disease and retinopathy,
depression, sexual dysfunction, urinary
incontinence, and knee pain; and better
physical mobility maintenance and quality
of life, with lower overall health care
costs. This trial provided very strong evidence
of profound health benefits from
intensive lifestyle intervention. Moreover,
aerobic exercise clearly improves
glycemic control in type 2 diabetes, particularly
when at least 150 min/week
are undertaken (64). Resistance exercise
(free weights or weight machines)
increases strength in adults with type 2
diabetes by about 50% (24) and improves
A1C by 0.57% (64). A meta-analysis of
12 trials in adults with type 2 diabetes
reported a greater reduction (difference
of 20.18%) in A1C following aerobic
compared with resistance training but
no difference in cardiovascular risk
marker reduction (65). For glycemic
control, combined training is superior
to either type of training undertaken
alone (61,66). Therefore, adults with
type 2 diabetes should ideally perform
both aerobic and resistance exercise
training for optimal glycemic and health
outcomes.
Physical Activity in Youth With Type 2
Diabetes
Randomized trials evaluating exercise
interventions in youth with type 2 diabetes
are limited and inconclusive,
although benefits are likely similar
to those in adults. In the Treatment Options
for Type 2 Diabetes in Adolescents
and Youth (TODAY) study (67), youth
aged 10–17 years with type 2 diabetes
were stabilized on metformin and then
randomized to metformin plus placebo,
metformin plus rosiglitazone, or metformin
plus lifestyle intervention and followed
for a mean of 3.86 years. The
lifestyle intervention included modest
weight loss achieved through dietary energy
restriction and increased physical
activity (minimum 200 min/week
of moderate to vigorous activity for
most; .300 min/week for already active
youth), along with metformin use. The
rate of glycemic failure (A1C .8.0% or
need to initiate insulin)was not significantly
reduced in the lifestyle plus metformin
group compared with metformin only or
metforminplusrosiglitazone.Giventhelimited
data in youth with type 2 diabetes, it is
recommended that children and adolescents
with type 2 diabetes meet the same
physical activity goals set for youth in general
(http://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/
basics/children): a minimum 60 min/day
of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity,
including strength-related exercise at least
3 days/week.
Prevention and Treatment of Type 2
Diabetes With Lifestyle Intervention
Structured lifestyle intervention trials
that include physical activity at least
150–175 min/week and dietary energy
restriction targeting weight loss of
5%27% have demonstrated reductions
of 40%–70% in the risk of developing
type 2 diabetes in people with impaired
glucose tolerance (66). A recent systematic
review of 53 studies (30 of diet and
physical activity promotion programs vs.
usual care, 13 of more intensive vs. less
intensive programs, and 13 of single
programs) that evaluated 66 lifestyle
intervention programs reported that,
compared with usual care, diet and physical
activity promotion programs reduced
type 2 diabetes incidence, body weight,
and fasting blood glucose while improving
other cardiometabolic risk factors (68).
Trials evaluating less resource-intensive
lifestyle interventions have also shown effectiveness
(3), and adherence to guidelines
is associated with a greater weight
loss (69).
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND TYPE 1
DIABETES
Recommendations
c Youth and adults with type 1 diabetes
can benefit from being physically
active, and activity should be
recommended to all. B
c Blood glucose responses to physical
activity in all people with
type 1 diabetes are highly variable
based on activity type/
timing and require different adjustments.
B
c Additional carbohydrate intake
and/or insulin reductions are typically
required to maintain glycemic
balance during and after
physical activity. Frequent blood
glucose checks are required to
implement carbohydrate intake
and insulin dose adjustment
strategies. B
c Insulin users can exercise using
either basal-bolus injection regimens
or insulin pumps, but there
care.diabetesjournals.org Colberg and Associates 2067
are advantages and disadvantages
to both insulin delivery methods. C
c Continuous glucose monitoring during
physical activity can be used to
detect hypoglycemia when used as
an adjunct rather than in place of
capillary glucose tests. C
Physical Activity and Sports in Youth
and Adults With Type 1 Diabetes
Youth experience many health benefits
from physical activity participation
(9). A meta-analysis of 10 trials in
youth ,18 years of age with type 1
diabetes found significant improvements
in A1C in exercisers (70), and exercising
more than three sessions/week
for longer (.1 h/session) and doing both
aerobic and resistance exercise may
be beneficial (70). In adults, regular physical
activity has been associated with decreased
mortality (71). There is insufficient
evidence on the ideal type, timing, intensity,
and duration of exercise for optimal
glycemic control.
Effects of Activity Type and Timing on
Glycemic Balance
Blood glucose responses to physical activity
in type 1 diabetes are highly variable
(72). In general, aerobic exercise
decreases blood glucose levels if performed
during postprandial periods
with the usual insulin dose administered
at the meal before exercise (73),
and prolonged activity done then may
cause exaggerated decreases (74–76).
Exercise while fasting may produce a
lesser decrease or a small increase in
blood glucose (77). Very intense activities
may provide better glucose stability (22)
or a rise in blood glucose if the relative
intensity is high and done for a brief duration
(#10 min) (78). Mixed activities,
such as interval training or team/individual
field sports, are associated with better
glucose stability than those that are predominantly
aerobic (18,79–82), although
variable results have been reported for intermittent,
high-intensity exercise (80).
