,/' /
Glossary
Acid rain is caused by the emission of acidic gases such as sulphur and nitrogen oxides, mainly from power stations, factories'and vehicles. These are carried by winds and rain and may fall on forests, lakes and buildings in distant countries, killing fish or endangering trees, among other things.
Alienation Marx believed that it is mainly through creative, self-directed work in the satisfaction of our own needs that we fully realize our inner selves and potential. However, under capitalism workers become estranged or alienated from their skills and their potential since now they are driven to work for capitalists in order to survive and the product of their labour no longer-belongs to them. Sociologists have employed this term more generally to describe the powerlessness and lack of creativity believed to be endemic to many aspects of contemporary life.
American Revolution Following a war with the British starting in 1775, the USA became the first modem country to win independence from colonial rule. Representatives of the individual states finally agreed at the Philadelphia Convention in 1787 to establish a federal government with limited powers enshrined in a written constitution.
Apartheid is the Afrikaans word for the system of systematic, legalized discrimination that existed in South Africa between 1948-94. Under the Population Registration Act of 1950 the population was classified in different racial categories with education, residence and marriage only permitted within each category. Although the system technically supported difference rather than hierarchy, in practice the good jobs, the best housing, the vote and other favourable opportunities and resources were reserved for the whites. With the election of Nelson Mandela as President in 1994 the system was legally dismantled, although some apartheid-like practices still continue informally.
The biosphere consists of the atmosphere, the oceans, lakes and rivers, the varied and complex 374
systems of plant life and all the many other living organisms from bacteria to fish, animals and humans. Growing intervention by humans no» seems to be placing an intolerable burden on the biosphere so that it is no longer capable of renewing itself or dealing with the wastes created by industria societies. The increasing emission of gases by factories, power stations and vehicles, for example is causing more of the sun's heat to remain trappec in the atmosphere, giving rise to global warming. This may affect all-life adversely. Transatlantic jets alone bum 30 tons of oxygen per flight and subjec: passengers and crews to high levels ofradiation.
Bricolage An assembly of various apparently unconnected elements. The expression 'bricolage' is closely associated with Claude Levi-Strauss (1908-), the Brussels-born anthropologis: who studied the codes of expression in differen: societies. There is a lot of pretentious theorizing about what he meant, but the idea is perhaps bes: conveyed by entering a chain of French 'do-it-yourself stores called 'M. Bricolage'. There one can find bolts, nails, screws, wood, plastics, pain: and thousands of other items that allow you tc fashion an artefact of your choice. Those using the expression 'bricolage' assume one can deploy elements from a variety of cultures, lifestyles ano identities to fit one's purposes, personality or social opportunities.
Bureaucracy We owe our understanding of the workings of modem bureaucracies principally tc Max Weber, who first enunciated the ways in which such formal organizations worked, or were mean: to work. Bureaucracies comprise legally recognized positions with clearly defined responsibilities: these positions being hierarchically ordered intc career paths. Ideally, bureaucrats follow laws, rules and precedents, operate impersonally and impartially ('without hatred or passion', says Weber), anc are committed to efficiency and rationality (Gertt-and Mills 1958).
&-OSSARY
375
Capital-intensive agriculture involves the substitution of technology, credit, machinery, irrigation, tractors and commercial seed, for human beings growing crops in the old way. In addition to the social consequences of displacing labour, capital-intensive agriculture can carry some risks, for example in reducing biodiversity.
Capital-intensive manufacturing relies on investment in plant rather than labour. This preference may arise where labour is scarce, unco-operative, expensive or well-organized. However, capital intensity may also arise in high-tech industries by virtue of the nature of the materials and product.
Capitalism In capitalist economies wealth-producing resources are largely privately owned rather than being subject to family, community or customary control. Most producers depend on wage employment for their livelihoods instead of self-provisioning, while the goods they produce are commodities sold in markets. Moreover, production is organized almost entirely for profit. This is earmarked for reinvestment and further wealth accumulation.
