Showbiz as a Cross-Cultural System:
Circus and Song, Garland and Geertz,
Rushdie, Mordden,... and More
James A. Boon
Princeton University
An attitude at once critical and apologetic toward the same situation is no intrinsic
contradiction in terms (however often it may in fact turn out to be an empirical one)
but a sign of a certain level of intellectual sophistication.
--C. Geertz, "Ideology as a Cultural System," The Interpretation of Cultures
What intellectual "attitude," critical and apologetic, suits situations of showbiz?
How might this vast arena of human endeavor be approached ethnographically
and comparatively? What, perforce, does "the show business" mean--not just
here and now (America since P. T. Barnum) but elsewhere and earlier: across
cultures and eras, continually transformed and translated. Should anthropological
modes of interpretation, philosophically inclined, address showbiz situations?
What would distinguish such studies from, say, the anthropology of
tourism?
Anthropologists of touristic topics, intent on practices our profession long
dismissed as degraded, may still trail vestigial standards of cultural authenticity
(even when contesting them).1
One "theoretical" advantage to showbiz is that
nothing even heuristically authentic adheres to such experience. Why? Because,
for one thing, iťs a business and, for another, iťs all show. Another advantage is
the abundant indication that showbiz is here--alas, everywhere--to stay. Think
only of global theme parks, polyHollywoods, "the World of Coca-Cola," and
computerized special effects--which industry, its promoters claim, saved California's
post-Cold War economy.
Unless showbiz gets canceled by the millennium (I write in 1999), anthropologists
and cognate cogitators, assuming we too are not canceled, may have to
find something to tolerate, perhaps like, and rarely even to love about it. Why,
after all, should ethnographers, comparative hermeneuts, or global critiquers be
different from everybody else?
Seeking alternative meanings of and for commodity culture, I have assembled
a showbizzy essay about showbiz (one going a bit native, so to speak). Its
Cultural Anthropology 15(3)424-456. Copyright  2000, American Anthropological Association.
424
SHOWBIZ AS A CROSS-CULTURAL SYSTEM 425
interscored segments--five shorts and two feature presentations (numbers 3 and
6)--run as follows:
1. Preliminaries (P. T.)
2. Showcased Definitions (I. E.)
3. Cultural So-Called Systems--Redisbursed (C. G./E-P.)
4. Hunches and Winks (a.k.a. Hypothesis)
5. Singin' as if Sententiously (Pre-CD)
6. The Same Showbiz? Rushdie's/Mordden's/Mine... (I. A.)
7. Methodological Coda, with Clowning Conclusion (Finis)
Preliminaries (P. T.)
Showbiz is no easy matter to define, chronologize, or contextualize. One
fact, however, seems sure--P. T. Barnum coined the rubric that "showbiz" abbreviates
and sloganizes (such is advertising!): "Barnum conceived of popular
entertainment as a business, which he called 'the show business,' and he talked
of amusements as 'merchandise' that were subject to the same laws of trade as
any other goods" (Toll 1976:31). But this certainty hardly pins things down. Just
what those "laws of trade" might be, I leave to practicing economists--such folk
as show up on snazzy Louis Rukeyser's winky Wall Street Week. Let me address
instead a stock formula behind Barnum's popularity: lots of sensationalism and
a little edification.2
It all started in the 1840s on Broadway near St. Pauľs Chapel (still standing),
when and where a youngish Phineas T. Barnum gazed on Scudder's American
Museum (disturbing "freaks" displayed in formats considered educational
and therefore moral)--and saw that it was good. What explains the eerie attraction:
"It was probably the word curiosities that held the magic for the man. . . .
Suddenly, Barnum's enormous energies were focused. At the age of thirty-one,
he made up his mind to buy a museum" (Culhane 1990:34). To its "combination
of information, amusement, self-improvement, titillation, and respectability"
(Toll 1976:29), Barnum soon added "lecture-plays" billed as "chaste scenic entertainments,"
plus artful gimmicks--for example, those "This Way to the
Egress" signs--to keep the crowds flowing on out. On both sides of Barnum's
"Egress," unadvertised attractions also proliferated:
The commercialization of sexuality .. . was manifest in other leisure institutions.
Museums, for example In 1850, Dr. Wooster Beach's National Anatomical
Museum and Academy of Natural Science, on Broadway, exhibited "figures of
men and women naked in lewd, lascivious, wicked, indecent, disquieting and obscene
groups, attitudes, and positions."... Besides diagrams and models of reproductive
organs, . .. "malformations" included] a hermaphrodite, a "hottentot
female" with an enlarged clitoris,. .. venereal disease[, and] a model of "virgin
breasts,. .. those rare beauties so peculiar to the female form, without which she
would be despoiled of one half her elegance and loveliness." Still other museums
permitted soliciting by prostitutes. Even "respectable" museums like P.T. Barnum's
. . . conveyed a sense of sexual freedom. [Gilfoyle 1992:127]3
426 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Erotic commerce flourished, then as now, in the environs of museums, plus burlesque
(natch) and "higher" spectacle--like Palmo's Opera House (it once featured
nude polkas and minuets) and the elite theater Niblo's. "Concert saloons"
amalgamated French vaudeville, Italian opera, German beer garden, and English
theater in entertainments for middle-class whites (working-class Irish, German
immigrants). Between the acts, performers solicited customers for sexual
service in secluded alcoves (Burrows and Wallace 1999: chs. 37,45,54,64; Gilfoylel992:ch.
11).
This slightly hidden history of show business--a history o/titillation that
titillates in turn--extends from saloon prostitution to shifting "sex districts."
Eventually, in Gotham, "tenderloin sections" catered to both workers and the
well heeled (straight, gay, and so on) and to Euro-Americans, African Americans,
and Hispanics--variously isolated and integrated (as in Harlem's famed
Renaissance).4
As each technology emerged (cheap sheet music, affordable piano
rolls, the phonograph, later radio), concert-saloon life remained a virtual
cauldron for national brews of "popular music"--ragtime, Tin Pan Alley, rock
'n' roll--commodified out of America's demimondes.5
Yes, ever since Barnum (and long before), so-called showbiz has entailed
alternative trades, often enough rough. Compared with many predecessors,
competitors, and successors, Barnum was a model of restraint: a Democratic
Educator. In 1870, he enterprisingly transformed fixed "museum" into mobile
"circus"--first his "Traveling Moral Exposition of the Wonder World," then
"Magic City," "Worlďs Fair," and "Greatest Show on Earth." In each new guise
of wonder, Barnum booked differences that current ethical standards deem taboo:
extremes of size, "monstrosities" of combination, brands of "defectiveness."
Leafed through today, any book about Barnum (and they abound) parades
attractions that seem perversely designed to offend norms of decency cultivated
since. That such shows were promoted as "moral" then now shows how different,
culturally, history keeps becoming.
Most notorious for us current spectators of Barnum's own "moral defectiveness"
are his racist humbugs--George Washington's 161-year-old slave
nursemaid, Joice Heth; "the 'What Is Iť or 'Man-Monkey,' " later disclosed as
William Henry Johnson, a microcephalic black American of dwarfed stature
(Kunhardt 1995:149). Such merchandise is hard to fathom nowadays, especially
in light of Barnum's bighearted, tolerant, more ethical side:
Barnum taught Johnson to speak "jungle language," and how to smile continuously.
He also threatened to dock Johnson's pay if he ever revealed his true identity.
. . . But as time went on [after 1859], Barnum and Johnson became close
personal allies. [Johnson was] given an ever-increasing salary and share in the
profits. [Kunhardt 1995:149]
Appearances to the contrary notwithstanding, Barnum was probably not obsessed
with race (that entered showbiz with minstrelsy), or with ethnicity (that
came with mass immigration), or with gender (that came with Lydia Thomson
and burlesque). Rather, Barnumesque showbiz refracts (but does not reduce to)
SHOWBIZ AS A CROSS-CULTURAL SYSTEM 427
current critical accusations of racism, sexism, and classism. Barnum, moreover,
although trafficking in manifold prejudice, also merchandised virtuoso talent
(e.g., the delightful Jenny Lind). In short, Barnum's "system" of exhibition(ism)s,
such that it was, orchestrated sensory contradictions into medleys of
display. Because Barnumian curiosities were so diverse, no particular packaging
of them could perdure. Their very variety portended ongoing obsolescence;
their excessiveness ensured further novelties next year--rather like auto fins at
a later date. Barnum's specialite was constantly to alter scruples of propriety:
"pushing the envelope of embarrassment," I'd call it. This mainstay of showbiz
endures. (Note an American TV example: the recent wave of sit-coms, even during
pre-V-chip "family hours," flaunting a newly utterable "P" word--to tweak
the organ of male vulnerability, displaced from Achilles' heel. Next up: Viagra!).
Barnum's show business--relying on mass ticket purchases and promotedproduct
sales--was fundamentally oriented to the near future. "Entertainment"
contrives always to be just ahead of becoming passe, primed for refurbishment
with each turn of technology: circuses in tents, by train, over the airwaves;
vaudeville from the stage, via radio, on TV; songfests in saloons, from wax
disks, on CD; flickering light from slow blinks, celluloid, videotape, the Internet.
All new media both repeat and rework past mixes of distraction elevation.
