Introduction: 'What's Going On5 Studying popular music culture 1ti UtKJti Uoli (Jt-iilof visited New Zealand. Tlie live Aid idtttnicr and 'tmk Slití,, :is I Hi? Ifitd singti ,unt m.iin BQDgWfilCT with Irish |>ii.st-[3iink group tilt: KuiiiiiLov/n fiiiti, then its a silo ;«:(, was widely iL-|XifiLil whru lur dcHxiht'd llir i iMJtiiiy'ri Inrcigu .lid as 'sJiaiudiil and paLheLtc1, ticldor.s ciiluisriis received prn-itkLiLfnl iir\vs|iiipi?r covei Liiff, lliry wre i hi' mihjfict fi|'mu|£izii:i: rovrr stories Jiid he ri|jjK-iiitil ij11 leadititf television am) radio current id Ilk trs siirjws. I In- med dtírn? ..|:|.h»]1uiiíiíiís to explain thf go-ds mul progress oi' Ids MuLr f&vtirti I lisi^w rMHi|j;u'gu, which also supported by Honu. The SlttŤQMfjdfas public delate j«lw ilir Minjaiti uť F.m'i^n .Mlairs and the Prune Mijibinr both luixions 10 dclaid IMrw Zealand* aid record, whik wll.nr groups and letter writers ndlicd to supímu (Ii'ldoJ. To iht? public, CeldoCk the rock st^r foitvtrr linked to live Aidj who '■ ■'! hia lliLvsieal (trtcbrSty Ab A oLiUvhui lín sen'ifll iirlivisni. I'iiii recent i'|)|hh|it indicates hmv piijiiiktr musk I* part of die WÍSéT culture. Í liincndy, its 1 compile this book in Miiirh 2\\1'2, iln-re wrr ntLitiy tinrln-r IlldlCOURltS uE'sucll I ;j,--: • ( pfliq&ttablc media (wt-nigc fallowed .uidden dťadi id pop ^>nl diva Whinny IfviuaioH, apituLiiing on Úic ciuisn uiid ItKUJiing i>n her loiij; li;»řtlr tvlili liinig-addiction, • r'n^-llht-g'l bluiikpLkdillck, Hint jt| ;Ll',iiLiNll(-ed iUJ fjýl I IK r-nlry Jin llu-bivi'iivrckiii l^img Lloiiu-at, Tkť iJuHinmn fiut au.uMivdr.dly sees llu-fiingtri and the em.trisL as idcalh suited; LTlli<- tonlc-il drew* u 'Í!V Uiidiťuce UÍ 100 million |m,,nlť, .dthrsugh iKMnir' i'wi adiuiu io watch in:; it, while IJi^lehtri haj sold I ill uiilliiilk nlbtlllU I pi illliLl-ily ill tin- |9(jtjsj. Ixtt il W iinpossibh tip Imd ktnyuru: vilui owiw one." (ti M.inh Litll^). • rVn.li i MiiMi-.d InytruiiiciiiJi iuinnurin-d .iti iniiinl public olltiin,; nl L'S$2GQ until,m. in li n.u'Li1 tu jimi (Jii\hi 11 J:lil Irriu.l iiiid cruulL' [iljJl .h,irking i.ipilikJ "llir linn vviw *iřnnjjly a.ssik iiih-iI w'nh llir devcl-:j|jniijni ol ruck >iml lull, ividi tlieti 'Stunt' jntlftu .i linn'iriit- nl Jimi Ihndnv .ind ^Tirrs nl' • mIk-i «4mn. • I'mk lloyd'i 7A/ H,it( hnnmuor, Mitim H1'1'" 1,11 l'"r $1911 New /raliindi. It I'rulUlrn llvr 'iluuii' nJuilin allium, brU irlruni'd m I'U't, iwnv diginllv i* niu-vli nil .mil pirs4'itlt'd .i> .i 'liiiiilrd i'llillnll hifdl <|U.iliiy Iimx«I *rť. 'I'liia 2 I ^idenhiiiffiug fmfnilur rrntw culixae hu lmleti rare :ind un released video maleriaL, a 44-pafír Exjoklri designed hy Storm Thorger-snn. who created the original alburn cover, aloof; with an exeia&Vt phoiu I muk. exclusive merchandise and &u'íii]nU^ rolkciatiles. • Trcn idol Kctce Maslio, winner of the Australian television music show .V jSwfor. is nuihbrd by more than a thousand 'over excited griV at an Auckland in.til appearance prior to his coiicen there. • Garth Krooks is inducted inL<< (lie