Christopher Columbus Columbus 'discovered' the 'New World' in 1492. (Of course those who were 'discovered' already knew they were there.) This opened the way for Portugal and Spain to begin colonizing the ancient Inca and other civilizations of South America. It also gave momentum to the circumnavigation of the world, encouraged other European powers to establish plantation economies based on African slave labour in the Americas and led to the establishment of the USA.
Citizenship Membership of and inclusion in a national community. Citizenship confers a set of entitlements - to legal equality and justice, the right to be consulted on political matters and access to a minimum of protection against economic insecurity - but simultaneously requires the fulfilment of certain obligations to state and society.
Civil society describes the dense network made up of numerous voluntary and non-governmental associations that develops in the social space between the individual and the state. Where civil society flourishes - its diversity and authority aided by informed, educated citizens - it will normally keep much of social life free from state interference and will have a decisive influence on political life. Whereas a strong civil society will compel governments to take account of the needs and concerns of the citizenry, where civil society is weak autocracy or oligarchy are common.
The Cold War Led by the Soviet Union and the USA, the world was split into two antagonistic camps over the period 1947-89. This involved an ideological battle between capitalist democracy versus socialist planning, a massive build-up of arms and the twin races to achieve supremacy in nuclear and space-age technology. Despite several flash points, for example in 1948 and 1962 (see time line in Box 3.3) the superpowers themselves never engaged in head-on aggression. Rather, conflict was deflected into regional or minor wars involving the developing countries - as in the Korean and Vietnam Wars.
Commodity chains are economic networks linking firms, countries and industries. They span producers, distributors and consumers of goods, increasingly on a global scale. (For a fuller explanation see Gereffi 1995: 113-20.)
Commodity fetishism occurs, according to Marx, when an inanimate object is treated as if it required a religious, or even sexual, devotion. In pre-modern societies fetishes were hand-made or rare natural objects thought to embody a spirit that protected the owner from misfortune or disease. Commodity fetishism arises under capitalism because the market system has become much more real and immediate to us than the underlying social relationships (based on inequality and exploitation) which made goods sold in the market possible in the first place.
Communities are marked by deep, intimate and co-operative ties between members. In this sense, 'community' is close to Durkheim's idea of social solidarity, which emerges from commitment to a shared set of values He calls this 'the collective conscience'. Nisbet (1970: 47) gives a formal definition. For him, community 'encompasses all forms of relationship which are characterized by a high degree of personal intimacy, emotional depth, moral commitment, social cohesion and continuity in time'.
A counter culture was seen mainly in the richer western countries in the 1960s and 70s, when those involved in developing a counter culture opposed the dull, unreflective, self-congratulatory uniformity of conventional political values. They displayed a growing desire for more control over personal development, greater equity and fluidity in social relationships, a heightened respect for nature and promoted the revival of more decentralized, autonomous communities. A turn away from established religion towards eastern philosophies, experimentation with drugs, adventurous popular music and 'way-out' dress codes were also characteristic of the period.
Creolization describes how cross-fertilization takes place between different cultures when they interact. The locals select particular elements from in-coming cultures, endow these with meanings different from those they possessed in the original culture and then creatively merge these with indigenous traditions to create totally new forms. The word is used in so many contexts that it is impossible to be comprehensive. 'Creole cooking' alludes to a mixture of tropical and European cuisine, while a 'Creole language' (and the associated words 'krio' and 'criollo') refers to a European language that has been localized. Often the additions of local or other imported words are so great that, for example, French Creole may be unintelligible to a native French-speaker. In the Caribbean, 'Creoles' may refer to people of part-European descent, or those that have been strongly accultur-ated to European ways.
Cultural capital Despite the marked tendencies towards social levelling associated with mass education, affluence, consumerism and highly accessible forms of popular culture, Bourdieu (1984)  argues that  a dominant  'high' culture
376
GLOSSARY
continues to flourish. Those whose education or other experiences have enabled then to acquire taste and distinction by investing in various kinds of discerning, detailed, cultural knowledge may be able to gain advantage in the competitive struggle tor wealth and power.