Of course, showbiz--never really new--derived from previous politics
and poetics of patronage--by the polis, royal courts, nobility, religious bodies,
municipalities, state endowments, imperial "bread and circuses."6
To alight at
sundry "sites" along this deep history, I might cite showbiz antecedents listed in
Robert Burton's 17th-century Anatomy ofMelancholy; hurry, hurry, hurry:
Every palace, every city almost, hath his peculiar walks, cloisters, terraces,
groves, theatres, pageants, games, and several recreations; every country some
professed gymnics to exhilarate their minds, and exercise their bodies. The Greeks
had their Olympian, Pythian, Isthmin, Nemean games in honour of Neptune, Jupiter,
Apollo; Athens hers: some for honour, garlands, crowns; for beauty, dancing,
running, leaping, like our silver games. The Romans had their feasts . . . seafights,
theatres, amphitheatres able to contain 70,000 men [with] delightsome
shows to exhilarate the people; gladiators, combats of men with themselves, with
wild beasts, and wild beasts one with another, like our bull-baiting or bearbaitings
. .. dancers on ropes, jugglers, wrestlers, comedies, tragedies, publicly
exhibited at the emperor's and city's charge, and that with incredible cost and
magnificence. [1977:79]
To such "exercise rectified" Burton adds "ordinary recreations which we have in
winter":
cards, tables and dice, shovelboard, chess-play . .. music, masks, singing, dancing,
Yule-games, frolics, jests, riddles . .. merry tales of errant knights, queens,
lovers, lords, ladies, giants, dwarfs, thieves, cheaters, witches, fairies, goblins, friars
. . . , such as the old woman told [of] Psyche in Apuleius, Boccace novels, and
the rest... for men's ears are charmed with novelty. [1977:81]
428 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Given these copious precedents, my initial salute requires revision: P. T. Barnum
did not exactly invent showbiz (that credit doubtless goes to the ex-Soviet
Union). America's Barnum, nevertheless, did name "the show business"; and he
promoted it into a characteristic discourse of modernity and after. Now, advertising
is part, if not the whole, of showbiz. Yes, in advertising, to name a
thing--to brand and package it--is tantamount to invention. "Origins," moreover,
really cannot count in enterprises devised to preclude affirming the "genuine
article." In certain antimetaphysical respects, showbiz may even have gotten
a jump on deconstruction; or such is my hunch.7
Barnum's entrepreneurial style and publicity stunts have been designated
America's national essence--by the French:
Barnum was the personification of antericanisme, . . . continually mounting projects
of astonishing commercial daring . . . , which resembled both carnival and the
poster in its economic effervescence and in the challenge it posed to ordinary notions
of distinction.
"Advertising is like learning," [Barnum] wrote. "A little is a bad thing."... Barnum
shattered the privacy of the home, and in that, appropriately enough, he was
assisted by the poster .. . connected] with the more novel and ambitious projects
of the entertainment industry.
The poster . . . was allied to ... americanisme and arrivisme . . . in which a form
of social roulette prevailed, submitting class identity to the vagaries of the marketplace.
[Verhagen 1995:122-123]
Needless to add (or advertise), such vagaries today seem less a matter of americanisme
than, I'm afraid, globalisme. They are downright international. The
world keeps getting exaggerated.
Showcased Definitions (I. E.)
What is business doing next to show in Barnum's fateful metonymy? Bring
on the reference texts (browsers welcome!). My Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary
(WNCD) pegs our composite lexeme succinctly: "The arts, occupations,
and businesses (as theater, motion pictures, and television) that comprise the entertainment
industry" (1st ed., s.v. "show business"). But buyers should beware
the false clarity of uniform gloss (and shun still skimpier entries available as offthe-rack,
ready-to-wear definitions retailed in "soft-wear" dictionary substitutes).
Real tomes--the bigger and mustier, the better--print-parade multiple
meanings in tallies of usage. And usage alone--both Wittgenstein (a showy philosopher)
and Malinowski (a showy anthropologist) revealed--subverts "the
referent" by enacting (accessing?) always slippery signifiance}
Fat dictionaries can be enjoyed rather like revues--each item a dazzlingly
arbitrary outfit or garb: a "WORD!" It is not for nothing that, in Sartor Resartus
(1908), Thomas Carlyle (a showy savant) compares symbols with clothes.
(Closely read, dictionaries destabilize denotation--unlike a "foundational"
knowledge genre misleadingly lumped with them: encyclopedias.) On, then,
with the show of "show business" in extravagant displays (designated by that
SHOWBIZ AS A CROSS-CULTURAL SYSTEM 429
strange WORD!--diction-ary) by diverse impresarios: Samuel Johnson, Noah
Webster. We shall ogle the noun first, saving adjectival show for second.
Business (archaic busyness)--role, function, mission, trade, line, or "commercial
or mercantile activity engaged as a means of livelihood"--tumbles and
slides into several further senses worth blocking off:
Movement or action (as lighting a cigarette) by an actor to establish atmosphere,
reveal character, or explain a situation--called also stage business. ...
[or] a. personal concern < none of your business > b. RIGHT < you have no
business hitting her > . . .
[or] a. a serious activity requiring time and effort and usu. the avoidance of
distractions < immediately got down to business > ...
[or] a. a damaging assault b. a rebuke or tongue-lashing: a hard time c. DOUBLE
CROSS. [WNCD, lsted., s.v. "business"]
Stage business may be a lexical model for show business (or funny business).
Connotations of personal rights and undistracted activity lend business hitched
to show an oxymoronic flavor. Indeed, were not show business felt by users to
be slightly contradictory, the coinage's "catching on" (as a category or a slogan)
would prove equally perplexing to rhetoricians, semanticists, or advertisers. Definitional
downsides of business--damaging tongue-lashings and hard times--only
enhance the irony of its association with glamour and glitz. And that "double
cross" gloss seems too good to be true. But dictionaries are actually nothing but
short-circuiting semantics--a fact that explains addiction to them of witty aficionados:
Borges and Freud, Hugh Kenner and Vivian Darkbloom, Vic Turner
and (we'll see) Cliff Geertz.9
Any Webster's wraps meanings-as-usage up with synonyms--in this case:
COMMERCE, INDUSTRY, TRADE, TRAFFIC, whose shared meaning element
(italics "his") is promptly stipulated: "activity concerned with supplying
and distribution of commodities" (WNCD, 1st ed., s.v. "business"). To save
time, I cite my prized jumbo version (the very edition favored by Vladimir
Nabokov--heroically transnational, finger-lickin' lexicon leafer) on commodity:
That which affords convenience or profit, esp. in commerce, including everything
movable that is bought and sold,--goods, wares, merchandize, produce of land,
etc.. . . [T]he term commodity has been devised to serve as a corresponding singular
[to goods, aggregate of elements of which wealth is comprised]. [Webster's
New International Dictionary, 2nd ed.]
This misleadingly pat "definition" mystifies (you might say) commodity--a
term devised and revalued ("recommoditized," so to speak) into arguably the
critical mot of the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries, God willing. One wildly successful
commodity in contemporary theory is the term commodity attached to
fetiche--a veritable blockbuster.10
But I want to stress something different: a lack--what my desk edition
leaves out of business as "activity in commodities: supplying and distribution"
(WNCD, 1st ed.). Omitted (forgotten?) is desire; yes, desire: want. I need hardly
430 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
remind readers of abundant academic inquiries--Saussurian, feminist, interpretive,
postmodernist, new historicist, writing-cultural, apres-colonialist, Lacanian,
2izekian--bent on reinjecting desire into inadequate "laws" of political
economy. Gilles Deleuze (1993) for one, and companionable nomads, exposes
bias toward production redistribution in neoclassical theories of value. We
Deleuzians--plus we Sahlinsians, de Certeauans, and so on--refuse to deny arts
of consumption their fair share ofcredit in constituting culture. Remember: desire.11
Here I aim only to advertise (and I am not the first) an appealing possibility:
America's master of humbug anticipated in popular practice all this "high"
thinking. Old Barnum animated gaps of desire by conjoining business to show,
thereby netting "big bucks." And discourses of value--from Veblen (1953) on
conspicuous consumption, to Bataille (1997) on depense (expenditure), to
Baudrillard (1988) on metasimulacra--have been playing catch-up theory ever
since. This proliferation of critical critique may remind even minimally ironic
consumers of "growth" (my metaphor is industrial--and informational).
Whether the theory industry ("the know business") will ever surpass Barnumian
show business is deliciously difficult to guess (Boon 1999:17-18, ch. 13). On
the infrastructural side (versus superstructural "ideas" clothed in the "word"
theory), I recently overheard Russian news reports that enterprising subversives
and/or subversive entrepreneurs, fed up with the U.S. merchandising invasion,
have launched an alternative fast food franchise in nativistic meat pies. (I confess
to wondering if these ex-Soviets will call their product line McPeroshki.)
So! If Barnum's "show" hooked "business" to consumerist cravings--
fetishistic, hedonistic, sometimes even wholesome--what else might his tricky
composite imply? Show affords Worterbuch (dictionary) surfers varied thrills in
definitional display. Individuated or conjoined--showroom, show window,
show bill (an advertising poster), showboat--our entertaining term just keeps
rollin' along and reticulatin' contradictions (WNCD, 1st ed., s.v. "show").12
Nuances of show--"appearance, evidence, spectacle"--fertilize paradoxes
of agency and truth. Even neighboring words seem affected. A die-hard Frazerian
could sniff around for sympathetic magic on dictionary pages themselves (e.g.,
WNCD, 9th ed.) And presto: semantic contamination! Near show lurks shrive
("to administrate the sacrament of penance"), shuck (as in corn), shrinkage
(Seinfeld enthusiasts, stop your snickering), and shtick (Yiddish, I recall, for "an
entertainment routine--a BIT"). In such riotous alphabetical company debuts
show: from Old English "sceawian--to look, look at, see." Show means--by
means I mean semiotically "substitutes as"--"exhibit, or offer < show-ing new
spring suits >." Exhibits are staged/or "wonder or ridicule" and/orto arouse interest
or stimulate sales (as in autos) or "demonstrate quality in breeding" (as in
dogs). Show, then, suggests performance and spectacle "for the notice of others."
(Dictionaries, as a genre, overlook the ethnographic question: what those
"others"--showees?--in fact do notice.)
There is more (still in WNCD, 9th ed.). Show has legalistic sides: "Allege,
plead < show cause >"; demonstrating "by argument or reason." (Can't you just
hear O. J.'s lawyers: "The defense shall show. . . .") I note also definition b--"a
SHOWBIZ AS A CROSS-CULTURAL SYSTEM 431
false semblance"; so much for the law. As a verb, show's synonyms line up
neatly: manifest, evidence, evince, demonstrate--a matter of revealing outwardly.
But this appearance may be "more or less true." And suddenly show,
dictionarily, becomes SIGN (implicating all of semiotics) and "ostentation";
looking this medieval word "up" refers us to precapitalism.