Management of Food and Insulin With
Physical Activity
Variable glycemic responses to physical
activity (72) make uniform recommendations
for management of food intake
and insulin dosing difficult. To prevent
hypoglycemia during prolonged ($30 min),
predominantly aerobic exercise, additional
carbohydrate intake and/or reductions
in insulin are typically required.
For low- to moderate-intensity aerobic
activities lasting 30260 min undertaken
when circulating insulin levels are
low (i.e., fasting or basal conditions),
;10215 g of carbohydrate may prevent
hypoglycemia (83). For activities performed
with relative hyperinsulinemia
(after bolus insulin), 30260 g of carbohydrate
per hour of exercise may be
needed (84), which is similar to carbohydrate
requirements to optimize performance
in athletes with (85) or without
(86) type 1 diabetes.
As recommended in Table 1, blood
glucose concentrations should always
be checked prior to exercise undertaken
by individuals with type 1 diabetes. The
target range for blood glucose prior to
exercise should ideally be between 90
and 250 mg/dL (5.0 and 13.9 mmol/L).
Carbohydrate intake required will vary
with insulin regimens, timing of exercise,
type of activity, and more (87),
but it will also depend on starting blood
glucose levels. As an alternative or a
complement to carbohydrate intake, reductions
in basal and/or bolus insulin
dose should be considered for exerciseinduced
hypoglycemia prevention;
lowering insulin levels adequately during
activity may reduce or eliminate
the need for carbohydrate intake. For
example, a 20% reduction in basal insulin
for individuals on multiple daily injections
(MDI) can be made for doses both
before and after exercise, but this strategy
may not fully attenuate the decline
in glucose during the activity (89). Continuous
subcutaneous insulin infusion
(CSII) users can reduce (90) or suspend
(91) insulin delivery at the start of
exercise, but this strategy does not
always prevent hypoglycemia (91,92).
Performing basal rate reductions
30260 min before exercise may reduce
hypoglycemia due to pharmacokinetics
of rapid-acting insulin analogs used in
CSII (93). For exercise performed within
223 h after bolus insulin via CSII or
MDI, 25%275% reductions in insulin
may limit hypoglycemia (Table 2). Frequent
blood glucose checks are required
when implementing insulin and
carbohydrate adjustments.
Table 1—Suggested carbohydrate intake or other actions based on blood glucose levels at the start of exercise
Pre-exercise blood glucose Carbohydrate intake or other action
,90 mg/dL (,5.0 mmol/L) c Ingest 15–30 g of fast-acting carbohydrate prior to the start of exercise, depending on the size of the
individual and intended activity; some activities that are brief in duration (,30 min) or at a very high
intensity (weight training, interval training, etc.) may not require any additional carbohydrate intake.
c For prolonged activities at a moderate intensity, consume additional carbohydrate, as needed
(0.5–1.0 g/kg body mass per h of exercise), based on blood glucose testing results.
90–150 mg/dL (5.0–8.3 mmol/L) c Start consuming carbohydrate at the onset of most exercise (;0.5–1.0 g/kg body mass per h of
exercise), depending on the type of exercise and the amount of active insulin.
150–250 mg/dL (8.3–13.9 mmol/L) c Initiate exercise and delay consumption of carbohydrate until blood glucose levels are ,150 mg/dL
(,8.3 mmol/L).
250–350 mg/dL (13.9–19.4 mmol/L) c Test for ketones. Do not perform any exercise if moderate-to-large amounts of ketones are present.
c Initiate mild-to-moderate intensity exercise. Intense exercise should be delayed until glucose levels
are ,250 mg/dL because intense exercise may exaggerate the hyperglycemia.
$350 mg/dL ($19.4 mmol/L) c Test for ketones. Do not perform any exercise if moderate-to-large amounts of ketones are present.
c If ketones are negative (or trace), consider conservative insulin correction (e.g., 50% correction)
before exercise, depending on active insulin status.
c Initiate mild-to-moderate exercise and avoid intense exercise until glucose levels decrease.
Adapted from Zaharieva and Riddell (88).
2068 Position Statement Diabetes Care Volume 39, November 2016
Use of CSII and MDI for Activity
Individuals using CSII or MDI as a basalbolus
regimen can exercise with few restrictions.
CSII offers some advantages
over MDI due to greater flexibility in
basal rate adjustments and limiting
postexercise hyperglycemia (98), with
some limitations. For example, aerobic
exercise may accelerate basal insulin absorption
from the subcutaneous depot
(74), whereas basal insulin glargine absorption
is largely unaffected (99). Skin
irritation, pump tubing, and wearing a
pump that is visible to others can be
concerns (100). In certain sports, such
as basketball or contact sports, wearing
pumps and other devices may be
prohibited during competition. Frustration
with CSII devices and exercise
may lead to discontinuation of pump
therapy (100).
Use of Continuous Glucose
Monitoring With Activity
Continuous glucose monitoring (CGM)
may decrease the fear of exerciseinduced
hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetes
by providing blood glucose trends that
allow users to prevent and treat hypoglycemia
sooner (83). Although a few
studies have found acceptable CGM
accuracy during exercise (101–104),
others have reported inadequate accuracy
(105) and other problems, such as
sensor filament breakage (103,104), inability
to calibrate (102), and time lags
between the change in blood glucose
and its detection by CGM (106). Differences
in sensor performance have also
been noted (107–109). Although it is a
potentially useful tool during and after
exercise (110), CGM values have traditionally
required confirmation by fingerstick
glucose testing prior to making
regimen changes, but approval of nonadjunctive
use is likely forthcoming in
the near future.