Culture Most sociologists tend to define culture as the repertoire of learned ideas, values, knowledge, aesthetic preferences, rules and customs shared by a particular collectivity of social actors. Drawing on this common stock of meanings enables them to participate in a unique way of life. In this usage, the human world consists of a plurality of equal cultures. Each can only be fully interpreted by its participants. With globalization, however, and the increasing inter-penetration of flows of meaning between societies and communities, the idea of cultures as bounded, separate and fixed entities is becoming less tenable (see Chapters 12 and 13). This is an abbreviated precis of a complex term about which many major books have been written. One early influential account was by the American sociologist, Ogburn (1922).
Debt peonage A system whereby loans in cash or kind are made by rich farmers or money lenders, and often paid back by the debtor through a share of crops or labour. The system is common in Central and South America and India and often results in a demoralizing impoverishment, with the debt being bequeathed to the next and subsequent generations.
Devaluation Lowering the value of your currency against that of your competitor countries. This has the effect of lowering the cost of your exports and increasing the cost of imports. However, this is a blunt tool of economic management. Your currency abroad is weakened while, if you are protecting fundamentally inefficient home industries, you simply put off the day of reckoning when they finally cannot compete.
The developmental state refers particularly to the attempt by certain Asian states to foster an Asian variant of capitalism, bringing together the financial sector, public policy and large companies in a common effort to penetrate overseas markets, raise profitability and enhance the security of the state.
Diasporas are often formed by the forcible or voluntary dispersion of peoples to a number of countries. They constitute a diaspora if they continue to evince a common concern for their 'homeland' (sometimes an imagined community) and come to share a sense of a common purpose with their own people, wherever they happen to be.
Dystopia An imaginary place where things are as bad as they could possibly be. The term was coined by the nineteenth-century political economist, John Stuart Mill, as an antonym to 'Utopia' an imaginary, perfect island conjured up by Sir Thomas More in his book of the same name, published in 1516. Following More's lead, sociologists have found that defining the ideal can be very productive. Sociologists such as Max Weber pioneered the use of 'ideal types' (that is end-of-logic models) to help measure the extent of the deviation from the ideal
of different real situations. This method can be i useful tool for sociological reasoning.
Economies of scale arise when savings ca' re made in the purchase of a large volume of ra» materials, the organization of high-output asset- -ih lines or in mass consumption. Bulk purchases are cheaper for producers while many retail out=s have followed the advice to 'pile them high ana se! them cheap' - taking smaller profits on each iter ir exchange for selling more goods. Mass consumption and mass production are closely related.
The Enlightenment was a body of influential ideas that gradually spread across Europe during the eg~-teenth century. Its optimistic view of the potential fcr human progress through the power of reason was considerably assisted by advances in science arc philosophy. Enlightenment thinkers saw the impc-tance of critical reason, scepticism and doubt, our were certain that self-realization could be attainec through practical involvement in, and attempts r transform, the material world (see Chapter 3).
An epiphenomenon is something that appears :: be of great causal significance, but is really derive-from some other primary basis. In overvaluing ar epiphenomenon observers are thought to mistake a symptom for a reason.
Ethnocentrism derives from the Greek word fc<-people, ethnos. Ethnocentrists see their community or nation as the model against which all otheB have to be judged. By implication other people; ways of thinking and behaviour are aberrar: strange and inferior (Cashmore 1994: 258).
Exponential growth occurs where any increase ir a variable such as population, savings or wealtt-feeds on itself with each new increment contributing to yet further expansion. This causes a variable tc double in size every so many years. The formula fc calculating how long this doubling process will take involves dividing 70 by the rate of expansion.
An export-processing zone (EPZ) is a free trade enclave where foreign firms producing goods fc export are encouraged to locate. Normally the EPZ takes the form of a very large industrial estate, be: in other cases a whole region is so designated -for example the seventeen-kilometre strip just south o' the Rio Grande in Mexico. In all cases EPZs benefit from tax and financial incentives.