Modern meanings are more circumscribed--"a radio or television program"
and that old standby: finishing "third or at least third in a horse race"
(WNCD, 9th ed., s.v. "show"). (Or there's my personal example: "Guys and
Dolls is better than a show") These usages--coupled with "the sense of ENTERPRISE,
AFFAIRS < he ran the whole show >"--make show business sound
less oxymoronic than redundant. You don't suppose it has anything to do with
gambling?13
Finally, show proper means "an indication of metal in a mine or gas or oil
in a well" (WNCD, 9th ed.); avoided are "shows" of sexual readiness (estrus,
heat): after all, this is no CD-ROM on MTV. Nor does our prim source "traditionally"
print allusions to "Is she showing?"; and no hint of menstruation sullies
its premier version's stodgy show (WNCD, 1st ed., 1973). Product lines
(commodities) later learned to flaunt periodic cycles (onset/duration/finis) in
all-out ads, ultimately merchandising "Motrin for Moms!"--even the "material
Mom" (a.k.a. Madonna). This "menstrual show business" now dares, like the
others, to speak once-unmentionables and challenge puffed-up propriety. Yet
any showbiz liberation retains shifted standards of restraint, scruples
even--which brings us (back) to cultural systems. Next segment, please.
Cultural So-Called Systems--Redisbursed (C. G./E-P.)
About the time P. T. Barnum coined "show business," E. B. Tylor helped
promote "culture" into anthropology's official problem or, as I prefer, paradox
(Boon 1973).14
Minimally, culture implies contours in experience--as lived and
enacted, as discoursed and represented (it helps to think of languages).
(Anti)Disciplines of all stripes wrangle and fret over how cultures get authored,
contested, transmitted, transformed, displaced, regendered, deracialized, and
pre-de-re-post-constructed--whether in arts (high and low) or in everyday life
(as an art).15
But what has all this to do with showbiz? "Hows-about" slotting showbiz
into Geertz's capital corpus--which phases from interpreting "cultural systems"
(1973), to loosening this analytic notion (1983), to a heightened sense of
contingency visited on comparative hermeneutics "itself (1987, 1995).16
Taking
cues from Geertz himself, I ask not what "cultures" (or systems) are (or
were) but, rather, how they body forth palpably as enacted argument.
Clifford Geertz (billed as "C. G." on recent book jackets) used to use a recurring
titling device: "[You-name-it] as a Cultural System" (hereafter C.S.)--
"Religion," "Ideology," "Common Sense," "Art" (Geertz 1973: chs. 4, 8; 1983:
chs. 4, 5). An editor prone to overconformity might Gesammelt Geertz's
Shriften by retitling them into full "family resemblance," with each alias anno-
tated:
432 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
"Literature as a C.S." ("Found in Translation")
"Statecraft as a C.S." (Negara)
"Science as a C.S." ("The Way We Think Now")
"Chutzpah as a C.S." ("Centers, Kings, and Charisma")
"Agrarian Capitalism as a C.S." (Agricultural Involution)
"Law as a C.S." (Local Knowledge, part 3)
"Entrepreneurship as a C.S." (Peddlers and Princes)
"Nationalism as a C.S." ("After the Revolution ... ")
"Cultural Theory as a C.S." ("Thick Description")
" 'Thick Description' as a C.S." (Works and Lives)
"Cliff Geertz as a C.S., Interpreting Aforementioned C.S.s in Java/Bali/Morocco"
(After the Fact)11
To assuage postmodern readers put off by any inkling of "system," our cagey
editor could point out a legerdemain in the notion as Geertz "deploys" it: "Cultural
systems must have a minimal degree of coherence, else we would not call
them systems" (1973:17). Nor does Geertz essentialize cultures (rather, they are
"essentially contestable").18
Nor does he totalize theory. "Cultural theory . . . is
not its own master;. . . one cannot write a 'General Theory of Cultural Interpretation'
" (1973:25-26). "Religion," too, disquiets in Geertz, setting "ordinary
human experience in a permanent context of metaphysical concern and rais[ing]
the dim, back-of-the-mind suspicions that one may be adrift in an absurd world"
(1973:102).
Even normalized to "Whatnot as a C.S.," Geertz's Werke retain variegated
techniques for getting at--sometimes in self-conscious maladroitness--whatever
it is that cultural systems might be. My italics lightly pastiche (in the way
of Marcel Proust) Geertz's precepts of and for interpretation.19
To cite the genuine,
radically caveated article: "Yet so far, whatever has been learned about how
to get at the curve of someone else's experience and convey at least something
of it to those whose own bend quite differently has not led to much in the way of
bringing [different disciplines] into intersubjective connection" (Geertz
1983:156). I call this "face" of Geertz's style "authoritatively cursory"; and,
personally, I like it (a lot). Geertz's writing strikes me as standing--in that
American way of his--for the plurality of cultures as such. To show what I
mean, consider his interpretive tactics ("I will contain myself and refer, and that
briefly, to only three" [Geertz 1983:156]): (1) looping, (2) looking up, and (3)
symbolic "actioning."20
The first tactic involves looping. Religion (whatever it is) is gotten at by
Geertz hermeneutically (1973: ch. 4). Whenever teaching his famous article (it
debuted in 1966), I try imagining its "narrator" behind a pulpit, encouraging
readers to join in intoning a "text for the day"; namely (all together now),
Without further ado, then, a religion is: (1) a system of symbols which acts to (2)
establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivation in men by
(3)formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and (4) clothing these
conceptions with such an aura offactuality that (5) the moods and motivations
seem uniquely realistic. [Geertz 1973:90, emphasis in the original]
SHOWBIZ AS A CROSS-CULTURAL SYSTEM 433
Spiritedly unpacking each phrase's concatenation, Geertz apes a worthy homilitic
tradition. One might ape his aping (parody still being "the highest form of
praise" and all that) and replace religion with showbiz (absolutely no disrespect
intended: I happen to be religious, whatever that is). Doing so engenders the following
bastard:
With more ado to come, then, a showbiz is: (1) a glut of commoditized performances
enacted to (2) trade onfleetingimpulses and truancies in everyone anywise
gendered by (3) trafficking in intersensory illusionings of passing fancies
and (4) hitching these concoctions to so conspicuous a profit motive that (5) the
impulses and truancies seem repeatedly pleasurable . .. for their "15 minutes of
fame" at least, [absence of emphasis in my derivation]
A thoroughly postmodern pasticheur (which I happen not to be) could then loop,
or lurch, across comparative evidence of spectacle, entertainment, magic, and
carnival--cultural routines that concentrate punch lines, induce sensory satiety,
and play on, with, and against decorum. Such habits of transgression skewer
strictures of respectability and counter regimens of kinship, law, church, officialdom,
political watch groups, or other agencies of control. They may even
make a spectacle of their own infrastructure, seeming to bite the hand that feeds
(and monitors) them. (American showbiz examples here include digs at sponsors
by the sponsored: recently, K-Mart tweaked by Rosie O'Donnell or MTV's
advertisers [Coke, Bud] razzed by Neil Young; earlier, Bristol-Myers deflated
by Alfred Hitchcock [eventually "Sir"] and Lipton's oh-so-brisk tea [with bags
that "flow-through" too!] goaded by Arthur Godfrey--the most popular celebrity
on Earth when my outmoded consciousness of showbiz first emerged.
Times do change.)
A second interpretive tactic pursues "meaning" (sense and nonsense) by
looking things up, with winks, in dictionaries--various ones. Geertz's "Art as a
Cultural System" does so delightfully--and, perversely, not until its conclusion:
" 'Art,' says my dictionary, a usefully mediocre one, is 'the conscious production
of arrangement of colors, forms, movements, sounds or other elements
in a manner that affects the sense of beauty' " (1983:118). (Change "affects the
sense of beauty" to "gratifies the sense of consumer desire," and we pass from
art to showbiz; that is how close the two "systems" are, definitionally.) Another
"reference book containing words . . . alphabetically arranged" (I looked it
up--WNCD, s.v. "dictionary") adorns Geertz's address to the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences. It opens thusly," 'Thought,' says my dictionary (suitably
enough, given the nature of the occasion, the American Heritage), has two
primary meanings: . . . " (1983:147). Geertz, then, rifles dictionary diversity--mediocre
ones, legacy-laden ones, Sanskrit-in-Indonesia ones. His readers
learn that the familiar practice of "looking up" meaning is rather/remde (estranging),
when you really think "thoughts" about it. My essay has already tried
to convey as much when deciphering show business, which "cultural system"
seems less recondite than "art" but may, deeply, not be.
434 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Like Geertz, I applaud puncturing pretentious theory by tactical use of pedestrian
reference works. I also try to elevate lowdown terms of everyday life by
trespassing in upmarket compendia. Consider, then, several stray definitions
from the Oxford English Dictionary (OED, Compact Edition, Micrographically
Reproduced, s.v. "show")--which stately (though shrunken) tome sports no
show business (or--heaven forbid!--showbiz) per se:
A shew of gladiatorial pageantry; in more trivial [!] use: an exhibition of strange
objects, wild beasts, dancers, acrobats, etc. held usually in a booth or portable
building, with a small charge for admission; royal marriages and funerals; to display
one's cards face upwards; in Cockfighting, to make an array of (cocks) on
either side, (Obs.).
Unnnnncanny!!!!21
A third interpretive tactic in Geertz poses prose bugaboos for would-be
speed-readers. As if deviously to befuddle copy editors, he cobbles together
polybracketed speech acts of indirect discourse in multilayered, hyperallusive,
self-questioning argumentation tracked through comparative evidence. Like,
for instance:
Common sense seems to us what is left over when all these more articulated sorts
of symbol systems have exhausted their tasks, what remains of reason when its
more sophisticated achievements are all set aside. But if this is not so, if knowing
chalk from cheese, a hawk from a handsaw, or your ass from your elbow ("earthiness"
might well have been adduced as another quasi-quality of common sense) is
as positive an accomplishment, if perhaps not so lofty a one, as appreciating motets,
following a logic proof, keeping the Covenant, or demolishing capitalism--as
dependent as they are upon developed traditions of thought and
sensibility--then the comparative investigation of "the ordinary ability to keep
ourselves from being imposed upon by gross contradictions, palpable inconsistencies,
and unmask'd impostures" (as a 1726 "Secret History of the University of
Oxford" defined common sense) ought to be more deliberately cultivated. [Geertz
1983:92-93]
Prior to that second "sentence" (if you can call it that!), the essay explicates general
qualities of "common sense" rather patly: naturalness, practicalness, thinness,
accessibleness, immethodicalness. Yet Geertz remains alert to paradoxes
of thickly describing thinness and claiming expertise in worldwide plain speaking.
