The Concept of Race’
ASHLEY MONTAGU
Prketon, New Jersey
N THIS paper I desire to examine the concepts of race as they are used
Iwith reference to man. I shall first deal with the use of this term by biologists
and anthropologists, and then with its use by the man-on-the-street, the socalled
layman-so-called, no doubt, from the lines in Sir Philip Sidney’s
sonnet:
I never drank of Aganippe well
And Muses scorn with vulgar brains to dwell;
Nor ever did in shade of Tempe sit,
Poor layman I, for sacred rites unfit.
I shall endeavor to show that all those who continue to use the term “race”
with reference to man, whether they be laymen or scientists, are “for sacred
rites unfit.’’ Once more, I shall, as irritatingly as the sound of a clanging door
heard in the distance in a wind that will not be shut out, raise the question as to
whether, with reference to man, it would not be better if the term “race” were
altogether abandoned.
At the outset it should, perhaps, be made clear that I believe, with most
biologists, that evolutionary factors, similar to those that have been operative
in producing raciation in other animal species, have also been operative in
the human species-but with a significant added difference, namely, the consequences
which have resulted from man’s entry into that unique zone of
adaptation in which he excels beyond all other creatures, namely culture, that
is to say, the man-made part of the environment.
On the evidence it would seem clear that man’s cultural activities have
introduced elements into the processes of human raciation which have so substantially
modified the end-products that one can no longer equate the
processes of raciation in lower animals with those which have occurred in the
evolution of man. The factors of mutation, natural selection, drift, isolation,
have all been operative in the evolution of man. But so have such factors as
ever-increasing degrees of mobility, hybridization, and social selection, and it
is the effects of these and similar factors which, at least so it has always
seemed to me, makes the employment of the term “race” inapplicable to most
human populations as we find them today.
Of course there exist differences, but we want a term by which to describe
the existence of these differences. We do not want a prejudiced term which
injects meanings which are not there into the differences. We want a term
which as nearly mirrors the conditions as a term can, not one which falsifiesand
obfuscates the issue.
919
920 A merican Anthropologist [64, 1962
Terminology is extremely important, and I think it will be generally agreed
that it is rather more desirable to allow the conditions or facts to determine
the meaning of the terms by which we shall refer to them, than to have preexisting
terms determine the manner in which they shall be perceived and
ordered, for pre-existing terms constitute pre-existing meanings, and such
meanings have a way of conditioning the manner in which what we look at
shall be perceived. Each time the term “race” is used with reference to man,
this is what, I think, is done.
The term “race” has a long and torturedhistory. We cannot enter upon that
here. The present-day usage of the term in biological circles is pretty much the
sense in which it was used in similar circles in the 19th century, namely, as a
subdivision of a species the members of which resemble each other and differ
from other members of the species in certain traits. In our own time valiant
attempts have been made to pour new wine into the old bottles. The shape of
the bottle, however, remains the same. The man-on-the-street uses the term in
much the same way as it was used by his 19th century compeer. Here physical
type, heredity, blood, culture, nation, personality, intelligence, and achievement
are all stirred together to make the omelet which is the popular conception
of “race.” This is a particularly virulent term, the epidemiology of which
is far better understood by the social scientist than by the biologist-who
should, therefore, exercise a little more caution than he usually does when he
delivers himself on the subject.
The difficulty with taking over old terms in working with problems to
which they are thought to apply is that when this is done we may also take
over some of the old limitations of the term, and this may affect our approach
to the solution of those problems. For what the investigator calls “the problem
of human races” is immediately circumscribed and delimited the moment he
uses the word ‘Lraces.”For “race” implies something very definite to him,
something which in itself constitutes a solution, and the point I would like to
make is that far from the problem meaning something like a solution to him,
it should, on the contrary, constitute itself in his mind as something more
closely resembling what it is, namely, a problem requiring investigation.