Fordism Named after its pioneer, the car make^ Henry Ford, this industrial system involved the mass production of standardized goods by huge, integrated companies. Each company was composed of many different, specialized departments each producing components and parts that were eventually channelled towards the moving line for final assembly (see also Post-Fordism).
French Revolution This was a series of social upheavals that began in 1789 with peasant revolt, monarchical collapse and moderate middle-class leadership. From 1793 to 1795, the urban poor of Paris and other cities, led by radicals such as Robespierre, pushed the revolution in a more violent and nationalist direction. An increasing involvement in European wars also led to the successful mass
GLOSSARY
377
* STK '."í- ;=. -~s :a- ,f m '-" = ='36 . ; _ — :- ,?1(. Bier of ~gh-output assaaflm ■■coor. Bulk purchases a» o »n.e many retail ouftaM *=£ '- - '6 them higi- ="c sal ■■ale- crofts on each ten m »= joods. Mass consjtb-to- =-5 ; osely relatea
pa body of influential asm
»ess Europe during the ear-«sic . ew of the poterta rapi the power of reason .«an J» ac. axes in science arc ■* nmkers saw the irrocr-t scecticism and doubt om wfcation could be atta'-ea en=-:  n. and attempt; r »arc. see Chapter 3). something that appears t fcance. but is really denvec "• -ass. In overvaluing a-Bs are thought to mistake I
>*om the Greek word far Wrists see their commute against which all othe-s ■nö^cation other peoples te-aviour are aberrant tree 1994: 258).
ixs -"ere any increase -fcc-i. savings or wearr »-icrement contribute ; INs causes a variable to my years. The formula fc •ouDling process will take s ^a:e of expansion. P> EPZ) is a free trade re oroducing goods for beste. Normally the EPZ "Se ndustrial estate, but or s so designated - for re-je strip just south of »- In all cases EPZs fei -centives.
mobilization of citizen armies and intensified the need to centralize national administration.
Futurologists extrapolate from existing trends and make more or less sophisticated predictions about the future. Although they are characteristically Delphic in their pronouncements, leading corporations often take serious cognizance of their views. The sociologist/futurologist Alvin Toffler gained a mass readership with books like The Third Wave (1981).
Gentrification is the process whereby run-down inner city areas experience physical and economic regeneration - with a growth of small businesses, theatres, cafes and improved living areas. This may result either from the influx of 'trendy' middle-class intellectuals and professionals in the media, the arts or education who then refurbish the old housing stock (see Zukin's study (1981) of loft-living in Greenwich Village, New York). Alternatively the process can arise from the deliberate attempt by landlords, property developers and governments to push new capital investment into entire areas.
Glocalization A term popularized by Robertson (1992: 173-4) to describe how global pressures and demands are made to conform to local conditions. Whereas powerful companies might 'customize' their product to local markets, glocalization operates in the opposite direction. Local actors select and modify elements from an array of global possibilities, thereby initiating some democratic and creative engagement between the local and the global.
The Great Depression (1929-39) was the most severe capitalist downturn ever known. By late 1932, in the USA alone, around 15 million workers were unemployed. The crisis began in October 1929 when company share values on New York's Wall Street stock exchange crashed. A number of stockbrokers and investors jumped to their deaths from their skyscraper offices. A series of escalating bank and currency collapses soon turned the crisis into a global one. German Nazism and Japanese Fascism were partly caused by the world economic collapse.
Green Revolution The diffusion of high-yielding varieties of seeds, particularly wheat, maize and rice. This series of research and technological initiatives drew on earlier developments (for example, a hybrid maize was produced in 1933), but it accelerated dramatically in the 1960s. Institutes funded by governments and involving universities, agricultural companies and IGOs were set up in Mexico and the Philippines, among many other places. This was a high-technology-intensive agriculture initiative and is not to be confused with the green/environmental social and political movement, which opposes many of the interventions associated with the Green Revolution. Pearse (1980) provides a good sociological study of the early impact of the Green Revolution.