Indeed, he performs such paradoxes on the page (thaťs "symbolic action"
in Burke's [1966] sense).22
Spewing forth commonsense conventions and
cliches, Geertz entangles readers in persiflage that surely rivals Teutonic convolutions
in philosophy ("as a cultural system"). The cited sentence's rhetoric
shapes snippets of "practicalness" into verbiage manifestly interpretive--
semantically nuanced, eruditely qualified, hermeneutically looped: not very accessible
at all when you really get right down to, and dirty about, it.
I consider "Common Sense as a C.S.," adroitly alliterative, one of Geertz's
pivotal essays (1983: ch. 4). Its salute to Evans-Pritchard on "magic" may appease
E-P. buffs upset by "Slide Show" (Geertz 1987: ch. 3)--a spin-off from
SHOWBIZ AS A CROSS-CULTURAL SYSTEM 435
the common sense piece. There Geertz peruses Oxbridge styles of studious selfeffacement
that authorize expertise through understatement. The "of course discourse"
is Geertz's keen tag for litotes-laden implications that "it goes without
saying." Geertz both demystifies and illuminates Evans-Pritcharďs text building
(as do Karp and Maynard [1983])--both directly and indirectly. What I shall
tag "E-P. selon C. G." is depicted in Geertz's commentary through exaggerated
contrast:
The extreme simplicity and regularity of sub-sentence punctuation (as few commas
as possible, mechanically placed, and hardly any semicolons at all: readers
are expected to know when to breathe). . . . the related avoidance of clause embedding,
amounting almost to a phobia.. .. [t]he passion for simple subject-predicate-object
sentences, unmodified and undecorated, is intense. ... Though E-P
spoke at least French and Italian fluently, there are virtually no foreign phrases,
aside, of course, from native vernacular, in his ethnographic writings. Though he
was very broadly educated, literary allusions play little role . . . the absence of jargon,
anthropological or any other, is so nearly total as to seem ostentatious. The
only speech act of any frequency is the flat declarative. Quizzical interrogatives,
hedging conditionals, musing apostrophes simply don't appear. [1988:59]
Is this prose "aware" of capturing E-P.'s style antithetically--of caging it in
terms laden with the very markings E-P. eschewed? But of course. C. G.--virtuoso
in strewing commas, hedging conditionals, and proliferating semicolons--doubtless
here muses in ruses. Hail the conquering Geertz! (my apostrophe).
(According to professional pub talk, Evans-Pritchard met his maker in the
bathtub while reading Interpretation of Cultures; apocryphal or not, that anthropological
tale helps me dream that E-P.'s and C. G.'s styles might mutually appreciate
each other's differences--as C. G. does, I am persuaded, E-P.'s.)
Against the one's "studied air of unstudiedness" (Geertz on EvansPritchard)
stands the other's "gosh and gollyness"--a manner of clause embedding
amounting almost to a mania.23
1 once speculatively tied Geertz's "attitude"
(Burke 1987) to William James and other pragmatists (Boon 1982:138-141).24
I--also American, although differently--sympathize (culturally) with interpretive
slants toward relative hyperbole. Whence comes the present effort to direct
"you're putting me on discourse" toward transnational showbiz and the anthropology
thereof.
Hunches and Winks (a.k.a. Hypothesis)
In sum, three devices--looping without further ado, narratively looking
up, and symbolic actioning--animate Geertz's approach. They make "system"
contingent on media of argument and institutions of practice, even before his admonitions
against Grand Theory (1973). Later, to "defoundationalize" common
sense (not to mention "systems"), Geertz grew winkier about thin/thick distinctions
(1983). Yet possible winking was already part of "culture" in Geertz's
masterly commentary on theory that "is not its own master" (1973: ch. 1).
"Thick Description"--all about duplicities of sheep stealing, contrarily interpreted
436 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
by Jewish peddlers, Berber warriors, French proconsuls, colonialists, and anthropologists--adds
a haunting phrase: "Culture, this acted document, thus is
public, like a burlesqued wink" (Geertz 1973:10).
Agreed. But what about "culture" that winks again, culture like "like a burlesqued
wink"? What about scenes where as-if winks are themselves as-if? In
1973, Geertz had added, "The thing to ask about a burlesqued wink . . . is not
what [its] ontological status is. . . . The thing to ask is what [its] import is"
(1973:10). Likewise, I think, with burlesqued burlesqued winks: winky winks,
culture acted doubly doubly.
Geertzian winks (as thickly acted as they are described) may really be already
burlesqued burlesque; recall these insights:
But the point is that between what Ryle calls the "thin description" of what the rehearser
(parodist, winker, twitcher .. . ) is doing ("rapidly contracting his right
eyelids") and the "thick description" of what he is doing ("practising a burlesque
of a friend faking a wink to deceive an innocent into thinking a conspiracy is in
motion") lies the object of ethnography: a stratified [!] hierarchy of meaningful
structures [!] in terms of which twitches, winks, fake-winks, parodies, rehearsals
of parodies are produced, perceived, and interpreted, and without which they
would not (not even the zero-form twitches, which, as a cultural category, are as
much nonwinks as winks are nontwitches) in fact [!] exist, no matter what anyone
did or didn't do with his eyelids. [1973:7, exclamatory winks mine]
Few interpreters--"native," "nonnative," or in-between (hybrid?)--could outwink
that passage, which still deserves repeated reading, sometimes winking,
sometimes remembering having winked, or not. (Such rereading is a good simulacrum
of culture in part and in process.)25
Cultural realms do exist where criteria of wink versus nonwink (e.g.,
twitch) get kicked experientially upstairs, where nonstop burlesquing is expected.
Call it showbiz or something analogous. Might not such realms stage
their own "hard surfaces of life," "densely textured facts," "piled-up structures
of inference and implication," "bodied stuff" (Geertz 1973)? Yet the crux of interpretation
here is not "whether it sorts . . . real winks from mimicked ones,"
per "Thick Description" (Geertz 1973: ch. 1). Instead, hopes to sort blinks and
winks (and parodies of either) seem beside the point, more or less. I therefore
ask, What might a dutiful, unapologetic anthropology of "show businesses" resemble?
How do supposed thinness and routine elbow poking articulate with
other practices?26
Where, foursquare, might showbiz overlap with "deeper" life?
My stabs at answering these questions may exceed three (I haven't counted).
Even before the era of Demi Moore (a star I hate, along with her ex, only
him [Bruce Willis] more so), showbiz shared a feature of Geertz's "sacred symbols":
"Both what a people prizes and what it fears and hates are depicted in its
world view, symbolized in its religion . . .; its vices are as stylized as its virtues"
(1973:131). In showbiz, of course, distinctions between vice and virtue blur.
Come to think of it, they do so in many "a people's" religion or worldview.27
Yes, transgression looms large in religion as well--unethicized varieties, at
least (James 1958).
SHOWBIZ AS A CROSS-CULTURAL SYSTEM 437
In 1964, Geertz crisply opposed "science" (spare, restrained, diagnosticdisinterested)
to "ideology" (ornate, vivid, suggestive-engage'). Any science/ideology
dichotomy has itself since blurred--nowhere more vividly than
in Geertz, as metaphors of templates, maps, and matrixes have receded. Yet a
working contrast between so-called science and ideology ("justificatory apologetics")
remains helpful. Showbiz conspicuously avoids science's "tempered"
language; it embraces an ornateness associated with ideology: chock-full of
pun, paradox, hyperbole, ambiguity, analogy, rhythm, and irony (Geertz 1973:
209). As a "tentative hypothesis" (the only kind), I do declare showbiz "commercialized
experimentation in such style"--figurative practices in figurative
usages. Showbiz, my theory has it, delivers the trope and nothing but the
trope--for a fee. (Showbiz also delivers de trop [too much] and nothing but de
trop, still for a fee.) If "ideology" entails political "oversimplification" (hyped
and oversold), showbiz entails sensory exaggeration, also oversold. The two
discourses--ideology and showbiz--may "of course" dispute each other; they
may also, alas, abet each other.
Imagine, then, a Venn diagram partly converging showbiz with religion,
ideology, "art," and that cultural (anti)system Geertz artfully frames as "common
sense" (1983:78).28
Conventional appeals of and to "common sense" assume
a reality of brass tacks, unfussy experience, foibles and faiblesse (faintness),
earthy unpretentiousness, "going without saying." Yet, as Geertz portrays
it, any presumptive unfestoonedness is itself altogether figure laden and culturally
contingent. Amid the humdrum, too, human meaning proves circumstantially
relative: thaťs one profoundly philosophical punch of C. G.
Like common sense dicta (and not unlike bricoleurs), showbiz "makes
sense" from loose ends and bits: lingual bits (jokes), theatrical bits (routines),
musical bits (songs). Yet, unlike common sense, showbiz blatantly festoons; it
dresses up vernacular know-how to tweak pieties, deflate grandiosity, undercut
sanctimoniousness. Thus, like common sense, only flamboyantly, showbiz redeems,
or seems to, the irredeemably all-too-human stuck-in-the-mudness of
waging love and life and death and dearth and consumption. Its "stars" (human
bits--misfits and drifters elevated into celebrity) resemble us common
folk--recognizable but overblown--as Roger Caillois (1979) insists.29
But why
do I insist so again: "Said a scarecrow swingin' on a pole/To a blackbird sittin'
on afence, /Oh! the Lord gave me a soul/But forgot to give me common sense"
(Langleyetal. 1989:153).30
Singin' as if Sententiously (Pre-CD)
Consider just one American showbiz sector as a contrived case in point: Tin
Pan Alley, whose history--infrastructural, superstructural, legalistic, and lyrical--warrants
serious attention. The ethnic dimensions of interwar commercial
swing are too intricate to pursue here; but its poetics and politics--"shifting contours
of rangy melody" fashioned into an alternative mainstream aesthetic--
have been illuminated by Philip Furia:
438 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
The sensuous, vernacular ease . .. evolved from the Alley hybrid of sentimental
ballad, .. . ragtime "coon" song, [and] ... the growing popularity of the blues.
Songs .. . were published, recorded, and plugged over radio--a vehicle for "popularizing"
songs that quickly displaced older Alley methods [sheet music, piano
rolls, singing waiters in "resort" saloons]. Such "standardization" meant that...
"there is no way to tell, from listening to a song by Irving Berlin or... his contemporaries
[most of them immigrants, many Jewish], whether it was written for
vaudeville, musical comedy, the movies, or simply composed for radio play and
possible recording."