RECOMMENDED PHYSICAL
ACTIVITY PARTICIPATION FOR
PEOPLE WITH DIABETES
Recommendations
c Pre-exercise medical clearance is
generally unnecessary for asymptomatic
individuals prior to beginning
low- or moderate-intensity
physical activity not exceeding the
demands of brisk walking or everyday
living. B
c Most adults with diabetes should
engage in 150 min or more of
moderate-to-vigorous intensity
activity weekly, spread over at
least 3 days/week, with no more
than 2 consecutive days without
activity. Shorter durations (minimum
75 min/week) of vigorousintensity
or interval training may
be sufficient for younger and
more physically fit individuals. B
for type 2 diabetes, C for type 1
diabetes
c Children and adolescents with
type 1 or type 2 diabetes should
engage in 60 min/day or more of
moderate or vigorous intensity
aerobic activity, with vigorous,
muscle-strengthening, and bonestrengthening
activities included
at least 3 days/week. C
c Adults with diabetes should engage
in 2–3 sessions/week of resistance
exercise on nonconsecutive days.
B for type 2 diabetes, C for type 1
diabetes
c Flexibility training and balance
training are recommended 2–3
times/week for older adults with
diabetes. Yoga and tai chi may
be included based on individual
preferences to increase flexibility,
muscular strength, and balance. C
c Individuals with diabetes or prediabetes
are encouraged to increase
their total daily incidental (nonexercise)
physical activity to gain
additional health benefits. C
c To gain more health benefits from
physical activity programs, participation
in supervised training is
recommended over nonsupervised
programs. B
Pre-exercise Health Screening and
Evaluation
The American College of Sports Medicine
(ACSM) recently proposed a new
model for exercise preparticipation
health screening on the basis of 1) the
individual’s current physical activity
levels; 2) the presence of signs or symptoms
and/or known cardiovascular,
metabolic, or renal disease; and 3) the
desired exercise intensity, all of which
are risk modulators of exercise-related
cardiovascular events (111). The ACSM
no longer includes risk factor assessment
in the exercise preparticipation
health screening process. However,
their recommendation is that anyone
with diabetes who is currently sedentary
and desires to begin physical activity
at any intensity (even low intensity)
should obtain prior medical clearance
from a health care professional (111).
We believe this recommendation is excessively
conservative.
Physical activity does carry some potential
health risks for people with diabetes,
including acute complications like
cardiac events, hypoglycemia, and hyperglycemia.
In low- and moderateintensity
activity undertaken by adults
with type 2 diabetes, the risk of exerciseinduced
adverse events is low. In individuals
with type 1 diabetes (any age)
the only common exercise-induced adverse
event is hypoglycemia. No current
evidence suggests that any screening
protocol beyond usual diabetes care reduces
risk of exercise-induced adverse
events in asymptomatic individuals with
diabetes (112,113). Thus, pre-exercise
medical clearance is not necessary for
asymptomatic individuals receiving diabetes
care consistent with guidelines
who wish to begin low- or moderateintensity
physical activity not exceeding
the demands of brisk walking or
everyday living.
However, some individuals who plan
to increase their exercise intensity or
who meet certain higher-risk criteria
Table 2—Suggested initial pre-exercise meal insulin bolus reduction for activity
started within 90 min after insulin administration
Exercise intensity
Exercise duration
30 min 60 min
Mild aerobic (;25% VO2max) 225%* 250%
Moderate aerobic (;50% VO2max) 250% 275%
Heavy aerobic (70%275% VO2max) 275% N-A
Intense aerobic/anaerobic (.80% VO2max) No reduction recommended N-A
Recommendations compiled based on four studies (94–97). N-A, not assessed as exercise
intensity is too high to sustain for 60 min. *Estimated from study (95).
care.diabetesjournals.org Colberg and Associates 2069
may benefit from referral to a health
care provider for a checkup and possible
exercise stress test before starting such
activities (6). In addition, most adults
with diabetes may also benefit from
working with a diabetes-knowledgeable
exercise physiologist or certified fitness
professional to assist them in formulating
a safe and effective exercise prescription.
A combination of careful
consideration of multiple factors and
sound clinical judgment based on the
individual’s medical history and physical
examination will determine their degree
of risk of acute complications and
identify the most appropriate physical
activities to avoid or limit.
Aerobic Exercise Training
People with diabetes should perform
aerobic exercise regularly. Aerobic activity
bouts should ideally last at least
10 min, with the goal of ;30 min/day
or more, most days of the week for
adults with type 2 diabetes. Daily
exercise, or at least not allowing more
than 2 days to elapse between exercise
sessions, is recommended to decrease
insulin resistance, regardless of diabetes
type (16,19). Over time, activities should
progress in intensity, frequency, and/or
duration to at least 150 min/week of
moderate-intensity exercise. Adults
able to run at 6 miles/h (9.7 km/h) for at
least 25 min can benefit sufficiently from
shorter-duration vigorous-intensity activity
(75 min/week). Many adults, including
most with type 2 diabetes, would be
unable or unwilling to participate in such
intense exercise and should engage in
moderate exercise for the recommended
duration (Table 3).