Gross national product A common measurement used by economists to assess a country's wealth. GNP includes all production by the country's firms regarcless of the firms' location. It does not include production by foreign-owned companies. As complex mixes of foreign and national share hold-
ings develop it will be increasingly outdated to try to calculate measurements of this kind.
Habitus referred in its Latin origins to a typical or habitual condition. For the French social theorist Bourdieu, it comprises a set of cultural orientations acquired by the members of a given social subgroup. Through their specific life experiences they express and display preferences for a cluster of distinctive tastes in consumption and lifestyles. While the habitus disposes social actors to particular kinds of conduct, it also provides the basis for the generation of new practices (Jenkins 1992: 74-84).
Heterophobia The fear of difference. An unusual expression that may serve the purpose of distinguishing between an initial encounter where people, somewhat innocently, draw back from the unfamiliar and 'racism', which is a structured, organized and usually vicious plan of attack to subdue an unpopular group. See also ethno-centrism and xenophobia, which are closely related expressions.
Hybridity refers principally to the creation of dynamic mixed cultures. Sociologists and anthropologists, who use the expression 'syncretism' to refer to such phenomena, have long observed the evolution of commingled cultures from two or more parent cultures. Using the literature and other cultural expressions of colonial peoples, Bhabha (1986) introduced a new twist to the idea. He saw hybridity as a transgressive act challenging the colonizers' authority, values and representations and thereby constituting an act of self-empowerment and defiance.
Ideology refers at a loose level to a reasonably coherent set of assumptions and convictions shared by a particular social group. Pacifists and vegetarians share an ideology in this sense. Where ideologies are totalizing and universal in their claims (for example, communism) they are sometimes referred to as meta-narratives (see glossary entry). For some social theorists ideologies can be contrasted with reason or science and are used deliberately by ruling groups to obscure real power relations in their own interest. 'Imagined community' is the term used by Benedict Anderson (1983: 15-16) to describe a nation. It is imagined because the member of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow members. The nation is imagined as limited because even the largest of nations has a finite boundary beyond which there are other nations. It is imagined as sovereign in that is displaces or undermines the legitimacy of organized religion or the monarchy. Finally, it is imagined as community because regardless of actual inequality, the nation is conceived of as a deep, horizontal comradeship.
Industrial Revolution Britain's industrial revolution led the way for industrialization across the globe and can be dated to around the 1770s, when machinery and full-time waged workers in permanent factories were increasingly deployed in manufacturing processes. The industrial revolution began with the cotton textile industry, but over about another 70 years spread to most other industries in Britain.
378
GLOSSARY
The informal sector is that part of urban society characterized by small-scale, labour-intensive, self-generated economic activity. There are minimal capital requirements in joining the informal sector and it relies on unregulated markets and skills acquired outside the formal education system. The sector is rarely controlled by government inspectors, so working conditions, safety checks and environmental standards are minimal. Exploitation and self-exploitation are rife.
Japanization refers to the conscious attempt, especially in the 1980s, to imitate the organizational culture developed by Japan's huge companies, such as Toyota, and especially their highly effective strategies with regard to managing labour relations in factories. Such attempts at transplanting Japan's methods to other countries have not always been completely successful.
Labour power is the capacity to work for a given time, a given rate of pay and at a particular level of skill and effort. The notion is used particularly by orthodox Marxists so as to provide a measure of the extent to which the employer 'exploits' the worker, but the expression has fallen out of use elsewhere.
Longevity refers to how long people, on average, are expected to live. Longevity is influenced by such diverse factors as the infant mortality rate (how many babies die at birth or shortly thereafter), by sanitary arrangements, living standards, lifestyles, the level of personal security, the number of car accidents, pollution and diet.
A longitudinal analysis measures a particular change over a specified period at regular intervals. Often social statisticians have difficulty in achieving consistency over the long term as the criteria for data-collection change. Nonetheless some impressive results have appeared using this technique.