The perfect "voice" for wittily turned lyrics.. . balance[d] non-chalance and sophistication,
slang and elegance . .. ; lyricists usually tried to keep that voice androgynous,
for the simple reason that a song stood a better chance of becoming
popular if it could be performed and recorded by both male and female vocalists.
[1992:42-47, citing Hamm 1979]
It was a gybird (Russian for "hybrid") genre (French for "gender" and "genre")
to be sure (Bakhtin 1981:425)! Yet it was oh-so-down-to-earth--excepting drag
performers who sent up the androgyny imperative by chirping its rare exceptions:
" I . . . feel pretty . . ., enjoy being a girl," and so on.31
Tin Pan tunes toed a formulaic line: "saying I love you in thirty-two bars."
I propose to designate their gifted lyrics commonsense sententiousness set to
song--"capable of grasping the vast multifariousness of life in the world" in "a
potpourri of disparate notions" (Geertz 1983:91). Alley WeltanSCHAUung
boils down to and bubbles up in plucky resolve, deeply resigned shrugs, or practical
savvy: "You've Got to Ac-cent-tchu-ate the Positive," "Just One of Those
Things," "Diamonds Are a Girľs Best Friend." This "whole cast of mind" can
sound optimistic ("Things Are Looking Up") but usually feels "blue" (although
singing about it): "Am I Blue?" "Blues in the Night," "I Got a Right to Sing the
Blues" "The Birth of the Blues." And any Alley optimism may be feigned
("Keep Your Sunny Side Up," "Be a Clown")--always laughin' a little, cryin' a
little, lettin' the world go by a little.
There are, I hasten to add, downsides to this "brassy colloquial style" (Furia
1992:29)--especially when judged from trends in political correctitude.32
Lyrics
could be sexist ("Bess, You Is My Woman Now"), although sometimes not
("You Can't Get a Man with a Gun"). They were often egregiously racist ("All
Coons Look Alike to Me" and hundreds more) but not always; as Furia observes,
Some . .. barely sound like "coon" songs at all; only if one listens carefully to the
. . . words of the verse (or sees the original sheet music, adorned with grotesque
racist caricatures) does their heritage emerge. Yet their vernacular idiom, their
comic touches, their passionate flair breathed fresh air into Tin Pan Alley. "Hello,
Ma Baby" (1899), for example, refreshes the standard telephone greeting by "ragging"--reversing--the
verbal accent against the musical beat: not the normal
"Hel-/o" but "Hel-\o, my baby." Equally refreshed are the cliches of romance
when they are couched in ... wry slang . .. unthinkable in a sentimental ballad.
[1992:28-29]
Moreover, though often racist and sometimes sexist, Tin Pan Alley deserves
congratulating for an aversion to "classist" prejudice, which is archly mocked
SHOWBIZ AS A CROSS-CULTURAL SYSTEM 439
("Puttin' on the Ritz"). Yes, such snobbery as existed in Tin Pan Alley was
largely reverse. "Puttin' on" the Ritz, among other airs and postures, became a
mainstay of "standards" that displayed (or pretended to) everyday slogans of
personal resilience, so to overthrow the hoity-toity.
A list of attributes of Alley ethos (with illustrative songs thrown in) might
run as follows:
Down and out ("Brother, Can You Spare a Dime," "Ten Cents a Dance")
Lonely ("I Ain't Got Nobody," "I'm Through with Love")
Lonely and soused ("One for My Baby")
Lonely and resurgent ("The Man That Got Away")
Archaically hortatory ("Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes")
Alliterative ("Bye-Bye Blackbird," "Chattanooga Choo-Choo")
Ultra-alliterative ("Begin the Beguine")
Fetishistic ("I Love a Piano")
Caveated ("It Ain't Necessarily So")
As-if regional ("When That Midnight Choo-Choo Leaves for Alabam")
Truly provincial and fantasizing ("New York, New York . . . if you can make it
there ... ," "Manhattan . .. into an isle of joy")
Interarts ("That Opera Rag," "Hooray for Hollywood," "Lullaby of Broadway")
Intermusic ("Play a Simple Melody / Musical Rag ... ")
Inframusic ("Say It with Music")
Vague ("Somebody Loves Me")
Calculating ("I Found a Million Dollar Baby in a Five and Ten Cent Store")
"Veiled" ("You Do Something to Me," "Leťs Do It")
Metonymic ("Side by Side")
Metaphoric ("Life Is Just a Bowl of Cherries")
Subjective ("I Wish I Were in Love Again")--AND SUBJUNCTIVE!
Objective ("It Had to Be You")
Hyperbolic ("Too Marvelous for Words," "Love Is a Many Splendored Thing,"
"I'll Build a Stairway to Paradise")
Understated (rare) ("You're Getting to Be a Habit with Me")
Maussian ("Something's Gotta Give")
Marxist ("Lydia the Tatooed Lady")
All of the above, except "Marxist" ("There's No Business like Show Business")33
Evidently, like other such "systems" (stretching the point), Tin Pan Alley could
be iconoclastic, wry, and parodic. But what did its ragged refrains contest? They
obviously "othered" pious sentimentalism of unsyncopated surge--that sweet
melodiousness that Tin Pan tunesmiths and rhymesters liked to jive and razz.
Yet Alleyists did more than just "diss" genres of song story (e.g., "After the
Ball") that they aimed to render obsolete. Also tweaked were the very tactics
their own new style paraded ("Makin' Whoopee," "I Feel a Song Coming On").
At its best, this little bit of showbiz--again, commonsense sententiousness set to
song, I call it--stumbled into generous irony, what Kenneth Burke once called
"humble irony" or "true irony": an irony that does not feel "superior to the enemy"
but is "based upon a sense of fundamental kinship with the enemy,. . . indebted"
(1962:514).34
So! If "Tin Pan culture" could be truly humbly "ironic" in Burke's usage,
might the same hold true for other brands and elsewhere? If not, then "I don't
440 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
care . . . "; indeed, if not, "leťs call the whole thing [namely, this essay's half
hopes for truly humble irony across cultures] off." If so, then Geertz's case for
"common sense as a (defoundational) cultural system," among others, is
strengthened. Assuming the latter, more upbeat, possibility, I now pursue Tin
Pan Alley's global aftermaths--or one of them anyway.
The Same Showbiz? Rushdie's/Mordden VMine . . . (I. A.)
In Dorothy's intro to "Ding, Dong," Harburg embarked on a pyrotechnic display of
A-A-A rhymes (the wind began to switch/the house topitch; until at length we meet
the witch /a-thumbin' for a hitch; and what happened then was rich . . . ) , a series
in which, as with a vaudeville barker's alliterations, we cheer each new rhyme as a
sort of gymnastic triumph [without, I'd add, a glitch].
--Salman Rushdie, The Wizard ofOz
If we are to believe Salman Rushdie's lively little book, The Wizard ofOz
(1992b), he first saw that 1939 American movie of movies in Bombay (India)
long about 1956--soon before penning his initial short story, "Over the Rainbow."
A couple of years earlier, I--Rushdie's senior by a year--first saw in
Rome (Georgia, USA) A Star Is Born (1954), in what decades later was exposed
as a studio-mutilated release of George Cukor's original. My compatriot contemporaries
may recall that Judy Garlanďs breakthrough musical of 1939 recirculated
little in its homeland; after less than boffo box office, it was banished to
markets even more backwater than Georgia--that is, foreign ones. Born both
too late and too early, U.S. moviegoers of my vintage encountered Garlanďs
next-to-swan song musical of 1954--a remade melancholy ode to showbiz--before
ever witnessing her initial "emergence" into the freshness of stardom that
only a transitory escape to Oz could convey. (Some years after 1954, the 1939
classic began recycling on TV--too late and manifestly too little, or small. As I
write, a digitalized restoration is back on the big screen, pending its video resurrection
timed, no doubt, to promote HDTV.)
Comparatively and culturally, then, my generation's "native" spectating of
Garland (a quintessential showbiz legend) occurred in reverse sequence (first A
Star Is Born, then The Wizard of Oz) from showbiz history's actual happening.
Not so Rushdie's. As a ten year old, the future author of Midnighťs Children
(1980), The Satanic Verses (1989), and so on witnessed "innocently" what his
Oz book recalls as an incomparably fresh Garlanďs "hymn to Elsewhere"--a
song that inspired his first story and was later appropriated to his theme of exile
(the very condition this gifted novelist today so famously personifies). Preadolescent
moviegoers in mid-1950s America experienced instead Garlanďs
utterly seasoned (yet no less inspired) "Man That Got Away"--Ira Gershwin's
last out-and-out hit lyric. At the time (still 1954) of CinemaScope's dawning,
this number became the most elaborate technological "take" in the history of human
performance--an utterly intimate song shot in the ultimately spectacular
medium.35
(Spectacular intimacy has been key to Hollywood showbiz since its
inception, circa 1911, in what was then "Holly[hyphen)Wood").
SHOWBIZ AS A CROSS-CULTURAL SYSTEM 441
I know not whether or when A Star Is Born (Garlanďs version came after
the Janet Gaynor "original" [1937] and before the Streisand rehash [1976], and
all derived from the nonsinging What Price Hollywood [ 1932]) opened in Bombay.
Perhaps Rushdie had already emigrated and caught it in London; or he may
have missed it altogether. But thaťs show business: shifty. Regardless, Rushdie
claims he started down the green-tile road of writing Sufi Islam-offending
works (including Menippean satire, a routinely convention-shattering genre) after
an epiphanal encounter with U.S. merchandise.36
Or so he narrates in his British
Film Institute (BFI) volume, garlanded with photos (both color and black
and white), stills, publicity shots, and freeze-frames from video viewings--
festoons of our hypertext age.
It is a captivating little book, if a bit salacious for classroom consumption
by old-fashioned standards. I, for one, would blush to assign the following:
It is necessary that I speak about my cousin Gail, and her habit of moaning loudly
while making love. My cousin Gail--let me be frank--is the love of my life, and
even now that we have parted I can't forget the pleasure I derived from her noisiness.
I hasten to add that except for this volubility there was nothing abnormal
about our lovemaking, nothing, if I may put it thus, fictional. Yet it satisfied me
deeply, especially when she cried out at the moment of penetration, "Home boy!