Instead of saying to himself, as the true believer in “race” does, “Here is a
population, let me see how it fits my criteria of ‘race,”’ I think it would be
much more fruitful of results if he said to himself, instead, “Here is a population,
let me go ahead and find out what it is like. What its internal likenesses
and differences are, and how it resembles and how it differs from other
populations. And then let me operationally describe what I have found,” that
is, in terms of the data themselves, and not with reference to the conditions
demanded by any pre-existing term.
The chief objection to the term “race” with reference to man is that it
takes for granted as solved problems which are far from being so and tends to
close the mind to problems to which it should always remain open. If, with
ritual fidelity, one goes on repeating long enough that “the Nordics” are a
MONTAGU] The Concept of Race 921
race, or that “the Armenoids” are, or that “the Jews” are, or that races may
be determined by their blood group gene frequencies, we have already determined
what a “race” is, and it is not going to make the slightest difference
whether one uses the old or the new wine, for we are back at the same old stand
pouring it into the old bottles covered with the same patina of moss-like green.
It is the avoidance of this difficulty that T. H. Huxley had in mind when
in 1865,he wrote, “I speak of ‘persistent modifications’ or ‘stocks’ rather than
of ‘varieties,’or ‘races,’or ‘species,’because each of these last well-known terms
implies, on the part of its employer, a preconceived opinion touching one of
those problems, the solution of which is the ultimate object of the science;
and in regard to which, therefore, ethnologists are especially bound to keep
their minds open and their judgements freely balanced ”(1865: 209-10).
It is something to reflect upon that, a century later, this point of view has
still to be urged.
In the year 1900,the French anthropologist Joseph Deniker published his
great book, simultaneously in French and in English, The Races of Man. But
though the title has the word in it, he objected to the term “race” on much the
same grounds as Huxley. The whole of his introduction is devoted to showing
the difficulties involved in applying to man the terms of zoological nomenclature.
He writes, “We have presented to us Arabs, Swiss,Australians, Bushmen,
English, Siouan Indians, Negroes, etc., without knowing if each of these
groups is on an equal footing from the point of view of classification.”
“DO these real and palpable groupings represent unions of individuals
which, in spite of some slight dissimilarities, are capable of forming what
zoologists call ‘species,’ ‘subspecies,’ ‘varieties,’ in the case of wild animals, or
‘races’ in the case of domestic animals? One need not be a. professional anthropologist
to reply negatively to this question. They are ethnicgroups formed
by virtue of community of language, religion, social institutions, etc., which
have the power of uniting human beings of one or several species, races, or
varieties, and are by no means zoological species; they may include human
beings of one or of many species, races, or varieties.” “They are,’’ he goes on
to say, “theoretic types” (19: 2-3).
When, in 1936, Julian Huxley and A. C. Haddon published their valuable
book on “race,” We Europeans, they took pains to underscore the fact that
“the existence of ...human sub-species is purely hypothetical. Nowhere does
a human group now exist which corresponds closely to a systematic subspecies
in animals, since various original sub-species have crossed repeatedly
and constantly, For the existing populations, the non-committal term ethnic
group should be used. , . . . All that exists today is a number of arbitrary
ethnic groups, intergrading into each other” (1936: 106). And finally, “The
essential reality of the existing situation ...is not the hypothetical sub-species
or races, but the mixed ethnic groups, which can never be genetically purified
into their orignal components, or purged of the variability which they owe to
past crossing. Most anthropological writings of the past, and many of the
922 A merican Anthropologist [64, 1962
present fail to take account of this fundamentalfact” (1936:108).“If race is a
scientific term,” these authors point out, “it must have a genetic meaning”
(1936: i14).
Haddon, as an anthropologist, was familiar with Deniker’s book, and it is
possible that the noncommittal term “ethnic group’, was remembered by him
as one more appropriately meeting the requirements of the situation and thus
came to be adopted by both authors in their book. It was from this source, that
is from Huxley and Haddon, that I,in turn, adopted the term “ethnic group”
in 1936 and have consistently continued to use it since that time. The claim is
that the noncommittal general term “ethnic group” meets the realities of the
situation head on, whereas the term “race” does not. Furthermore, it is
claimed that “ethnic group” is a term of heuristic value. It raises questions,
and doubts, leading to clarification and discovery. The term “race,” since it
takes for granted what requires to be demonstrated within its own limits,
closes the mind on all that.