Luddites were English artisans who rioted rather than accept mechanical and technical changes. It was not just unemployment they feared, but also the threat of de-skilling and lower wages.
McDonaldization originally referred to the irresistible disseminatief^ef-hysiness systems associated with the US fast-food industry. These aimed to achieve intense control over workers and customers in order to supply cheap, standardized, but quality products in pleasant surroundings. This drive for efficiency and predictability has now spread to many other economic activities and countries so that the McDonald's burger franchising chain is merely the 'paradigm case' (Ritzer 1993: 1) of a much wider formula.
Mercantilism describes an economic theory and practice prevalent in the seventeenth to early nineteenth century. The theory was based on the idea that the nation's stock of gold and silver signified its wealth. Those countries that did not have their own mines had to engage in aggressive forms of foreign trade to acquire bullion. A country's currency was guaranteed by the amount of gold in the national vaults.
Meta-narratives are more than simply 'grand' theories claiming to possess demonstrably valid explanations for all societal evolution and change.
Rather, they also offer ultimate, epic stories atxxr the truth of human experience. Socialism, ^x example, insists that the oppression of diffe'eT groups - from slaves through to workers - arc their perpetual struggles against economic exploitation dominate history.
A mode of production was used by Marx to describe the characteristic social relations tra: marked a particular way of organizing production Slavery, feudalism and capitalism are all modes y production in this sense.
Modernity can usefully be dated to the fifteerr and sixteenth centuries. Symbolically, the so-callec 'discovery' of the 'New World' in 1492 and fre circumnavigation of the world can be taken as convenient markers opening the modern era. However, the orientations towards modernity crystallized in the seventeenth century and spread and accelerated in their impact during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries with the growth of a questing spirit, a strong leaning towards the purposive pursuit of material and social 'progress', rationality, industrialization, urbanization and the triumph of the nation state.
The nation state is constituted by a government assuming a legal and moral right to exercise sole jurisdiction, supported by force in the last resort, over a particular territory and its citizens. This involves institutions for managing domestic and foreign affairs. From the late eighteenth century ordinary citizens in most western countries began to feel strong loyalties to their nation states, while local and regional identities were suppressed. Popular nationalism has been more difficult to achieve in some developing countries.
Neo-liberalism is an economic doctrine that lays great emphasis on the free market and unconstrained competition. In the eighteenth century it was associated with the Scottish economist Adam Smith, who advocated the virtues of free trade over mercantilism (q.v.). Drawing on the work of the Austrian economist Friedrich A. Hayek (1899-1902), neo-liberalism was revived in the 1980s by politicians such as Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan - who helped to spread this philosophy to many countries.
The new international division of labour divides production into different skills and tasks that are spread across regions and countries rather than within a single company. From the 1970s onwards hitherto agricultural countries, particularly in the Asia-Pacific region, became rapidly drawn into the new international division of labour as key production functions were shifted away from the old industrial zones.
Non-tariff trade barriers involve the attempt to protect domestic industries by imposing bureaucratic regulations about such things as product 'quality' or technical standards. This may deter importers. Local producers may also be given hidden subsidies. Through these means the appearance of free trade is preserved.
The ozone layer is a band of gas encircling the planet between 20 and 50 kilometres above the
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379
earth's surface. It filters out the most intensive effects of the ultra-violet radiation coming from the sun, which would otherwise damage animal and plant life by causing extensive cancers and genetic mutations. These dangers have stimulated international moves to ban the production and use of those chemicals - especially the various chloroflu-orocarbons (CFCs) which destroy ozone.
Patriarchy involves forms of oppression that elevate men to positions of power and authority. Feminist writers argue that patriarchy is so deeply embedded that it appears in early societies as well as in feudal, capitalist and self-proclaimed socialist societies. Those feminists who are influenced by Marxism stress sexual divisions of labour are functional and related to the evolving class structure. Other writers have pointed to the role of religion or the structuring and labelling of female and male roles. Whatever the origin of this role differentiation (most feminists discount, but some writers include, the different biological functions of men and women) it has now become culturally and even psychoanalytically inscribed. This makes patriarchy difficult to dislodge.