Home, baby--you've come home!" One day, however, I came home to find her in
the arms of a hairy escapee from a caveman movie. [1992b:61]
Part 2 of Rushdie's petit livre ("At the Auction of the Ruby Slippers") brims
with buzz--brilliant, perhaps, but nowadays predictable. Yes, Rushdie busily,
buzzily inscribes sexual release through once avant-garde-seeming devices--toys,
gender bendings, and "digitalizations"--with dashes of drugs for
good measure. The book's last line--"Did I mention my love for my cousin
Toto?"--may be playing catch-up innuendo with randy rumors, rather puerile,
about "Rosebud" in Citizen Kane (1941) (Hearsťs pet name for Marion
Davies's private parts?). However, my quirky hunch here is hard to reconcile
with Rushdie's line early in part 1, where he is still writing in as-if remembrance
of being ten: "/ couldn't stand Toto. I still can't" (1992b: 17). Truly, this is a
mysterious little book.
Ironically, it has since turned out, there was little buzz in The New Yorker
version of this same book. I say ironically because Rushdie's piece appeared
(May 11, 1992) just six months before Tina Brown, self-appointed queen of
buzz, took charge at The New Yorker, she would hardly have been phased by
cousin Gail (or even Toto), so construed, screwed, and flaunted. But in Rushdie's
"older New Yorker" piece, we find (instead of his BFI version's showily
cynical part 2) a suspiciously sentimental tail for the only part included:
In the place from which I began, after all, I watched the film from the
chilďs--Dorothy's--point of view. I experienced, with her, the frustration of being
brushed aside by Uncle Henry and Auntie Em Even the shock of discovering
that the wizard was a humbug was a shock I felt as a child, a shock to the chilďs
faith in adults... .
442 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Now, as I look at the movie again, I have become the fallible adult. Now I am a
member of the tribe of imperfect parents who cannot listen to their children's
voices. I, who no longer have a father, have become a father instead. Now it is my
fate to be unable to satisfy the longings of a child. And this is the last and most terrible
lesson of the film: that there is one final, unexpected rite of passage. In the
end, ceasing to be children, we all become magicians without magic, exposed conjurers,
with only our simple humanity to get us through.
We are the humbugs now. [1992a: 103]
Personally, I like this wrap-up: sentimentality isn't all bad, is it? (A father wants
to know.) But my point is that the BFI volume lacks it; substituted for admirably
expressed (I feel) regrets de parente are scenes of screwing cousin Gail.
I stoop to speculation: Perhaps Rushdie devised an "unexpurgated version"
to rebuff the then-dowdy (he might have felt) bastion of literate propriety. Regardless,
by the time his book gained international circulation, The New Yorker
had mutated into a genre equally open to salaciousness. Toto's (and Tina's) revenge?
This, too, as mentioned earlier, is show business: pushing, always pushing,
that envelope of embarrassment.
To repeat, I'm only speculating and really don't know (more showbiz!).
Yet textual evidence persuades me that The New Yorker version came after the
BFI one: (1) quotations in the magazine are accurate, those in the book often not;
(2) certain mots justes--for example, the Wicked Witch as "hydrophobic"--do
not appear in the book (who would want to delete them?); and (3) Wizzovawizz
(correct in The New Yorker) is misspelled Wizzavawizz in the book.37
To have
composed the book second would make Rushdie's tricky work trickier
still--worthy of the wizard (or a wily assemblager), so to speak.
Have I mentioned that I really don't know? Yet I dofeel that there is worth
in Rushdie's more gingerly commentary, especially his fleet attention to Garlanďs
vocalizing when he seeks to correct a simplistic gloss on the movie:
Anybody who has swallowed the scriptwriters' notion that this is a film about the
superiority of "home" over "away," that the "moral" of The Wizard of Oz is as
sickly-sweet ["sentimental" in The New Yorker] as an embroidered sampler--"East,
West, home's best"--would do well to listen to the yearning in Judy
Garlanďs voice, as her face tilts up towards the skies. What she expresses here,
what she embodies with the purity of an archetype, is the human dream of leaving,
a dream at least as powerful as its countervailing dream of roots. At the heart of
The Wizard of Oz is a great tension between these two dreams; but as the music
swells and that big, clean voice flies into the anguished longings of the song, can
anyone doubt which message is the stronger? [1992b:23]
Rushdie here rhetorically doubts that anyone can doubt the priorities he hears;
yet I shall do so momentarily. Rushdie then goes on to argue that something in
this cultural form--this film--is unarguable:
In its most potent emotional moment, this is unarguably a film about the joys of
going away, of leaving the greyness and entering the color, of making a new life in
the "place where there isn't any trouble" [corrected in The New Yorker to "place
where you won't get into any trouble"]. "Over the Rainbow" is, or ought to be, the
SHOWBIZ AS A CROSS-CULTURAL SYSTEM 443
anthem of the worlďs migrants, all those who go in search of the place where "the
dreams that you dare to dream really do come true." It is a celebration of Escape,
a grand paean to the Uprooted Self, a hymn--the hymn--to Elsewhere.
[1992b:23]
Perhaps--but certainly, I shall argue, not unarguably!
Rushdie's broadly thematic rendering seems salient to the fate of a showbiz
perennial in diverse sectors: (1) its eventual reception as a children's classic, (2)
its place at the top of movie musical arts, (3) its centrality to marketing ongoing
reappropriations in popular culture, (4) its status in gay iconology, and (5) its
centrality to hybrid genres of commodified fantasy. Such cults, enterprises,
"communities," and enthusiasms join Rushdie in dreaming of escape (versus exile)
elsewhere (versus everywhere); they prefer routes over roots, to pinch an
auditory pun.38
But ought something as culturally complex as sung song be patly appropriated,
even for causes (some of them worthy indeed) associated with (1) a meditative
exile's hope (in The New Yorker), (2) generations of movie-mad children's
delight, (3) a Hollywood genre's promotional zenith, (4) a sexual
preference's politics of identity, (5) a commercial nation's mythology, or (6) a
banished satirisťs buzz (in the BFI volume)? Setting aside these important concerns,
an alternative (comparative-interpretive) question beckons: Has Rushdie
listened attentively enough to Garland, as he narrratively reimagines her (when
he was ten)? Or, to load the critical dice, does Rushdie remember hearing Garlanďs
voice (in Bombay) as more innocent than it by then sounded "elsewhere"
(e.g., in A Star Is Born) or even than it had sounded in 1939, when she first sang
the bloody ballad?
I am only asking. Yet doing so reminds me of another listener, one who also
wrote about Judy Garland in The New Yorker--just two short years before Rushdie,
who fails, however (in either version of his Oz) to cite him. Ethan Mordden's
works engage diverse music and drama from Broadway, opera, movie
land, the recording industry, and more.39
Well known to Mordden are "scenes"
keen on the The Wizard ofOz: (1) Hollywood studios, (2) Manhattan advertisers,
(3) gay communities, (4) cross-generational marketing magnates, and (5)
popular music revivalists. But in 1990 Mordden managed to address Garlanďs
aura--this distinctive apotheosis of certain showbiz potential--without subjecting
her voice, or her, to special interest agendas.
Mordden's "I Got a Song" (1990a) graces the final flowering of an earlier
New Yorker, before that rag, too, went definitively buzzy. His essay inscribes heard
song and witnessed performance with exemplary exactitude, worth emulating:
Garland is ageless. That she will ever become a curio or an antique seems unlikely,
. . . partly because of her extraordinary singing style, so individual yet so uneccentric.
.. . Garland happened onto a scene--the American movie musical--that had
not quite decided what was reputable in its musical style. The movies, never having
recovered from their origin as inexpensive recreation for workers and immigrants,
eternally sought redemption in Broadway stars, venerable novels, eminent
writers--and opera. [1990a: 112-118]
444 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
It takes exceeding attentiveness to specifics of hybrid genres, spectacles, and
styles to convey the power of transgressive "monstrosity":
How do we account for the stupendous performance of "Broadway Rhythm" that
[Garland] presented on the radio on October 26, 1935, just eleven days after her
Metro contract was legally ratified?. .. The Nacio Herb Brown-Arthur Freed
song is about the intoxicating power of American show biz, about how the whole
nation participates in the elemental vigor of our music.. . .In 1935, of course, Garland
was not perceived as an emblem of show-biz culture; she was perceived as
young. .. . But she was the only kid who sang with the timbre and temperament of
an adult. [Mordden 1990a:l 18-119]
Mordden figures her breakthrough came three years before "Over the Rainbow"--not
from a "big, clean" voice but from its contaminated plurality and va-
riety:
In June, 1936, she tackled "Stompin' at the Savoy" and "Swing, Mr. Charlie." ...
On this innocent-looking Decca black-label 78, two innocuous tuneful melodies
take on status as calls to arms in the war to replace Mr. Mendelssohn with Mr.
Charlie. Note the allusion to the black world view: swing is part black, and Garland
contains multitudes. That smile in the voice--well, one would simply be born
with that. But where did she get the wonderful broadening on "band" in
How my heart is singin'
While the band is swingin',
which virtually sites the Savoy for us--ballroom, orchestra, dancing host, and all?
Who taught her the metropolitanized rural drawl of her "Mistuh Chahlie"? It
sounds seditious. [1990a: 120]
This background (back sound?) can help us reread the grain of Garlanďs
"Rainbow" and its movie--whose contradictions and reversals seem almost
"cultural," even "dialectical." Hear now how Mordden--quite the ethnographer,
I would say--listens and sees:
By 1939 and "the Wizard of Oz," Metro had put Garland over as a major star and
personality. Oddly, the studio reversed itself on Garlanďs musical identity in
"The Wizard." After all that insistence on swing, suddenly she is singing soft and
square: "Over the Rainbow," and some patter on the death of the Wicked Witch of
the East and the charms of the Emerald City. At casting time, she was to have
played out another of her sweet-or-hot swingdowns, like the "I like opera" / "I like
swing" challenge number she performs with Betty Jaynes in "Babes in Arms." On
the "Wizard" casting sheet, Garland is listed as "An Orphan in Kansas who sings
jazz" and Jaynes as "The Princess of Oz, who sings opera." Jaynes' character
never made it into the shooting script. [1990a: 120]
Mordden implies (or nearly--I am "reading-in" willingly) that something seditious
emerges even in Garlanďs "soft and square" Dorothy. This aspect of her
voice joins its other "multitudes" and may add ambiguous resonance in the Wizarďs
home/elsewhere: "See Garlanďs delighted enthusiasm at being the heroine
of a place where the natives are three feet high and squeak, or watch her very
nearly break up at Bert Lahr's bully spoof seventy seconds or so into his first
SHOWBIZ AS A CROSS-CULTURAL SYSTEM 445
scene. She isn't uprooted in Oz. She isn't even a tourist. She's just extraordinarily
welcome" (Mordden 1990a: 125). Mordden savors the film's deceptive messages
and irresolvable dilemmas: "Consider the irony: at home, she cannot get
what she wants; in Oz, she can get what she wants, but what she wants is to get
home" (1990a: 126). What, then, becomes of Rushdie's elsewhere in this plot or
in its "hymn"? Just as Garlanďs signature number folds back into her voice's
prior incarnations, so The Wizard of Oz portends successive turns of a life in
showbiz. As Mordden exclaims, "What an all-encompassing role for Garland to
play on her emergence as a movie star! This, clearly, is what launched her as a
permanent citizen of American culture" (1990a: 126).