Youth with type 1 or type 2 diabetes
should follow general recommendations
for children and adolescents. These include
60 min/day or more of moderateor
vigorous-intensity aerobic activity,
with vigorous, muscle-strengthening,
and bone-strengthening activities at
least 3 days/week (9).
Low-volume HIIT, which involves
short bursts of very intense activity interspersed
with longer periods of recovery
at low to moderate intensity, is an
alternative approach to continuous aerobic
activity (16,19). However, its safety
and efficacy remain unclear for some
adults with diabetes (114,115). Those
who wish to perform HIIT should be
clinically stable, have been participating
at least in regular moderateintensity
exercise, and likely be supervised
at least initially (116). The risks with
advanced disease are unclear (116),
and continuous, moderate-intensity exercise
may be safer (117). The optimal
HIIT training protocol has yet to be
determined.
Resistance Exercise Training
Adults with diabetes should engage in
223 sessions/week of resistance exercise
on nonconsecutive days (Table 3)
(9). Although heavier resistance training
with free weights and weight
Table 3—Exercise training recommendations: types of exercise, intensity, duration, frequency, and progression
Aerobic Resistance Flexibility and Balance
Type of exercise c Prolonged, rhythmic activities using
large muscle groups (e.g., walking,
cycling, and swimming)
c May be done continuously or as HIIT
c Resistance machines, free weights,
resistance bands, and/or body
weight as resistance exercises
c Stretching: static, dynamic, and
other stretching; yoga
c Balance (for older adults): practice
standing on one leg, exercises using
balance equipment, lower-body and
core resistance exercises, tai chi
Intensity c Moderate to vigorous (subjectively
experienced as “moderate” to “very
hard”)
c Moderate (e.g., 15 repetitions of an
exercise that can be repeated no
more than 15 times) to vigorous (e.g.,
6–8 repetitions of an exercise that
can be repeated no more than 6–8
times)
c Stretch to the point of tightness or
slight discomfort
c Balance exercises of light to
moderate intensity
Duration c At least 150 min/week at moderate
to vigorous intensity for most adults
with diabetes
c For adults able to run steadily at
6 miles per h (9.7 km/h) for 25 min,
75 min/week of vigorous activity may
provide similar cardioprotective
and metabolic benefits
c At least 8–10 exercises with
completion of 1–3 sets of 10–15
repetitions to near fatigue per set on
every exercise early in training
c Hold static or do dynamic stretch for
10230 s; 224 repetitions of each
exercise
c Balance training can be any duration
Frequency c 3–7 days/week, with no more than
2 consecutive days without exercise
c A minimum of 2 nonconsecutive
days/week, but preferably 3
c Flexibility: $223 days/week
c Balance: $223 days/week
Progression c A greater emphasis should be placed
on vigorous intensity aerobic
exercise if fitness is a primary goal of
exercise and not contraindicated by
complications
c Both HIIT and continuous exercise
training are appropriate activities
for most individuals with diabetes
c Beginning training intensity should
be moderate, involving 10215
repetitions per set, with increases in
weight or resistance undertaken with
a lower number of repetitions (8210)
only after the target number of
repetitions per set can consistently
be exceeded
c Increase in resistance can be
followed by a greater number of sets
and finally by increased training
frequency
c Continue to work on flexibility and
balance training, increasing duration
and/or frequency to progress over
time
2070 Position Statement Diabetes Care Volume 39, November 2016
machines may improve glycemic control
and strength more (118), doing resistance
training of any intensity is
recommended to improve strength, balance,
and ability to engage in activities of
daily living throughout the life span.
Flexibility, Balance, and Other
Training
Completing flexibility exercises for each
of the major muscle-tendon groups on
2 or more days/week maintains joint
range of movement (Table 3) (12). Although
flexibility training may be desirable
for individuals with all types of
diabetes, it should not substitute for
other recommended activities (i.e.,
aerobic and resistance training), as
flexibility training does not affect glucose
control, body composition, or insulin
action (6). Adults with diabetes
(ages 50 years and older) should do
exercises that maintain/improve balance
223 times/week (Table 3) (11,12), particularly
if they have peripheral neuropathy
(11). Many lower-body and
core-strengthening exercises concomitantly
improve balance and may be
included. Yoga and tai chi can be included
based on individual preferences
to increase flexibility, strength,
and balance.
Daily Movement
Increasing unstructured physical activity
(e.g., errands, household tasks, dog
walking, or gardening) increases daily
energy expenditure and assists with
weight management (119–121). Unstructured
activity also reduces total
daily sitting time. Increasing nonexercise
activity, even in brief (3215 min)
bouts, is effective in acutely reducing
postprandial hyperglycemia and improving
glycemic control in those with
prediabetes and type 1 and type 2 diabetes,
most prominently after meals
(41,43–46,75,122–124). Increasing unstructured
physical activity should be
encouraged as part of a whole-day approach,
or at least initially as a stepping
stone for individuals who are sedentary
and unable/reluctant to participate in
more structured exercise.