It is of interest to find that quite a number of biologists have, in recent
years, independently raised objections to the continuing use of the term “race,”
even, in some cases, when it is applied to populations of lower animals. Thus,
for example, W. T. Calman writes, “Terms such as ‘geographical race,’ ‘form,’
‘phase,’ and so forth, may be useful in particular instances but are better not
used until some measure of agreement is reached as to their precise meaning”
(1949: 14). Hans Kalmus writes, “A very important term which was originally
used in systematics is ‘race.’ Nowadays, however, its use is avoided as far as
possible in genetics” (1948:45). I n a later work Kalmus writes, “It is customary
to discuss the localvarieties of humanity in terms of ‘race.’However, it
is unnecessary to use this greatly debased word, since it is easy to describe
populations without it” (1958:30). G. S. Carter writes that the terms “ ‘race,’
‘variety,’ and ‘form’ are used so loosely and in so many senses that it is advisable
to avoid using them as infraspecific categories (1951: 163). Ernst Hanhart
objects to the use of the term “race” with reference to man since he holds
that there are no “true races” among men (1953:545). Abercrombie, Hickman,
and Johnson, in their A Dictionary of Biology (1951), while defining species
and subspecies consistently, decline even a mention of the word “race” anywhere
in their book. L. S. Penrose in an otherwise highly favorable review
of Durn and Dobzhansky’s excellent Heredity, Race and Society, writes that he
is unable “to see the necessity for the rather apologetic retention of the obsolete
term ‘race,’ when what is meant is simply a given population differentiated
by somesocial,geographical or genetical character, or . ..merely by a
gene frequency peculiarity. The use of the almost mystical concept of race
makes the presentation of the facts about the geographical and linguistic
groups ...unnecessarily complicated” (1952: 252).
To see what Penrose means, and a t the same time to make our criticism of
their conception of “race,” let us turn to Dunn and Dobzhansky’s definition of
race. They write, in the aforementioned work, “Races can be defined as populations
which differ in the frequencies of some gene or genes” (1952: 118). This
MONTAGU] The Concept of Race 923
definition at once leads to the question: Why use the word “race” here when
what is being done is precisely what should be done, namely, to describe
populations in terms of their gene frequency differences? What, in point of
fact, has the antiquated, mystical conception of “race” to do with this? The
answer is: Nothing. Indeed, the very notion of “race” is antithetical to the
study of population genetics, for the former traditionally deals with fixed clearcut
differences, and the latter with fluid or fluctuating differences. It seems to
me an unrealistic procedure to maintain that this late in the day we can readapt
the term “race” to mean something utterly different from what it has
always most obfuscatingly and ambiguously meant.
We may congratulate ourselves, and in fact often do, that the chemists of
the late 18th and early 19th centuries had the good sense to throw out the
term “phlogiston” when they discovered that it corresponded to nothing in
reality, instead of attempting to adapt it to fit the facts which it was not designed
to describe, and of which, indeed, it impeded the discovery for several
centuries. The psychologists of the second decade of this century had the good
sense to do likewise with the term “instinct” when they discovered how, like a
bunion upon the foot, it impeded the pilgrim’s progress toward a sounder
understanding of human drives (Bernard 1924).
It is simply not possible to redefine words with so longstanding a history of
misuse as “race,” and for this, among other cogent reasons, it is ill-advised. As
Simpson has said, “There . . .is a sort of Gresham’s Law for words; redefine
them as we will, their worst or most extreme meaning is almost certain to remain
current and to tend to drive out the meaning we prefer” (1953:268).