That Garlanďs launching in turn launched Rushdie on an out-of-synch career--toward
global renown, seemingly permanent exile, and excruciatingly
ambivalent ties to Islam--is a telling twist of "showbiz as a cross-cultural system."
Accordingly, Mordden's style of relistening goes beyond recollecting a
first hearing; he helps us experience ever anew "Over the Rainbow," among
other showbiz standards. "Listen . . . again," insists Mordden: "Iťs not a dirge.
Iťs a wish that comes true" (1990a: 128). I think Mordden means true in and as
the song. As he later observes, accurately and with affect, "Garlanďs biography
is songs"--which is to say, the life is showbiz:
If Garlanďs gift is to reintroduce us to the very purpose of our [American] popular
music, to teach us what exhilaration lies under our noses, then, surely, the recognition
of that gift should involve her hitting it big in show biz. . . .
By proxy, she takes us all to stardom, showing us the self-esteem you develop
from performing as well as Judy Garland performs. [1990a: 138,137]
But--an anthropologist wants to know--can such stunning effects cross cultures,
and might Mordden's reading help us interpret them "systematically"?
Possibly. Rushdie may have responded to Garland less as a hymnodist to elsewhere
than as a proxy showing him his way to self-esteem--performing satirical
prose that, like her voice, "contains multitudes."
But I may well be guilty here of ethnocentrism (or jingoism) and anachronism
to boot. Like Rushdie, Mordden is (I assume) near my age; and both Mordden
and I (still assuming) carry U.S. passports. Our national generation, having
experienced A Star Is Born first, inclines to detect worldly wizenedness even in
Garlanďs trademark song--the one Rushdie remembers (or pretends to remember)
as clear and strong: an anthem. For adult Rushdie-in-exile, that explicit culmination
of The Wizard of Oz ("There's no place like home") conveys implicitly:
"There's no place like elsewhere." But notice the ambiguity: his translation
may mean either "Elsewhere is better than here" or "Elsewhere does not exist
(elsewhere is better than anywhere)."
That irony stipulated, I add that "There's no place like home" is similarly
ambiguous. Listen again, as Mordden might, to "There's no place like home,
there's no place like home, there's no place like home." And try to hear in Garlanďs
"commonsense" speaking a resonant echo of her singing: it may start to
sound as plenitudinous as Rushdie's pluralist prose--and as alienated.*°
446 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Methodological Coda, with Clowning Conclusion (Finis)
There is more than one way to skin showbiz as a cross-cultural "system"
(make that "genre"). One could triangulate select cases--say, ludruk (proletarian
drama) in Java (Peacock 1987), commercial magic in India (Siegel 1991),
and stage revues in imperialist Japan (Robertson 1995). One would simultaneously
disclose meanings at play in transgressive performances and their interpretations:
(1) rites of modernization in Peacock's ethnography, (2) marketed illusionism
in Siegeľs apprenticeship, and (3) gender-bending theatricality in
Robertson's critique. As with any approach, there are drawbacks: contrastive
hermeneutics often neglects temporal process and can make each case seem selfcontained.
By way of corrective, one could try covering connected "performats":
add to Peacock on ludruk, say, Sumarsam (1995) on gamelan, Keeler
(1987) and Mrazek (1999) on wayang (shadow puppet theater), and Pemberton
(1994) on Javanese political theater; or explore intersections of Java/Bali, India,
and Japan over odd eras and epistemes--for example, Indonesia's early "Hinduization,"
its Islamic and colonialist transformations, its theosophical and philological
enterprises, its occupation by Japan, or its nationalist and postcolonialist
twists, turns, and devastations. One's reading can attempt to crisscross
some such circumstances (see Boon 1990), but intricacies of "hybrid histories"
may swamp interpretation. Limited triangulation a la Geertz affords a practicable
approach, one more immune to the impossible lure of overall understanding.
That is why his slant on "cultural systems" arguably qualifies as a "standard" (in
a sense here drawn from popular song).
Other sorts of showbiz sleuth engage in "cultural studies" of gender, race,
class, and sexual preference. Showbiz and gender lead straight (orcurvaciously)
to burlesque; showbiz and race forefront "blackface" and its jammin' aftermaths;
any high/low distinctions bring in class; and sundry genres affect crossdressing,
which figures in diverse identities, including "gay." (Showbiz, an
ideal type, always infringes on other "systems"; nothing cultural is ever discrete.)
These, too, are feasible projects, with exciting results and prospects.41
However, standard denunciations of racism, sexism, classism, and homophobia
often bypass ("like ships in the night," a commonsense adage has it) ironies of
comparative practice. Too-snug convictions of identity (or hybridity!) wind up
reinforcing new cliches (Boon 1990: ch. 7, 1998, 1999).42
I desire mixed modes as well: neither cultural interpretation (localized
comparisons, triangulated) nor cultural studies (globalized critique, routing
prejudice)--or perhaps some of both and then some. The present essay has thus
encountered and enacted showbiz situations both critically and apologetically
(per the opening epigraph) by tuning in capitalist processes engulfing us all. It
tries to display how "the show business" (1) shifts across eras, as periodicized;
(2) slides among media that multiply; and (3) straddles worlds themselves wavering
(e.g., nations, diasporas, home life). My shifting, sliding, and straddling
segments traffic in commodified genres of dictionary definitions, circus exhibitions,
and exilic commemorations--showbiz all and seriously so.
SHOWBIZ AS A CROSS-CULTURAL SYSTEM 447
Certain "cultural systems"--neither localized, quite, nor globalized, exactly
(nor for that matter altogether systematic)--crisscross each other and cultures
as well (whether Rushdie's, Mordden's, yours, or mine). To telegraph that
message--and to harmonize "one last time" circus and song, Garland and
Geertz, knowledge and show--I close with a lasting coincidence of generic
blur: Tin Pan Alley devolved in part from Barnum's celebrated style of enterprise.
Just listen:
Nat,. . Austin was a singing clown, for before the advent of vaudeville, the phonograph,
movies, radio, and television, it was the circus clown who introduced
America's popular music. Such tunes as "Turkey in the Straw" .. . and "The Man
on the Flying Trapeze" were sold in the circus tent. Indeed vaudeville was founded
by a former singing clown, Tony Pastor. .. . The last of the singing clowns was
William Burke (1845-1906), a headliner with Barnum and Bailey in the 1880s,
whose daughter Billie played Glinda the Good Witch in The Wizard ofOz. Singing
clowns often led the crowd in a singalong. .. . Other.. . greats were .. . Chas. Abbott,
"Shakespearean jester" .. . and Dan Rice, nicknamed "the Boss" long before
Bruce Springsteen. [Culhane 1990:74]43
Yes siree! Ladies and gentlemen, and you plebeian customers, too, "singing
clowns" lived figuratively on, even in New Jersey (Springsteen's native land).
Tin Pan Alley--cross-culturally constituted (e.g., Russian Jews) and otherwisecross-culturally
received (e.g., Rushdie's reviews)--was but one brand of display
earlier promoted by Phineas Taylor Barnum. Moreover, everyday commercial
culture may merit contemplating in a winking way here derived in part from
Clifford James Geertz. In cosmopolitan showbiz and comparative interpretation
alike, American "composers" have occasionally led the global crowd.
And non-Americans have too; consider an alternative coincidence from
1887:
Who will sing a song for us, a morning song, so sunny, so light, so fledged that it
will not chase away the blues but invite them instead to join in the singing and
dancing. . . . Is that your pleasure, my impatient friends? Well then, who would
not like to please you? [Nietzsche 1974:348]
Yep. In Die frohliche Wissenschaft (The Gay Science), Nietzsche, too--an
Emerson enthusiast, who loved to read Mark Twain (out loud!)--joined our
figurative caveating chorus of singing clowns swr-viving--transnationally.44
Indeed, and really concluding this time, an Iranian Ayatollah arguably augmented
Salman Rushdie's celebrity-cwm-notoriety, but an American starlet (apparently)
inspired him to compose works authorizing multiple voices of doubt.
By proxy he takes us all to exile. The same, "of course," could be sung of Barnum's
always ambiguous "show business." Gosh and golly, a wizzova-crosscultural-biz
itiz!
448 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Notes
Acknowledgments. Special thanks go to Dan Segal for considering an unconventional
piece, to the anonymous readers for generous comments, and to Lauri Veverka for
arduous editing. My debt to the works and lives this essay engages is conspicuous. Less
obvious (and too numerous to list) are contributions by Princeton students, staff, colleagues,
and family. Ivan Karp, Bobby Paul, and others at Emory and Ron Toby, Matti
Bunzel, David Prochaska, Ed Bruner, and others at Illinois gave this project a hearing; I
am also grateful to Ben Lee, Ackbar Abbas, and many more at Hong Kong.
1. Interpretation of tourism and travel has coalesced around MacCannell (1989,
1992). For subtle insights about authenticity, see works by Price and Price (1992) and
Dening (1996) and sources cited in Boon 1999:288 n. 51, 291 n. 10.
2. On Barnum, see especially Harris 1973 and Kunhardt 1995. One successor to
Barnum in making humbug and faith the heart of America's commercial culture was L.
Frank Baum (see Leach 1993). Barnum's significance for anthropology figures in Boon
1999:17,117,129-131.
3. Such exhibits have been extensively addressed in cultural studies of racism, sexism,
and homophobia; see cogent treatments in Apter and Pietz 1993 and Gilman 1985.