flouuoy Musk- Hul! ní Fame. \mv se.mi-LTiirrtln Ijul talking ahoui innriiij* again, the anger wa* the itip^atlliiig aiiist n the United StBlfiS during lite 19yt)s, taking am tin,) musit into Hadiiuns and major metropolitan mat lets and Leaoing the way in íi iiiajur eiossmirr of country music rti ihr uiaiiitiireaji) pap arid rock maiicL • IjjíliJ music retail chaiJP Maihccks announced (hal it vbus closing its j.cinaiuhi£ Wclliiujioii [New Zealand; store. as the company sealed down its retail Qpef&iinns t" Incus uji digital and [inline sales, » A new clastic rock radio stauoti í>7,íl I'M 'Fiji: Sound of Wellington - U launched in the local m.trkel, with fires* advertisements haninni; I ,J, Tom Petty, Fr«My Mercury, thr Police. Mick Jailer arid Stcvir Nicks, • The saiii-fniiils nt'ilie latest series nf .-btóVJíiin Miť corimiL.e to he featured m prune time. rosiiiMirram television coverage, • h in ilium in teed drat a lavishly illustrated' honk, 'fht Rolling Shuts: 50, will l»e LMihlrhrd fin I'í July iiOlli. in mark ilir AOdi annhersaiy nl'ilte ruck ^miifi Flvsi f$fo ai ljfindoji s Miiii|iiee illnh. 'Hit* daily press also included advcuislni; and reviews for a vnnexy ai com ei tu and i lull gigs, newly released vemnlings and the usual proliferation nl advertiiiettwiltt Ibi music mail; inAtruineiils, sound systems, ínHiidmg il'iuls. music l>VI>-.....I recordings. n!i 11114 w.di a piece (in the business section) on die ciMititUM-'l inipm • ni digital delivery mi ihr music industry. This u jjujL cjf'tho everyday Hmrniirw iluii Kin'iiHincU popular music hikÍ mIii, Ii piifvidrs a cdiiLi:At ±uid IbaiS lor litis study. Evidetll willlhl thrse slnrim, f and ;MÍvi>rtÍNÍn^ arc nutiuns oJ muMt'stl creadviry and authorship, canonical l< I iitusJcaJ histcry, ňiiditncrs .nul musiť aw a hlend of cnieiUiiumi'iil, ,111 .m-l min mtrrre. Collceiively, and diHii;sidc odicf aut'lj slniící, thr.y ir.diiair- die uurM cial and i-tiJttiral ygniJitiUK-e of pppubtr music. Its ubiquituusi yhd tal [in ...... evident on a daily lnwis: dicnu^h 'miMh' ii --liii|^iiiip niallu.; on puNli n .t 11 ■ | ■■ >14 and uji ihc striciji unci j*arks en liaitinTs create a pcTson-ul prmuv apnif dmonh ditir ase of i Pods; U|1 MT\: and mainstream lidcvisám nmái Oinw n hJMI •duundtiiicks Ělttd Ti.itT.-uivrs; uti web and radio bmaili aits; iIn.....;li ilic < pita, and ^livc' in a variety of nettings, I'miti »trci-| Ininkcr:. In i liilc, nt,> 1 rancena and music fesúvahi. In cultural terms, pnpnlai musk' h nl cnomum* iniportaíKV in tLdly life and for wwnr is icniral in ihiij «" ■■• I idc......11 In • i n nuink terms, ihr nroduetf *'i thr uumi indnaiiy mnkr ii a IchIihh ml industry, with imnlir in lulling lint just ihr sain nl inmilnl inn |i lull lopynnlit ri'vcaiu', Unit jnolii*. ini-n lianili/m^, lalcn nl ihr intuit jitru, iltnliniin ii" . .min.I HynOnii itliil din! uiiun Pip|udili- ui.isii- niluire lL-ieri u> die ways of making, disseminating ;uid etai-vtiuiiiiff music; die cciHHiinic und ifthiKiln^ical practices asocialed with thtitt piiM.:«wi»; and die iTLiinlings, sotuidü, ima^es and discourse (diiiikinfj;, dehiiiin^. wiitinK) created by these pn^iias. My approach to it is siui.ttcd in die general ltr-l(| of Lollural ;ind media sUnhes, a'tu^niiLi^ libit die analysis t.if ilislitutioiu. it-Ms, distuuiHSi, readings and audieiicci arc best undeistonil .u tlh'ir social, eeo- ......111 Wd pulinc;,! t'tjiitest. J use tJ»c term 'popular music cnliiirr" to indicate this and m !