For this reason alone it would appear to me unwise to afford scientific
sanction to a term which is so embarrassed by false meanings as is the term
“race.” There is the added objection that it is wholly redundant, and confusingly
so, to distinguish as a “race” a population which happens to differ from
other populations in the frequency of one or more genes. Why call such populations
“races” when the operational definition of what they are is sharply and
clearly stated in the words used to convey what we mean, namely, populations
which differ from one another in particular frequencies of certain specified
genes? Surely, to continue the use of the word “race” under such circumstances
is to exemplify what A. E. Housman so aptly described as “calling in ambiguity
of language to promote confusion of thought” (1933:31).
When populations differ from each other in the frequency of the sickle-cell
gene or any other gene oi genes, all that is necessary is to state the facts with
reference to those populations. That is what those populations are in terms of
gene frequencies. And those are the operative criteria which we can use as tools
or concepts in giving an account of the realities of the situation-the actual
operations.
I have thus far said nothing about the anthropological conception of “race”
because this is to some extent yielding to genetic pressure, and because the
future of what used to be called the study of “race” lies, in my view, largely in
the direction of population genetics. The older anthropological conception of
924 America% Anthropologist [64, 1962
“race” still occasionally lingers on, suggesting that it is perhaps beyond the
reach both of scientific judgment and mortal malice. Insofar as the genetic
approach to the subject is concerned, many anthropologists are, as it were,
self-made men and only too obviously represent cases of unskilled labor. However,
my feeling is that they should be praised for trying rather than blamed
for failing. The new anthropology is on the right track.
Recently Garn and Coon (1955) have attempted to adapt the terms
“geographic race,” “local race,” and “microgeographical race,” for use in the
human species. They define, for example, “A geographical race” as, “in its
simplest terms, a collection of (race) populations having features in common,
such as a high gene frequency for blood group B, and extending over a geographically
definable area” (1955:997).
In this definition I think we can see, in high relief as it were, what is wrong
with the continuing use of the term “race.” The term “geographical race” immediately
delimits the group of populations embraced by it from others, as if
the so-called “geographical race” were a biological entity “racially” distinct
from others. Such a group of populations is not “racially” distinct, but differs
from others in the frequencies of certain of its genes. It was suggested by the
UNESCO group of geneticists and physical anthropologists that such a group
of populations be called a “major group” (Montagu 1951:173-82). This
suggestion was made precisely in order to avoid such difficultiesasare inherent
in the term “geographical race.” Since Garn and Coon themselves admit that
“geographical races are to a large extent collectionsof convenience, useful more
for pedagogic purposes than as units for empirical investigation” (1955 :lOOO),
it seems to me difficult to understand why they should have preferred this
term to the one more closely fitting the situation, namely, “major groups.” It
is a real question whether spurious precision, even for pedagogical purposes, or
as an “as if” fiction, is to be preferred to a frank acknowledgment, in the terms
we use, of the difficultiesinvolved. Garn and Coon are quite alive to the problem,
but it may be questioned whether it contributes to the student’s clearer
understanding of that problem to use terms which not only do not fit the conditions,
but which serve to contribute to making the student’s mind a dependable
instrument of imprecision, especially in view of the fact that a more appropriate
term is available.
The principle of “squatter’s rights” apparently applies to words as well as
to property. When men make a heavy investment in words they are inclined to
treat them as property, and even to become enslaved by them, the prisoners of
their own vocabularies. High walls may not a prison make, but technical terms
sometimes do. This, I would suggest, is another good reason for self-examination
with regard to the use of the term “race.”
Commenting on Garn’sviewson race, Dr. J. P. Garlick has remarked, “The
use of ‘race’ as a taxonomic unit for man seems out of date, if not irrational. A
hierarchy of geographical, local and micro-races is proposed, with acknowledgements
to Rensch and Dobzhansky. But the criteria for their definition are
MONTAGU] The CoslEept of Race 925
nowhere made clear, and in any case such a scheme could not do justice to the
many independent fluctuations and frequency gradients shown by human
polymorphic characters. Surely physical anthropology has outgrown such
abstractions as ‘Large Local Race. ...Alpine: the rounder-bodied, rounderheaded,
predominantly darker peoples of the French mountains, across
Switzerland, Austria, and to the shores of the Black Sea’ ” (1961: 169-70).