4. For an overview of sources on Harlem and other New York districts, see
Douglas 1995.
5. "Demimondes" hook up with established capital and not just in Paris: for recent
cases from America's music scene, see Lanza 1994; for earlier ones, see Burrows and
Wallace 1999.
6. Brantlinger (1983) presents pros and cons of seeing mass culture as "decay"; see
also Narremore and Brantlinger 1991.
7. This hunch is hatched in Boon 1999: chs. 6,12,13.
8. Malinowski (1935) explores fully Trobriand "meaning-as-use"; on Wittgenstein,
see Monk 1990. On profuse signifiance hitched to diverse language games (including
Boasian ones), see Boon 1997,1998,1999: ch. 6. See also Kristeva 1980.
9. To celebrate dictionary circularity, read Kenner 1974. "Vivian Darkbloom" decodes
readily in my next paragraph.
10. On reticulations of commodity fetiche as idea and practice, see Apter and Pietz
1993. Or sniff and slurp Sears's new line of "Fetish" lip covers, body gels, phone soaps,
and "fat boy" mascaras--worth an essay. Again, "fetish" is fetishized (exponentially) in
both theory and the marketplace. Which outruns which?
11. Issues of desire per Deleuze (1993), de Certeau (1984), and so on--along with
issues of culture as symbolically constituted (Sahlins 1976)--are revisited in Boon
1999:170-173, passim. To encounter 2izek reencountering Lacan, try 2izek 1991; on
Bataille, see Botting and Wilson 1998.
12. On show windows (commodities behind glass) and capitalist desire, see Leach
1993, a brilliant study of U.S. business culture. On ambivalence about everyday American
"consumer rites," see Schmidt 1995. On Showboat, see Kreuger 1977 or recent studies
of Kern's masterwork's revivals.
13. On gambling as a motive force in ritual, exchange, and social transgression, see
Bataille 1997, Caillois 1979, and Mauss 1990. In talks at Emory University and the University
of Illinois, I connected showbiz to capitalism's "thrilling liquidity" by screening
a 1930 film short, starring Ethel Merman--in Reno, tossing dice, about to get divorced,
and singing about it. Luckily, the couple patched things up.
14. A notion of "culture-as-paradox" is directed toward renewed ideas of hybridity
in Boon 1998.
SHOWBIZ AS A CROSS-CULTURAL SYSTEM 449
15. Related issues can be reviewed by leafing back through the run of Cultural Anthropology
or another favorite journal. On values of "everydayness," see Abrahams
1986 and de Certeau 1984; on rethinking high/low distinctions in arts and ethnography,
see Levine 1988, Marcus and Myers 1995, Seabrook 1999, Turner and Bruner 1986, and
Varnedoe and Gopnik 1991.
16. The secondary literature on Geertz's work, most recently Ortner 1999, is too
extensive to consider here; see also Boon 1982:108,137-147.
17. The 11 sources in the order listed are Geertz 1983: ch. 2, 1980, 1983: ch. 7,
1983: ch. 6, 1963a, 1983: part 3, 1963b, 1973: ch. 9,1973: ch. 1,1987, and 1995. More
recent essays are just appearing (Geertz 2000).
18. W. B. Gallie (1968) on "essentially contestable" is cited in Geertz 1973:29; the
notion is amplified in Boon 1977:185.
19. Prousťs Pastiches et melanges (1919) teaches us to read by imitating style; this
tactic pervades Proust (e.g., 1984), hardly postmodern! Pasticcio refers as well to an
18th-century operatic art that has flourished less since (see Mackay 1994).
20. I adapt a notion of "actioning" from Burke 1966, in which "symbolic action"
becomes a way to read.
21. My outburst stems from the coincidence of the OED with Geertz (1973: ch.
15); see Boon 1977:31-34. On different Freudian and Nabokovian senses of uncanny--a
recognizable experience in everyday life and reading--see Boon 1999: chs. 4,
6. Cockfights were presented as "entertainment" as far back as ancient Greece at the foot
of the Acropolis.
22. On Burke's "symbolic action" as "processive writing," see Boon 1999:3-9,
285 n. 5, n. 6, 291 n. 28.
23. I intend "gosh and gollyness" as a conspicuous Americanism; Ruth Benedict,
too, liked her cultures so in-credible that we can only, or nearly, believe (in) them (see
Boon 1990:190).
24. On philosophies of exaggeration in truth, see Boon 1999:xiv, 7-9, 87, 128,
179-182.
25. On "rereading" as a simulacrum of cultural processes, see Boon 1999: ch. 1,
passim.
26. Geertz has broached the "deeper" side of showy social life: Bali's cockfights
(1973: ch. 15) and theatrical statecraft in Bali (1980) and in Java, Europe, Morocco, and
U.S. elections (1983: ch. 6). He salutes Dideroťs theatre, with its homage to le genre
serieux, in an opening epigraph (1983:vii). He addresses popular culture in Java (cassettes,
high school variety shows, some tourism)--perhaps reluctantly (1990). How to
take apparent superficiality seriously (and playfully), whether or not steeped in political
tragedy, remains a challenge.
27. Nonethicized religion and undogmatic rites are venerable topics in anthropology,
as in Radin's (1972) work on trickster figures. One way to tackle nonmoralistic
practices is by interpreting habits of laughter--a profoundly complicated bodily (and
spiritual) activity. (I have play on this venerable and vexed topic in progress [or should
I say regress?].)
28. Local Knowledge (Geertz 1983) could also be titled Colloquial Reason and/or
Vernacular Wisdom. The "Common Sense" essay and "Ideology as a Cultural System"
(1973: ch. 8) are to my mind two of Geertz's plums.
29. In a work first published in 1958 as Lesjeux and les hommes, Caillois
generalizes,
450 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
The star symbolizes success personified, victory and recompense for the crushing and sordid inertia
of daily life... . One also imagines such a career to be somewhat suspicious, impure, or irregular.
The residue of envy underlying admiration does not fail to see in it a triumph
compounded of ambition, intrigue, impudence, and publicity. [1979:122-123; see also 22,
193-195]
This key study stresses games of chance (alea) and vertigo (ilinx) as well.
30. This fragment of lyric was devised by Harold Arlen to replace dialogue in The
Wizard ofOz that led into "If I Only Had a Brain " See "The Same Showbiz?" below.
31. I focus here on Tin Pan Alley titles--not tunes, harmonics, or counterpoint. For
more musical "borderlands," see Boon 1999:9-16,286; a provocative fact for anthropology
is that Le*vi-Strauss (1988: ch. 1) memorized Offenbach.
32. This designation may--better than "political correctness"--highlight tendencies
of recent critical discourse to claim for itself the moral high ground.
33. Some of my examples (e.g., "Love Is a Many Splendored Thing") overspill
chronological boundaries of "Tin Pan Alley" proper; still, they either anticipated or
hearken back to (albeit more "syrupily") that edgier tradition.
34. On Burke's "humble irony"--so different from Swiftian irony--see Boon
1999:3-4.
35. The unbelievable (true) complexity of "retaking" (refilming and rerecording)
this number, just as CinemaScope emerged into dominance, is conveyed in detail in
Haver 1988:124-130.
36. On Menippean satire, an ancient form of multivocal, transcultural parody, see
indexes in Boon 1982,1990,1999. Rushdie's copious style resembles Dutch colonialist
"Multatuli" (Edward Dowes Dekker), early Romantic Jean Paul, and others.
For repercussions of the 1989 fatwa (death sentence for blasphemy) imposed by
Khomeini on Rushdie, see the coverage in Fischer and Abedi 1990 and Kramer 1991.
Recent twists in this story--a reputed repeal and then a reissue, with Rushdie out of and
then back in hiding--make it all like a movie or a genre recombining movie and novel (a
fact I note with considerable sympathy). See also Fowler 2000 and Rosen
2000:192-194.
37. To keep the versions straight, I carefully recorded in red ink in the book all differences
from the New Yorker version (that is true); I plan to post these variata on a
website in the near future or in a cyber-"somewhere over the ... " (that is humbug). My
"pre/post-Tina Brown" construction does not capture subtler upheavals in recent New
Yorker culture (see Mehta 1998).
38. This pun is pinched from Clifford 1997: title, passim.
39. Mordden's many books and musicalities (1988,1990b) are but tokened in my
references.
40. Not just Garlanďs singing but the song she sang would have sounded more
abundantly contradictory than even Mordden suggests had the "rainbow bridge" sequence
been included in the movie as once planned. There rainbow became moonbow,
its tune was hummed as well as orchestrated in both diegetic and nondiegetic renditions--most
strikingly when "the rainbow music is playing softly on the soundtrack
with, possibly, the witch's theme in counter melody to give it menace" (Langley et al.
1989:150).
41. Some sources on topics mentioned include Allen 1991, Levine 1988, Lott
1993, and Rogin 1994; see also Goodwin 1992. No such topic--gender, race, and so
on--is isolable. Showbiz always mixes conspicuously: for example, showbiz and religion
(evangelism, rock spirituals, Jim Baker and Tammy Faye); showbiz and law (Court
SHOWBIZ AS A CROSS-CULTURAL SYSTEM 451
TV); showbiz and art (Toulouse-Lautrec at the cafe* concerts, Picasso's music revue collages);
showbiz and literature (Oscar Wilde's never-ending aftermath). Yes, showbiz
"systems" reveal "impurity" through and through. See also Charney and Schwartz 1995.
42. Whether "systems" are any more fixable than, say, "genres"--and whether
either systems or genres "blur" (lapse out of fundamental focus) or "crystallize" (acquire
form out of fundamental fuzziness)--remains a vexed issue in theorizing culture and
"hybridity." I personally tend to opt for "basic" blur (heteroglossia), with form as precipitate.
But resolving the matter seems an unlikely prospect; and leaving it open may
help such approaches as Geertz's and Schneider's (1980) remain in mutually productive
aggravation--each with the other, not unsympathetically. I thank an anonymous reviewer
for this journal for raising the issue of Schneider and Geertz.
43. Billie Burke was also Flo Ziegfelďs ex; an homage to circus-style sing-alongs
animates the populist bus trip in Capra's It Happened One Night (1934), on which see
Cavelll981.
44. On Nietzsche's habits of comparative reading (a process he likened to singing
and composing), see Boon 1999:265,301 n. 18.
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