>io,na] iily- intention di mtt^nne a range of tupics inta ibis introductory ■in viy. Whjc J iL-ltii in stniic bítóii^ ;es|ieils oť muíicaJ analys and bmt iiicätided il ii aitidyiis Lil'sotiji fyrits in considering recojijings as texts, ihin bt not a tutwitoloříiejj siudy; I rji.i imt iUKily-üc nmsic aiOitiH. Setting agendas \ Itimc Horner untl I'Ihiiikis Swiss (IWWfc 7) observe, the dillěrem incainngs II to ii-niis ionuntiii in i he vocabulary of popular music studies, indudirin die ■ i ii-mis •|Kipid;a'" aiiij "imisk;1, help shape die music and our cKpeiieutx: of it. 'I'lr .iic.mlin; ;nid uliiity olTciFiiö such as 'pnpnLr' ami 'niiiss', k>\k?ctally in relation n, Vulture' ami "innliV. arc die subject nl curisideralilc diiceiSMttm ami id bah- Similarly, 'popular music' and assouated icmja mii Ii ua *n>ck', "w-ck V mil" .111.1 "pup" arc ibed by miisicumss bins and Jicademic ariidysí.S in a contusing ' .....: nl uiiys. Ii needs hi :)e ifrueinliercd thai it is diffictili lüdefine plicmimciia ihm .in- social jir.iciiies ai well is ecmiíunie pniducls aiitl which ai't nol siiitic hnt iiiiini.mily i-vnh im,*. Im |i-tl|, |jui ist- iHniitioiis ciui he. riiiisULiinhiLr,; ihey sbnulii lie icK.uiltnl as iViiiheworks lor e»pluriiliun and idabotattnn, taihcr than liteiual ■ lliiitLs ri. be ilrlindrfi 'I'LiiL a.iuc, lei nu- ( y 1i. ,H L-;ia [Mil down ihr s/er.- mr wnl. I\ i ..imiim-d 'i'lieir '■■■<■ indli.ilill liy l^tillK< wnviyv, ln.x , Ilm i.Iuiin .mil tillri li(j(t«i'i* To Slwfyini! popular nmat aiituft 5 t ili'HiM iln, ■ U-It1111.......1 imi|lulitiny' iritie* popular niltiual texts, reducing it......■ • Mm i.mii'i ill uhjciin in Iii- Imudu suid sold in die marketplace and die mm tul niiiiih ill iln ii iiiiiiiint|iiinii mini always hi' kepi in mind Wnli <.......mud, ilk in, (tod) equates thtr 'popular' with commeireia!, lulliu-^l Uhvh i>< > <>" iiiiiniui in .mil I ii^.inl markets ;is an inescapable Icaaire of popular 11 ill in i' l'i ipuliii ny b central in popular tukurt. as iia various prudutii mid tTCiitors ip.iiin 111,•! U i iii 'i. hkini-tir.ii attain general social acccptLUkce and approwl. l ;,iihi'iii|imi,li |hi 111 -in einpliasii on die audietiees jtid (jyii_sili[i|illciii aspvxts p|" popular culture, I alu cur.t:ei-I)ed with die i^lalinnship between dip creation of cultural -.r. n h his and ihe tu-in ii link- Lenient rif lhal i-irMin m, ,i process which involves iiTJilint; nr iJil^r-Linjr audleliires and an SW^JVW ei ii&ige n lei li brlween trvl^ iind thrir consumers. This ls to u.'eOtpkite dial neither IcxLs nor their cmi.ii111if.rs exist in Isolation. In lui nillm iilial and widely ritcd dtscLLSsiiin, Raynniiiil