Garn and Coon do not define “local races” but say of them that they “can
be identified, not so much by average differences, but by their nearly complete
isolation” (1955:997). In that case, as Dahlberg (1942) long ago suggested,
why not call such populations “isolates”?
“Microgeographical races” also fail to receive definition, but are described
as differing “only qualitatively from local races.” In that case, why not use
some term which suggests the difference?
In short, it is our opinion that taxonomies and terms should be designed to
fit the facts, and not the facts forced into the procrustean rack of pre-determined
categories. If we are to have references, whether terminological or
taxonomical, to existing or extinct populations of man, let the conditions as we
find them determine the character of our terms or taxonomies, and not the
other way round.
Since what we are actually dealing with in human breeding populations are
differencesin the frequencies of certain genes, why not use a term which states
just this, such as genogroup, and the various appropriate variants of this?zIf
necessary, we could then speak of “geographic genogroups,” “local genogroups,”
and “microgenogroups.” A genogroup being defined as a breeding
population which differs from other breeding populations of the species in the
frequency of one or more genes. The term “genogroup” gets as near to a
statement of the facts as a term can. The term “race” goes far beyond the
facts and only serves to obscure them. A geographic genogroup would then be
defined as a group of breeding populations characterized by a marked similarity
of the frequenciesof one or more genes.
A locaj genogroup would be one of the member populations of a geographic
genogroup, and a nricrogenogroupa partially isolated population with one or
more gene frequency differences serving to distinguish it from adjacent or
nonadjacent local genogroups.
It is to be noted that nothing is said of a common heredity for similarity in
gene frequencies in a geographic genogroup. The common heredity is usually
implied, but I do not think it should be taken for granted, except within the
local genogroups and the microgenogroups. One or more of the genogroups in a
geographic genogroup may have acquired their frequencies for a given gene
quite independently of the other local populations comprising the geographic
genogroup. This is a possibility which is, perhaps, too often overlooked when
comparisons are being made on the basis of gene frequencies between populations,
whether geographic or not.
But this must suffice for my criticism of the usage of the term “race” by
926 American Anlhropologist [64, 1962
biologists and anthropologists. I wish now to discuss, briefly, the disadvantages
of the use of this term in popular usage, and the advantages of the general term
“ethnic group.”
The layman’s conception of “race” is so confused and emotionally muddled
that any attempt to modify it would seem to be met by the greatest obstacle of
all, the term “race” itself. It is a trigger word. Utter it, and a whole series of
emotionally conditioned responses follow. If we are to succeed in clarifying the
minds of those who think in terms of “race” we must cease using the word,
because by continuing to use it we sanction whatever meaning anyone chooses
to bestow upon it, and because in the layman’s mind the term refers to conditions
which do not apply. There is no such thing as the kind of “race” in which
the layman believes, namely, that there exists an indissoluble association
between mental and physical characters which make individual members of
certain “races” either inferior or superior to the members of certain other
“races.” The layman requires to have his thinking challenged on this subject.
The term “ethnic group”serves assuch a challenge to thought and asastimulus
to rethink the foundations of one’s beliefs. The term “race” takes for granted
what should be a matter for inquiry. And this is precisely the point that is
raised when one uses the noncommittal “ethnic group.” It encourages the passage
from ignorant or confused certainty to thoughtful uncertainty. For the
layman, as for others, the term “race” closes the door on understanding. The
phrase “ethnic group” opens it, or at the very least, leaves it ajar.
In opposition to these views a number of objections have been expressed.
Here are some of them. One does not change anything by changing names, It is
an artful dodge. Why not meet the problem head-on? If the term has been
badly defined in the past, why not redefine it? Re-education should be attempted
by establishing the true meaning of “race,” not by denying its existence.