Supervised Versus Nonsupervised
Training
Supervised aerobic or resistance training
reduces A1C in adults with
type 2 diabetes whether or not they
include dietary cointervention, but
unsupervised exercise only reduces A1C
with a concomitant dietary intervention
(64). Similarly, individuals undertaking
supervised aerobic and resistance exercise
achieve greater improvements in
A1C, BMI, waist circumference, blood
pressure, fitness, muscular strength,
and HDL cholesterol (125). Thus, supervised
training is recommended when
feasible, at least for adults with type 2
diabetes.
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND
PREGNANCY WITH DIABETES
Recommendations
c Women with preexisting diabetes
of any type should be advised
to engage in regular physical activity
prior to and during pregnancy.
C
c Pregnant women with or at risk
for gestational diabetes mellitus
should be advised to engage in
20–30 min of moderate-intensity
exercise on most or all days of
the week. B
Physical activity and exercise during
pregnancy have been shown to benefit
most women by improving cardiovascular
health and general fitness while reducing
the risk of complications like
preeclampsia and cesarean delivery
(126). Regular physical activity during
pregnancy also lowers the risk of developing
gestational diabetes mellitus
(127,128). Exercise programs including
at least 20230 min of moderate-intensity
exercise on most or all days of the week
are recommended (126). Once gestational
diabetes mellitus is diagnosed,
either aerobic or resistance training can
improve insulin action and glycemic control
(129). In women with gestational
diabetes mellitus, particularly those
who are overweight and obese, vigorousintensity
exercise during pregnancy
may reduce the odds of excess gestational
weight gain (130). Ideally, the
best time to start physical activity is prior
to pregnancy to reduce gestational diabetes
mellitus risk (131), but it is safe to
initiate during pregnancy with very few
contraindications (126). Any pregnant
women using insulin should be aware
of the insulin-sensitizing effects of
exercise and increased risk of hypoglycemia,
particularly during the first trimester
(129).
MINIMIZING EXERCISE-RELATED
ADVERSE EVENTS IN PEOPLE WITH
DIABETES
Recommendations
c Insulin regimen and carbohydrate
intake changes should be used to
prevent exercise-related hypoglycemia.
Other strategies involve including
short sprints, performing
resistance exercise before aerobic
exercise in the same session, and
activity timing. B
c Risk of nocturnal hypoglycemia
following physical activity may be
mitigated with reductions in basal
insulin doses, inclusion of bedtime
snacks, and/or use of continuous
glucose monitoring. C
c Exercise-induced hyperglycemia
is more common in type 1 diabetes
but may be modulated with
insulin administration or a lowerintensity
aerobic cooldown. Exercising
with hyperglycemia and
elevated blood ketones is not recommended.
C
c Some medications besides insulin
may increase the risks of exerciserelated
hypoglycemia and doses
may need to be adjusted based
on exercise training. C
c Older adults with diabetes or anyone
with autonomic neuropathy,
cardiovascular complications, or
pulmonary disease should avoid
exercising outdoors on very hot
and/or humid days to prevent
heat-related illnesses. C
c Exercise training should progress
appropriately to minimize risk of
injury. C
Hypoglycemia
Exercise-induced hypoglycemia is common
in people with type 1 diabetes and,
to a lesser extent, people with type 2
diabetes using insulin or insulin secretagogues.
In addition to insulin regimen
and carbohydrate intake changes, a
brief (10 s) maximal intensity sprint
performed before (132) or after (133)
a moderate-intensity exercise session
may protect against hypoglycemia
(134). Performing high-intensity bouts
intermittently during moderate aerobic
exercise also slows blood glucose declines
(81,135,136), as can resistance
exercise done immediately prior to
aerobic (23).
care.diabetesjournals.org Colberg and Associates 2071
Exercise-induced nocturnal hypoglycemia
is a major concern (137). Hypoglycemic
events occur typically within
6215 h postexercise (138), although
risk can extend out to 48 h (139). The
risk of nocturnal hypoglycemia may be
minimized through ;20% reductions of
daily basal insulin dose with reduced
prandial bolus insulin and low glycemic
index carbohydrate feeding following
evening exercise for those on MDI (89).
For CSII users, basal rate reductions of
20% at bedtime for 6 h after afternoon
exercise may limit nocturnal hypoglycemia
(140). Inclusion of a bedtime snack,
glucose checks overnight, and/or use
of CGM with alarms and automatic
pump suspension may also be warranted
(141,142).
Hyperglycemia
Exercise-induced hyperglycemia is more
common in type 1 diabetes. Purposeful
insulin omission before exercise can
promote a rise in glycemia, as can malfunctioning
infusion sets (143). Individuals
with type 2 diabetes may also
experience increases in blood glucose
after aerobic or resistance exercise, particularly
if they are insulin users and
administer too little insulin for meals
before activity (144). Overconsumption
of carbohydrates before or during exercise,
along with aggressive insulin reduction,
can promote hyperglycemia during
any exercise (89).