Williams iitujues thai iiiJiltL-aijiurLii'^ Ufckjfo: ol 'tlJlllie' lalld Lilo llute pusiiljiiiLius or .mhiii anial^inn ol' iJicse; 'a ^l-ncial jiriicess ut mtdleL'tual, s])iritual, and ar.slkciir rk'\< In]Uriels'; 'a [Virtk'ular way il life, whether of a people, period, or a group1; and 'die wotks ,hhI practRcs Ijf intelleemul ; -*nd in the relatioil-sllip l«-i^vren llwin lilt- way ill VtIiuIl parth1 uLir Bpcinl L^uaps hjive Used pupLil.il' nai.yi' wilhin ihelf liw^, This i> la uhift iJte Ukus Tivtn the preikiupaiion, rvidetii in iiimli iiiedia/r.iillLiiaJ StudleSj witlk llie lexl in ;ukl nl'iutrH', in ilir andiente. It id tdikl lu jtiedj 'popular eultiu'e', iLnlier th.in aeuept die reaenadnn ol' lorn culture for artistic pursuits ^oriaieri with jiardrular lalne.s and stal.danls. suiiiclinica reierred to as elite or high cukure Williams' third ilelailtioti. In •,liml, rlie main coneem nl'diw Mnriy is with lln- iii'i*irdutk>mhip of routcM, Lexis ami ii it i Mini | it i> ii i, as (Iruiniistnitt-il hy llir niajiufui turr. rlisliiliiitinii and inn-itiiu|ilinii ut pupnlar miisii uiltuif, piimaiily in iin miinim tnunliil I.hhi-, IUh wli.r. ihrii, i.-- 'pilJMll.ll iikiMl 1 Fopvlar music Popular musk: defies precise, straightforward definition, 'llir terms 'r™k' nul 'pitp' arc rVequmtly used to stand for 'popular niu.flc1, when they are mctagenns wiihki a niiteli ui<|n Imdy ol musics (in Stinker, 2Q)'2. I identify unil bricfly inirodtieĚ 12 trielagriircs). WhJc sonic writers on |jwpuLr tuušic sliile mcr the ([ueslioii of tk'liaitiosi and takr a 'cxiiritaon seast-1 iniilerstntiilinir ul'ilic icmi foj granifd, radons attempt, tu |irovirle a cehuJdon ean he k|e.uiili(xl: I. Definitions diar place an t tripling or, '[xijiiilar1. IlistrjiifaJy, ihe lertn popular wm used in nlalinii to 'tile ordiiinry pewiile1. It was litsi Jiakeil in p published title lo a oert;iin kind of muiii. ilut tt?rjfi)micd to lliat criteiion in William tJhapple'a ťopiáirMmk >tj Útt Dldm Thau, pnhlidietl in inslalnieiits fiutn IÍ135. Not until llir I'JiOtJ and l'J4Jis Lhd the tettň sijti to $Ůa wider currency, ttiehaid Middletou ithii'ires thill tile question of 'what k pupnlar jnutip is 'so ridilled ivith iuiii pit sillcN .., lhal uite ia lenipLed to íbtlow I hi* rxatnple of the leLjendary ilelinilkm of Ttilk stilif; all iiongs arc liilk snugs J "ever Iteaid lurses sing 'em - and augjfest thai Lili lauiue is pojiubr miliic; popular widi isoiikeone1 {l'J!i(J; 1). lloMriivir, dkc rriteria (or wltai rniinis us |jopnktr, ;ind their applieitlifm In spri-ilic nnisiraJ styles aitil jjenriis, are ujieit to iJoasiderabJc debate. Classical music i.lemiy has MiJlkient íi..lkn\ini» tu l>e ooiisklered jHipuLir, while XHBt loiuks of jxipLJar r.