Post-Fordism exists where most workers are employed on a temporary or casual basis, enjoy few, if any, pension or other rights and where labour has limited power to organize in order to resist employer demands. Capitalists therefore enjoy much more direct control over their employees than was possible under Fordism including the ability to maintain a highly flexible and adaptable labour force.
Post-industrial society refers to societies where the service industries - including the knowledge-, media- and information-based sectors - have become the most important source of wealth and employment. Accompanying this, therefore, is a relative decline in the contribution of manufacturing industry to national wealth, a fall in the numbers of manual workers, a huge expansion of university or tertiary education and a growing middle class. Post+modern (social life) According to postmodernists, unlike the earlier era of modernity, our lives are now said to be less and less determined by family, class, community and national loyalties or by social expectations linked to such things as gender or race. Instead, these structures, along with the moral and political certainties about the nature of truth, reality and destiny with which they were associated, have largely disintegrated. Accordingly we are free to forge our own identities - although this may also cause us some anxiety. In doing so we choose from an increasingly diverse, pluralistic and sometimes confusing cultural repertoire - one that emanates especially from the all-pervasive mass media.
Proto-globalization Early processes of univer-salism that failed to embrace all of humanity. The major limitations on proto-globalization were the lack of global awareness ('globalism'), the limited development of scientific rationality and the lack of a centralizing, powerful nation state system. What we have called proto-globalization is akin to what Robertson (1992: 54) called 'miniglobalizations'.
Purchasing power parity Calculations of GNP per capita involve making an adjustment for the generally lower costs of living that prevail in many poorer countries compared with the advanced economies. The amount of goods that can be bought in a given country with the amount of local currency officially designated as equal to $1 on the foreign exchange markets may actually be considerably more than what $1 would purchase in the USA. Purdah is the practice of secluding women by covering their bodies from the male gaze and virtually excluding them, sometimes behind screens, from all forms of public life. Often considerable economic activity goes on in these private household settings.
A realist perspective in this book refers to a view which once dominated thinking about the nature of international politics. Realists argued that if there was such a thing as a world society it was largely synonymous with the relations between sovereign states. Moreover, these relations mostly concerned questions of military security and foreign policy that were designed to maximize national power and protect national autonomy in an unruly, anarchical and war-prone system of competing states.
Reflexivity All humans reflect on the consequences of their own and others' actions and perhaps alter their behaviour in response to new information. This quality of self-awareness, self-knowledge and contemplation is of great interest to sociologists as it speaks to the motives, understandings and intentions of social actors. In contemporary societies reflexivity is said to intensify as every aspect of social life becomes subject to endless revision in the face of constantly accumulating knowledge.
The Renaissance The word derives from the French for 'rebirth' and refers to the revival of classical philosophy, literature and art in early modern and modern Europe. Over a period of 800 years, starting in the eighth century, artistic and scientific thinking flowered in Europe. This was accompanied by the rise of intellectual life (including the founding of universities), secular states and rational values.
The sacred and the profane In The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1915), Durkheim argued that religious practices and beliefs require a sharp separation between ordinary, mundane activities and objects and those regarded as sacred. The latter are treated with awe and veneration. They bring members of communities together in the pursuit of shared ceremonial activities and group affirmation of deeply held convictions. Whereas the profane is knowable through everyday observable things, the sacred is known only through extraordinary experiences.
Secularization refers to the declining hold of religious belief and practice over most people's lives during the industrialization process. Growing exposure to scientific knowledge and new ideas, combined with a more materially secure environment, render most individuals less reliant upon the moral and spiritual certainties provided by religion in pre-industrial societies.
380
GLOSSARi
Semiotics is the study of signs and symbols in language and other means of communication. Semiotics links the separate disciplines of sociology and linguistics and in recent years has made a major contribution to the study of the hidden meanings of electronically transmitted images.