Very intense exercise such as sprinting
(134), brief but intense aerobic exercise
(145), and heavy powerlifting (146,147)
may promote hyperglycemia, especially if
starting blood glucose levels are elevated
(145). Hyperglycemia risk is mitigated if
intense activities are interspersed between
moderate-intensity aerobic ones
(82,148). Similarly, combining resistance
training (done first) with aerobic training
(second) optimizes glucose stability
in type 1 diabetes (23). To correct postexercise
hyperglycemia, a conservative
(50% of usual) correction can be administered
(77) or an aerobic cooldown may
be done to lower it (I.S. Mill´an, personal
communication). Excessive insulin corrections
after exercise increase nocturnal
hypoglycemia risk, which can result
in mortality (149).
Individuals with type 1 diabetes should
test for blood ketones if they have unexplained
hyperglycemia ($250 mg/dL).
Exerciseshouldbepostponedorsuspended
if blood ketone levels are elevated
($1.5 mmol/L), as blood glucose levels
and ketones may rise further with even
mild activity.
Medication Effects
Adults with diabetes are frequently
treated with multiple medications for
diabetes and other comorbid conditions.
Some medications (other than insulin)
may increase exercise risk and doses
may need to be adjusted (150,151).
Although appropriate changes should
be individualized, Table 4 lists general
considerations and guidelines for
medications.
Heat-Related Illness During Physical
Activity
Physical activity increases bodily heat
production and core temperature, leading
to greater skin blood flow and sweating.
In relatively young adults with
type 1 diabetes, temperature regulation
is only impaired during high-intensity
exercise (152,153). With increasing
age, poor blood glucose control, and
neuropathy, skin blood flow and sweating
may be impaired in adults with
type 1 (152,154) and type 2 (155) diabetes,
increasing the risk of heat-related
Table 4—Exercise considerations for diabetes, hypertension, and cholesterol medications and recommended safety and dose
adjustments
Type/class of medication Exercise considerations Safety/dose adjustments
Diabetes
Insulin c Deficiency: hyperglycemia, ketoacidosis
c Excess: hypoglycemia during and after exercise
c Increase insulin dose pre- and postexercise for
deficiency
c Decrease prandial and/or basal doses for excess insulin
Insulin secretagogues c Exercise-induced hypoglycemia c If exercise-induced hypoglycemia has occurred,
decrease dose on exercise days to reduce
hypoglycemia risk
Metformin c None c Generally safe; no dose adjustment for exercise
Thiazolidinediones c Fluid retention c Generally safe; no dose adjustment for exercise
Dipeptidyl peptidase 4
inhibitors
c Slight risk of congestive heart failure with
saxagliptin and alogliptin
c Generally safe; no dose adjustment for exercise
Glucagon-like peptide
1 receptor agonists
c May increase risk of hypoglycemia when used with
insulin or sulfonylureas but not when used alone
c Generally safe; no dose adjustment for exercise but
may need to lower insulin or sulfonylurea dose
Sodium–glucose
cotransporter 2 inhibitors
c May increase risk of hypoglycemia when used with
insulin or sulfonylureas but not when used alone
c Generally safe; no dose adjustment for exercise
Hypertension
b-Blockers c Hypoglycemia unawareness and unresponsiveness;
may reduce maximal exercise capacity
c Check blood glucose before and after exercise;
treat hypoglycemia with glucose
Other agents c Regular exercise training may lower blood pressure;
some agents increase risk of dehydration
c Doses may need to be adjusted to accommodate the
improvements from training and avoid dehydration
Cholesterol
Statins c Muscle weakness, discomfort, and cramping in a
minority of users
c Generally safe; no dose adjustment for exercise
Fibric acid derivatives c Rare myositis or rhabdomyolysis; risk increased
with gemfibrozil and statin combination
c Avoid exercise if these muscle conditions are
present
2072 Position Statement Diabetes Care Volume 39, November 2016
Table 5—Physical activity consideration, precautions, and recommended activities for exercising with health-related
complications
Health complication Exercise considerations Physical activity recommendations/precautions
Cardiovascular diseases
Coronary artery disease c Coronary perfusion may actually be enhanced
during higher-intensity aerobic or resistance
exercise.
c All activities okay.
c Consider exercising in a supervised cardiac
rehabilitation program, at least initially.
Exertional angina c Onset of chest pain on exertion, but exerciseinduced
ischemia may be silent in some with
diabetes.
c All activities okay, but heart rate should be
kept $10 bpm below onset of exercise-related
angina.
Hypertension c Both aerobic and resistance training may lower
resting blood pressure and should be
encouraged.
c Some blood pressure medications can cause
exercise-related hypotension.
c Ensure adequate hydration during exercise.
c Avoid Valsalva maneuver during resistance
training.
Myocardial infarction c Stop exercise immediately should symptoms of
myocardial infarction (such as chest pain,
radiating pain, shortness of breath, and others)
occur during physical activity and seek medical
attention.
c Restart exercise after myocardial infarction in a
supervised cardiac rehabilitation program.
c Start at a low intensity and progress as able to
more moderate activities.
c Both aerobic and resistance exercise are okay.
Stroke c Diabetes increases the risk of ischemic stroke.
c Stop exercise immediately if symptoms of a
stroke (occurring suddenly and often affecting
only one side of the body) happen during
exercise.
c Restart exercise after stroke in a supervised
cardiac rehabilitation program.
c Start at a low intensity and progress as able to
more moderate activities.
c Both aerobic and resistance exercise are okay.