íitóic nix. tjuile exclusive (e.g. Norwegian hlaik nu-ialj. S lX:luii:ions htised on the coinniet'i'iul nature of popular musaV .mil einbrai int< ((i'nrrs pi'ieeived as eoninie-i'L'i:ilIy uiietiied. Many etimniejuaiui-i ai-^ni' that it ls toiiiLiie-rcializalioii that ia the kev lu Lindei'siatidiiitr [Hipular tnusic; ,m ;ipprn,n Ii 111 -11 is related to an empliasis on the [iiijjular. atgaicqg thai such appeal can he l|li;iiiI iiieil ihriiniili Dili's, ili^il-:. radio iiiplay and foilh. In Htkh deliniliijlli, h-eriLkiii geJiňíš iite iilc.i.iitird as 'populai iiillsÍl-', while eHlirii nut eituludeil. I low-ciL't. tins apphMih can sillier Iront the sjuva' I'ltobl^ms aa ibosf itresxiui; popu-lantii, since many j;enre.< have unk limited ap|jeal or have luid Iklkitid coiiiineicia] exposure. Mummr, [wifiiiJaruy caties liuin country to euuutry and even from reiuou to retrion within lultotuil markets. It nee lis to also he noted that ibis approach is largely eoikcemed with rtcmltA popular music, which w inuaUy listriinl to in a laid) Luiiicioiis ami Iíhjim-íí in.iruier. .\nvihid KiLSsahian makes the ii.M'lul jiiiiiii lliai what she ttriuii "u!),c]tii[.jus uuisics' are [ret.|tie.itb lei: nut nl'such discitssimiis: musit: in hints, in Stni'CS.. (Hi lbe |il)niie, in the airier,, nil television and .......i. ''I'ke.se art: the kinds of LLhtksic that no uiH' chooses ihr hcrsell Ol hmi-seii bnL (hut iH.'ierllielesi wash oar everyday lives wttb Síiaml' (kassiibiati, l1j()íi: 1I3), 1, lik-iitilicaliiin \t) .ifeuerLiI ntLisieal and itiih-miisieal řáuitííiiitiWÍíit.wii I'kilij* 'I'afjg iin Mulillitiin, 'HWi, Im-l puiilLdiial IMll'.i',. in :ui inlku utial aad nkiti.li i_ Ltui I l I i > -■ iiaioii, characli rt/i í |io|iul.i. imisii .iccundiug (u ii! tlte naturi: ofiii d.stiiljution niMialh iii.isn); (ii) how it U stored and ilisltilmtcd, ptimanly a\ n-conir-d miiimiI ralhrr dun untl trunsinissam nr ituuieul nuiatiun; (iii) the cxiiletitr of its own lingual llli my atld aeslhelit \\ and lis', I lie ickitive .iiiouyinitv of iin ciinipo.seis. I In- lani nl thr»f in diUiidili- and I wniil I ivani to extend lite notion ni i onipoMii ÍWj-ifjjj ptiptletf mtĹiii: ĺisIíusí' 7 .3■ icl iK ansonalcd www Lil'lkiL' nature ofmusical creativity. However, musicologists have usefully extended the third fispe.rt nf Tagg's lU'tmititni, while wicitilogiilj have cuncentntied on thr tint rwo dimensions. Elk sum, only the most jqeueifll deFiniuon be nftered under the general uinbvdlii L'iilr.Ryry ur "popular music'. F-sseiitiaJlY, U consists nf a hybrid nf musical traditions, sty [fa and hiuiitfiLces, with the only rcmimeni element heing tftar the niuwe is etianictenzed 1 ly ii Sitting iliyJutiifnl uulupjlLeI11 and generally, bill Jjcit I'M luKivrly. rdiiy tin rlemonic amplification. Indeed, a purely musical dclinitton is instil I icieui. since a central characteristic of popular music is a sni:i< (economic nne; its iiiitas pnuduttbn for :i niasi, still predominancy youth-oriented market. At like amur. lime, of murse. it is an economic product tha: is invested with idcolo-jr.tuil ftjfUl firm ieh* by many of its consumers. At the heart of the majority ol' the various forms oi' popular music is a fundamental tension between the essential creativity ol" the process of making music and [Sic Lutuinerdiii nature of the bulk of its piudurtion and dissemination. As \ W\-. due lesion