It suggests a certain blindness to the facts to deny that “races” exist in
man. One cannot combat racism by enclosing the word in quotes. It is not the
word that requires changing but people’s ideas about it. It is a common failing
to argue from the abuse of an idea to its total exclusion. It is quite as possible to
feel “ethnic group prejudice” as it is to feel “race prejudice.” One is not going
to solve the race problem this way.
Such objections indicate that there has been 8 failure of communication,
that the main point has been missed. The term “ethnic group” is not offered as
a substitute for “race.” On the contrary, the term “ethnic group” implies a
fundamental difference in viewpoint from that which is implied in the term
“race.” It is not a question of changing names or of substitution, or an artful
dodge, or the abandonment of a good term which has been abused. It is first
and foremost an attempt to clarify the fact that the old term is unsound when
applied to man, and should therefore not be used with reference to him. At the
same time “ethnic group,” being an intentionally vague and general term, is
designed to make it clear that there is a problem to be solved, rather than to
maintain the fiction that the problem has been solved. As a general term it
leaves all question of definition open, referring specifically to human breeding
MONTAGU] The Concept of Race 927
populations, the members of which are believed to exhibit certain physical or
genetic likenesses. For all general purposes, an “ethnic group” may be defined
as one of a number of breeding populations, which populations together comprise
the species Homo sapiens, and which individually maintain their differences,
physical or genetic and cultural, by means of isolating mechanismssuch
as geographic and social barriers.
The re-education of the layman should be taken seriously. For this reason I
would suggest that those who advocate the redefinition of the term “race,”
rather than its replacement by a general term which more properly asks questions
before it attempts definitions, would do well to acquaint themselves with
the nature of the laymen as well as with the meaning of the phenomena to
which they would apply a term which cannot possibly be redefined. If one
desires to remove a prevailing erroneous conception and introduce a more
correct one, one is more likely to be successfulby introducing the new conception
with a distinctively new term rather than by attempting redefinition of a
term embarrassed by longstanding unsound usage. Professor Henry Sigerist
has well said that “it is never sound to continue the use of terminology with
which the minds of millions of people have been poisoned even when the old
terms are given new meanings” (1951:lOl).
There is, apparently, a failure on the part of some students to understand
that one of the greatest obstacles to the process of re-education would be the
retention of the old term “race,” a term which enshrines the errors it is designed
to remove. The deep implicit meanings this term possesses for the
majority of its users are such that they require immediate challenge whenever
and by whomsoeverthe term “race” is used.
Whenever the term “race” is used, most people believe that something like
an eternal verity has been uttered when, in fact, nothing more than evidence
has been given that there are many echoes,but few voices. “Race” is a word so
familiar that in using it the uncritical thinker is likely to take his own private
meaning for it completely for granted, never thinking at any time to question
so basic an instrument of the language as the word “race.” On the other hand,
when one uses the term “ethnic group,” the question is immediately raised,
‘‘What does it mean? What does the user have in mind?” And this at once
affords an opportunity to discuss the facts and explore the meaning and the
falsities enshrined in the word “race,” and to explain the problems involved
and the facts of the genetic situation as we know them.
The term “ethnic group” is concerned with questions; the term “race” is
concerned with answers, unsound answers, where for the most part there are
only problems that require to be solved beforeany sound answerscan be given.
It may be difficult for those who believe in what I. A. Richards has called
“The Divine Right of Words” to accept the suggestion that a word such as
“race,” which has exercisedso evil a tyranny over the minds of men, should be
permanently dethroned from the vocabulary, but that constitutes all the more
reason for trying, remembering that the meaning of a word is the action it
produces.
928 A merican A nfhropologisl [64, 19621
NOTES
1 Presentedat the UniversitySeminaron Geneticsand the Evolutionof Man, ColumbiaUni*The
term “genogroup” was suggested to me by Sir Julian Huxley during a conversationon
versity, December 6, 1959.
September 29, 1959.
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