Simulacra (singular simulacrum) are entities that have no original or no surviving original in the actual world, but are thought nonetheless to be 'real'. Cult followers - for example of Elvis Presley or of characters in certain TV soaps - seek to emulate their simulacra perhaps by copying their appearance or supposed lifestyles, writing to them for personal advice, or even proposing marriage.
Situational identity arises when an individual constructs and presents any one of a number of possible social identities, depending on the situation. In the most individualistic versions of this phenomenon, an actor deploys an aspect of their identity - a religion, an ethnicity or lifestyle - as the context deems a particular choice desirable or appropriate.
Social control refers to the process whereby rich and powerful actors inhibit, channel and manage the behaviour of the population at large. Everything from open punishment (like hanging and flogging), incarceration and surveillance is covered by the expression 'social control'. Since the 1970s sociologists have extended the idea to cover the question of how deviant behaviour is labelled, ideologically suppressed and even sometimes encouraged by attempts at social control.
Social Darwinism drew on the ideas on evolution and natural selection that Darwin applied to plants and animals, even though Darwin himself disavowed the idea that human 'races' could be classified. 'Natural selection' was crudely understood by European imperialists as lending support to the idea that they were inherently superior to the people they colonized. Social Darwinism was also a quasi-rational theory used to support population control, immigration restrictions and racial prejudice.
Social movements are informal organizations working for change but galvanized around a single unifying issue. They are often reactions both against conventional party politics and against the traditional left's belief in the transformátory possibilities of working-class movements. Examples of global social movements include those involved in the movement for human rights, the anti-war and anti-nuclear movements, the greens and the women's movement.
Socialization The processes through which we learn to understand, assimilate and reproduce the rules, values and meanings shared by members of our society and which are constantly enacted and negotiated in everyday life. The child's relationships within the family are normally crucial to this learning process - along with school and peer group - but socialization continues throughout life
as we are continuously exposed to different sec* experiences, including the media.
The sovereignty enjoyed by states means ~a they have the sole right to exercise a monopo". -s legal and coercive control both over their territo-es and the people living within their borders. (A futer understanding of the state and its powers owes. much to the work of the sociologist Max Webe-Nowadays, states have found it difficult to reap their sovereignty without 'pooling' it with ailed. often stronger, states. Therefore, although po*-cians do not always admit this in practice sovereignty is shared. Britain provides a good exampe in the period of the Cold War, which had a consri-erable stock of nuclear weaponry, but could not -ire it without the agreement of the US president. The Suffragette Movement demanded votes far women as a first principle of equality and liberatio-The movement was at is height in the USA and the UK in the late nineteenth and early twentieť century, but it was not until women were used "m the home front' in factories during the First Wore War that the cause was won. Even then when the vote was conceded in the UK in 1918, only women over 30 were eligible. In the US women's suffrage was granted two years later.
Taylorization is the name given to the process accompanying Fordism whereby most work processes were scientifically studied by managers so as to find ways to break them down into highr> specialized and efficient tasks while removing most of the skill and responsibility formerly exercised by the workers.
Third World An expression used to distinguish the non-aligned poor countries from the First Worte (the rich capitalist democracies of the West) ana also from the Second World (the communist-lec countries of the Soviet bloc). Increased differentiation between the rich and poor countries of Asia. Africa, Latin America and the Middle East, togethe' with the political collapse of nearly all the communist countries have meant that the term is of less and less use. Although countries are still highly unequal in their wealth and power, they do not fit neatly into three groups.
White-collar crimes are those perpetrated by more respectable members of society. They often involve fraud. White-collar crime is sometimes defended as Victimless', although all this usually means is that the victims are less obvious. For example, false claims on insurance policies mean that the premiums for all policyholders will rise. Xenophobia is hatred and fear of foreigners. When these feelings are applied to a visible minority the expression 'racism' is often used. It is probably better to see 'racism' as a special case of xenophobia than to use it too extravagantly. If used too often terms of scorn soon lose their strength, no longer wounding or even impressing their targets.
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