suggests, as with a tcmr like 'popular culture1, it is misguided to attempt to attach too precise ii nLeaning to whiil is ti sliilliiig cultural pke-lioiiiLTJfjn. i'tir convenience, and despite iti own associated dilikiJ-Jcs., \ ase tlit tenn 'popular music' throughout diis suidy Hj shimliand Ibr rltr diverse ranjje of popular music genres produced in commodity fnrni, largely^ hut no longer exclusively for it youtli market, primarily AngJo-Amerit'*n hi origin (or imitative, of 115 formsL ^iiui: llir curly 19(ifla Ulid miw jdubiiJ in .HinujJt, Studying the dc\elopment of popular musk culture requires an engagement with its lusFory, id better situate arid understand its contemporary staius. How do \ve ■feiruemrxT' the past, and what influcTicr-a and infunn* our memories of Vh-at haiipcncd', and the relative signiiitnncr of individual rvettfs, participants, and musical texts? Tlds musical 'pOpvW tneinory1 is ccui-structed ill ronton die interaction of a number Ullienmries and iiinimv: dn- widi'r ii'itlsIi: |>iei.H, especially t'[iu:Uc inii^ii^iiieN arnl i[ii' luti^r.jpbyi 4.1 le: indiji|i" iuHliisLiy'a iL"jj4iLkLti>Iiil; ( 4 jL fiiisl, lIlkjii^Ii ii::nhlh:k Hind Uised ftSts iviKwwntativis of psirdcsilar styles and periods of niiisir:; and ru^ri-la^i- HiLLi, nuLablv lOuieunii devotttl to popuiai/rock music, whkh 11.1 ■■. t- l.ii''.i>nie inciuiiiui^Jy lauL CuiuLriiiied, lime Viii iuui ilmin ul" liiituL y i_rcsti[ |.'(iliiii' aritl iiL[|ividiial popular nietiiori^s about tlie musical pLtst, establishing particular dhjiniiiiint narrali^'es. It ivijiiL [l-iucinbcikjig dial the history of popuiai music has Victn suhject in inintial f:ritir[ue and debate in a similar manner to other linrru ol' hiHtoficiil ivrifing, Atissurarc ilw hoimnWw-sh'flli^ rndd. Rtcludutg i^ i-rndi'my in fiiii»]h-K<-it* Aii^11Ann-riivin devdopmrtitB; ibc irmlnKnt r their coiilJt:m]mrat^ ltn;itinn iäcÉ MaL-MJlaii, ÍDiUJJl Mt ne HjnľtihľuUy, Wvever, revisÍH:uiul lústoiy [& t-liiu-iien-iiztd by aMknij- diJüiriüii. soiiieiiiucs a^lswiiri.t (|iicjtioiis ofurthoilox 'sumdard' nciüJiits; and tlie use of a wirier rün^r n ť iJfiiimry sources, especially popular m;iieľi:ilf iiiclud:%r oial history, In icktiiLin tu pinnikir music, in addition to diese t Iľir.icierisiieaj re\isiuiiist ac<:oiiLit3 icnd tíi íc-cus Lin previously ikegtecled i.ktíoiíí, fl^ies and pcriürniersH otien dračia t; ucw cl>iinet:ui.iiLs hel*vtrii lliese. A rcecnl h'xamplc of such s.n apprcuielij uith a ude mdie*aiiiig tlie r^isinniít iuli;i:lion& oľ iaulhr.n-j is Klijalj Walďs tiwv 'íha Ľeaiifj Detimyed Rark V Kt>H AUtrftafct ífiitíirí vj Ammánu Pi/fiaiat Mssk (Widdh UÍRIÍ)), í'ur Wald, mek 'n' mil k nul s> i nutrii lí lii.