Congestive heart failure c Most common cause is coronary artery disease
and frequently follows a myocardial infarction.
c Avoid activities that cause an excessive rise in
heart rate.
c Focus more on doing low- or moderate-intensity
activities.
Peripheral artery disease c Lower-extremity resistance training improves
functional performance (161).
c Low- or moderate-intensity walking, arm
ergometer, and leg ergometer preferred as
aerobic activities (162).
c All other activities okay.
Nerve disease
Peripheral neuropathy c Regular aerobic exercise may also prevent the
onset or delay the progression of peripheral
neuropathy in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes
(163).
c Proper care of the feet is needed to prevent foot
ulcers and lower the risk of amputation (6).
c Keep feet dry and use appropriate footwear, silica
gel or air midsoles, and polyester or blend socks
(not pure cotton).
c Consider inclusion of more non–weight-bearing
activities, particularly if gait altered.
Local foot deformity c Manage with appropriate footwear and choice of
activities to reduce plantar pressure and ulcer
risk (164).
c Focus more on non–weight-bearing activities to
reduce undue plantar pressures.
c Examine feet daily to detect and treat blisters,
sores, or ulcers early.
Foot ulcers/amputations c Moderate walking is not likely to increase risk of
foot ulcers or reulceration with peripheral
neuropathy (165).
c Weight-bearing activity should be avoided with
unhealed ulcers.
c Examine feet daily to detect and treat blisters,
sores, or ulcers early.
c Amputation sites should be properly cared for daily.
c Avoid jogging.
Autonomic neuropathy c May cause postural hypotension, chronotropic
incompetence, delayed gastric emptying, altered
thermoregulation, and dehydration during
exercise (6).
c Exercise-related hypoglycemia may be harder to
treat in those with gastroparesis.
c With postural hypotension, avoid activities with
rapid postural or directional changes to avoid
fainting or falling.
c With cardiac autonomic neuropathy, obtain
physician approval and possibly undergo
symptom-limited exercise testing before
commencing exercise (166).
c With blunted heart rate response, use heart rate
reserve and ratings of perceived exertion to
monitor exercise intensity (167).
c With autonomic neuropathy, avoid exercise in
hot environments and hydrate well.
Continued on p. 2074
care.diabetesjournals.org Colberg and Associates 2073
illness. Chronic hyperglycemia also increases
risk through dehydration caused
by osmotic diuresis, and some medications
that lower blood pressure may
also impact hydration and electrolyte
balance. Older adults with diabetes or
anyone with autonomic neuropathy,
cardiovascular complications, or pulmonary
disease should avoid exercising
outdoors on very hot and/or humid
days.
Orthopedic and Overuse Injuries
Active individuals with type 1 diabetes
are not at increased risk of tendon injury
(156), but this may not apply to sedentary
or older individuals with diabetes.
Given that diabetes may lead to
exercise-related overuse injuries due
to changes in joint structures related
to glycemic excursions (157), exercise
training for anyone with diabetes
should progress appropriately to avoid
excessive aggravation to joint surfaces
and structures, particularly when taking
statin medications for lipid control
(158).
Table 5—Continued
Health complication Exercise considerations Physical activity recommendations/precautions
Eye diseases
Mild to moderate
nonproliferative retinopathy
c Individuals with mild to moderate
nonproliferative changes have limited or no risk
for eye damage from physical activity.
c All activities okay with mild, but annual eye exam
should be performed to monitor progression.
c With moderate nonproliferative retinopathy,
avoid activities that dramatically elevate blood
pressure, such as powerlifting.
Severe nonproliferative and
unstable proliferative
retinopathy
c Individuals with unstable diabetic retinopathy
are at risk for vitreous hemorrhage and retinal
detachment.
c Avoid activities that dramatically elevate blood
pressure, such as vigorous activity of any type.
c Avoid vigorous exercise; jumping, jarring, and
head-down activities; and breath holding (6).
c No exercise should be undertaken during a
vitreous hemorrhage.
Cataracts c Cataracts do not impact the ability to exercise,
only the safety of doing so due to loss of visual
acuity.
c Avoid activities that are more dangerous due to
limited vision, such as outdoor cycling.
c Consider supervision for certain activities.
Kidney diseases
Microalbuminuria c Exercise does not accelerate progression of
kidney disease even though protein excretion
acutely increases afterward (6,159).
c Greater participation in moderate-to-vigorous
leisure time activity and higher physical activity
levels may actually moderate the initiation and
progression of diabetic nephropathy (168–170).
c All activities okay, but vigorous exercise should
be avoided the day before urine protein tests are
performed to prevent false positive readings.
Overt nephropathy c Both aerobic and resistance training improve
physical function and quality of life in individuals
with kidney disease.
c Individuals should be encouraged to be active.
c All activities okay, but exercise should begin at a
low intensity and volume if aerobic capacity and
muscle function are substantially reduced.
End-stage renal disease c Doing supervised, moderate aerobic physical
activity undertaken during dialysis sessions may
be beneficial and increase compliance (171).
c Exercise should begin at a low intensity and
volume if aerobic capacity and muscle function
are substantially reduced.
c Electrolytes should be monitored when activity
done during dialysis sessions.
Orthopedic limitations
Structural changes to joints c Individuals with diabetes are more prone to
structural changes to joints that can limit
movement, including shoulder adhesive
capsulitis, carpal tunnel syndrome, metatarsal
fractures, and neuropathy-related joint disorders
(Charcot foot) (25).
c In addition to engaging in other activities (as
able), do regular flexibility training to maintain
greater joint range of motion (10,12).
c Stretch within warm-ups or after an activity to
increase joint range of motion best (172).
c Strengthen muscles around affected joints with
resistance training.
c Avoid activities that increase plantar pressures
with Charcot foot changes.
Arthritis c Common in lower-extremity joints, particularly in
older adults who are overweight or obese.
c Participation in regular physical activity is
possible and should be encouraged.
c Moderate activity may improve joint symptoms
and alleviate pain.
c Mostlow-andmoderate-intensityactivitiesokay,but
more non–weight-bearing or low-impact exercise
may be undertaken to reduce stress on joints.
c Do range-of-motion activities and light resistance
exercise to increase strength of muscles
surrounding affected joints.
c Avoid activities with high risk of joint trauma,
such as contact sports and ones with rapid
directional changes.
2074 Position Statement Diabetes Care Volume 39, November 2016
MANAGING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
WITH HEALTH COMPLICATIONS
Recommendations
c Physical activity with vascular diseases
can be undertaken safely but
with appropriate precautions. B
c Physical activity done with peripheral
neuropathy necessitates
proper foot care to prevent,
detect, and prevent problems
early to avoid ulceration and amputation.
B
c The presence of autonomic neuropathy
may complicate being
active; certain precautions are
warranted to prevent problems
during activity. C
c Vigorous aerobic or resistance
exercise; jumping, jarring, headdown
activities; and breath holding
should be avoided in anyone
with severe nonproliferative and
unstable proliferative diabetic retinopathy.
E
c Exercise does not accelerate progression
of kidney disease and can
be undertaken safely, even during
dialysis sessions. C
c Regular stretching and appropriate
progression of activities should
be done to manage joint changes
and diabetes-related orthopedic
limitations. C
Macrovascular and microvascular diabetesrelated
complications can develop and
worsen with inadequate blood glucose
control (159,160). Vascular and neural
complications of diabetes often cause
physical limitation and varying levels of
disability requiring precautions during exercise,
as recommended in Table 5.
PROMOTING THE ADOPTION AND
MAINTENANCE OF PHYSICAL
ACTIVITY
Recommendations
c Targeted behavior-change strategies
should be used to increase
physical activity in adults with
type 2 diabetes. B
c When using step counters, adults
with type 2 diabetes should initially
set tolerable targets for
steps/day before progressing toward
higher goals. C
c For adults with type 2 diabetes,
Internet-delivered interventions
for physical activity promotion
may be used to improve outcomes.
C
Behavior-Change Strategies
Behavioral interventions can significantly
increase physical activity in adults
with type 2 diabetes (173), and A1C
reductions produced by such interventions
have been sustained to 24 months
(174). Five key techniques have been
identified: 1) prompt focus on past success,
2) barrier identification/problemsolving,
3) use of follow-up prompts,
4) provision of information on where/
when to perform the behavior, and
5) prompt review of behavioral goals
(175). However, motivational interviewing
is not significantly better than
usualcare(176),andotherinterventionfactors
associated with weight loss, such as
number and duration of contacts, have
been inconsistent or not associated with
greater participation (177).
Step counters/pedometers have been
widely studied as a behavior-change
tool. Wearing the device may prompt
activity, and it provides feedback for
self-monitoring. Pedometer use in
adults with type 2 diabetes increased
their daily steps by 1,822, but did not
improve A1C (178). Using a daily steps
goal (e.g., 10,000) was predictive of increased
participation, even using selfselected
step goals (178). Thus, adults
with type 2 diabetes should initially set
feasible/achievable targets for steps/day
before progressing toward higher goals.
Adults should avoid taking ,5,000 steps/
day (179–181) and to strive for $7,500
steps/day (182). The positive findings
for pedometers are not universal (175),
however, and some individuals may require
greater support to realize benefits.
Longer-term efficacy and determination
of which populations can benefit
from pedometers and other wearable
activity trackers (183) require further
evaluation.
Technology-Based Strategies
Given that the majority of individuals
with type 2 diabetes have access to the
Internet, technology-based support is
appealing for extending clinical intervention
reach. For adults with type 2
diabetes, Internet-delivered physical
activity promotion interventions may
be more effective than usual care (184).
Effective Internet-based programs
included monitoring of physical activity,
feedback, goal setting, and support
from a coach via phone/e-mail (184).
More evidence is needed regarding social
media approaches, given the importance
ofsocialand peersupport in diabetes selfmanagement
(185).
CONCLUSIONS
Physical activity and exercise should be
recommended and prescribed to all individuals
with diabetes as part of management
of glycemic control and overall
health. Specific recommendations and
precautions will vary by the type of diabetes,
age, activity done, and presence
of diabetes-related health complications.
Recommendations should be tailored
to meet the specific needs of each
individual. In addition to engaging in regular
physical activity, all adults should be
encouraged to decrease the total amount
of daily sedentary time and to break up
sitting time with frequent bouts of activity.
Finally, behavior-change strategies can be
used to promote the adoption and maintenance
of lifetime physical activity.
Duality of Interest. No potential conflicts of
interest relevant to this article were reported.
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