*l[ ideal griire lni! ratiltr a ptiOCCíií, wlKJ'iljy bliick du niť stylt* tTjjeyi-edly Translbniied f»p mušle and wťľti iMrriuÉle by it in tum, j'Sliukcgi 20J LI, tunsitlers lids and riliiiilju aecrnutui.j AnAly>i>ng popntiir nwüic culture 'I 'hr řiH]dy- nf pnpnlnr mmic etilrure is situated In die i^enend ŕielrl tif tjiltur^] ftiidin, which add resits die iutcľricliori Lutwi-izii Juetr tlinirn-sicuií nf [nipular ■ ullitte: lived uilUiru, Uit social i>cing of those wbti tvnvaim^ pujinlar ciiltiiresj i hi- ,4y i til j. i Eat- IcirnM., iir ii'jífs, i|ií*l nTC ríinsumcd widiin the lived cľIillu:; jjiil tlie i cnrii iiLiic iiiřitit^Hi.iTir and Technological proc-esaca ili=tl ujnaii: du: iľaíh. My dis-ľitssiiíii of ilw mi 11- i-iTrlibtiH^ I Hshij» o/ t lies*: dimensions in rcliitioii lo popular itiiuhít dmvi^ piiitL.nily Itimi Lriiiial nic-flia ihenTy, ľnnirrn"porary political Lconunw :ulJ ■ i ■ ■ ii .il iiiidit*, 1 rLj^itrd |m>|hlIíli- <:n[ii|[;J iex(s dyriiimic not stade, mediated iyy ji.üti'j'iLs of eti>nfjinii- and sofial nrt;iiiiwiilÍHíti and llie relationship of' individuals a rul sí>ei;iJ ^loups Lu lIilsü puUcnib. This puw [Milhifr bt a pwirinn ol rvnu-nl iriiptirtaiiee, m tidLunr is vicwt-d us i\ situ of punJlJit aind stritg^lf. '"ďnegotiations iJi.il eoiibJajidy ctmtirm and icdi-fnif tlie exisdt'ig iiindilions ulľlomiiiatioii and aubnidinatioii in bocieLy. "lite i'ucssnuiiirni nf rnf.iuinfr \n pnipiilfir music '"an Iv .h-h-ii 4M tlitliiaiillj; a llLitllbcr uf futrlurs: lIk innsk: iiidij.ih-y dmd Ír a^winited h < 11 noli iuíc*. tvImi iiirad- tbc iiillsíl.-, lbe nLiiin'f n| uiiisiciil Irslrf, die con- ihlud-iin n|' andieiii'irs and 11mir modei uf toiiiuici^uSnn ami :tiLt-mp|:i \t, ipiHacnct' and rej^nlalr- all i>( I hew. 11 id, oľ iruurse, mil jKu&ihlt: if. deal >ritlt every aspect uf jiofinkiľ niuhic. I'liE-nir^ ii.ipii's and CÄaiiiples \tílit hŕelt rrlrded pnuly Ibr their 1111| ii * i l ii i ii p* m rdľuiplilvío^ llif divr.™* lid ivit ic.s of ihr I add iif|Hipular rtitisk-, l:ui piinunily íaí ilieii ttícVMiwt m ihr- gctu^tfJ urtijdinrut li I •'inltHiMMJlHfl (>'>il*'bal multimedia conglomerates and the increasing tvíde nee ol" the globalizatioii of culture, 'i'liat said, tlic geographical Anglo-American and Ktiglish language-centric nature of die study must he conceded, 'liiere are mm it-urns examples ui popular music culture In oilier national anil regional rüiiicxts, abng with a considerable body ol' scholarship in rariKUatfes such as iäuaiiislir i'rench, Swedish anil í le-mian, tlnr, 1 have uoi br.iru ahlť to niwr Ker?, (Kcicreiices to some tjf tills i:au lít: found duiiiij;h dir wrbsile fur lAÜPM: die hilrniatiuiial Agonal inn (iir ihr Si i li K ol' Popular Music; sec Furllirr rrwlillft] More fully, the scope of the bunk as fallows: Chapter t considers the role of die i a uiit. indusUy, lu its dtivi: to cuumiudify pciluuucis and U:\is .mil to maximize prolili, as central in the study of popular music cullurr, 1 look a I the music industry as an example of the cultural ind nsirics, the operation of the mord companies rti pall '.ii llitie and die j t:\ul alio nary Lllpittl of ilit;ÍLal iiui.sic on miLsicid ])rcKÍtict:on and distribution. The traditional model .if the imi.sir intlustry, und the dominance of the niajoT record companies, hiis been undennbiedr Lul not rcjjlaced, in a iitiv digilui eriviroiimcnt. i 'h.ipirr 'I omniinrB the. bnpact of tl~chn(>lcjgy on popular music and the: closely related issue of copyright, Technological changes in recofdiiif" poie IxjlIi ihii-atiiiiiits and opp^itunides in terms of the oiganizadon of piuductiuji, uutl iiiiiu-\iUioji in musical uiatrumentaiiun has titcilitattd the cmei^ence of *new' sounds, Nrw rrcnrrling fontvit? and modes nf rriinsmission and disseniiliauon, iiKfiiL lrrer.ili cli^-i r I, fiher ď»r nírtiirr of musical production and coiteumplJoii, anil raise ttne^tioie ahuiil aiilhordnp, the leviti status uf music as property and ihc operation of í.opyii(íht ( ;ll.i|ih I s i rtllHnii.li h i \.iniil|. Ill lull .il .....lull -illi I .UK I :|p. men i <'!........ill.', lexl.s ami (•!■ mrš: i .liapďi 'i deals uilli ihr proivw, o| inns). >ii.,l.inn .hi.I ,(!■•. i>| prod if In.Ii, i'oiK'eplioit» of tin- inin 'nnt-ii iati' and it 'merex coulu........'; and ■ 11* siatiw uicnidol wtfiuui <:at<:gorkl "I ]m i Ii-oihi Studying jmputa inttiic tubtte Í) (.lliapLer 4 provides a ran^e rjf inclivitliia! careri- pi utiles, Loth sLuf>í am I auleurs, svidi hrbf e^aiTiphíS cl lllcir ^újíí. Tlieiti ptoltlt-s ilhtsliak- (lie iniLiai dun of musical authorship willi grures. amiienccs and history. Chapter 5 considers tlic textual forms pupidar music takes, the application of niusiioloiiy to |Jopular and issues ol hlic an^lysii and die lutluie of «>ltjj (overs. (Ihapnr ti looks 41 die future ami sijfiiilicancc of ^cnict. and ihr role of audicniiciiy in dieir ciwi-Mnniioii, and die ronctpl of popdkar music ineiiigcnrcs, usij]^ ruck mid pop, heavy liKial antl Id music as eise sutdies oi' ihese, The ah militantu] of a ruck aJLuni cíiiujij iläusli".!tri ihr debates aroniiď iihisíc and aiidicmii iry and ihc eultui-al and muuical \Aui-. ofnudt Iottitd and constructs. Chuyters 7 10 lJ exami:ie ftirthcr inMiiuiioual mediator? oi mmic. piíniaj ily iJn-iinfciic media: tilcu^ WWl du- sgiiihI icl airding ciiuipanic.s. iiicsitlcrrd eariici. ihi-si-aci as gairkc-rperx and ili.sstniiiiuimr« l.inkijiLí dicju is inaikelinjr. thi- lotu-i is 011 tin- role of ihr music press, a term used here lor tin- uhili supili uť isrilitit- 011 popular uiu.sic. ranging (nun the popltliil ptvii:. lu cultural juiiruiiliítti, in ImkIi physical puhlica; ioji.s a.itl on the jnlrrnel, ^Mthiu this il ist ■našinu, il il* focus \i 011 iiiuaie iiiatru/aiics ami musir criiici ;is culliirLtl gaicJitrpiTs;, iniitioniil nidjunris to the music itulubiiy and geawAl pun-tiyors of Iih>bityli^.. Ch,i| ins It) áftd II csaillLle tlte cciusuuiptioii niusii:, lu relaooii tri dle {ay. i. i, Lt: i i ol social itlenlitiea, aL die Je\'t'l ol the self and I he group. Two facti ui arc i 11 to undcipin tliÍM mustc as (t lijim of culluial tapilal and music as a mmirr of pl< >stin and laiijiusverniriii, ('-luipier 10 shuns, tin: plate of music in the lives 01 'youth' as a general social categoiy and as integral to fan ciilliirr, Dance anil ni-.Jiil iollrcliii!4 provide i-vaniplcs of music consiinipli'iu as a social .Jiatlke. (Iliapiir II coiisidi-rs > 1111 si 1 ,n ,1 1 irul 1 Lil conlpoiieiil ol' (lie '.slyki' ol" yoiuh mIh iihuics .nu! iiiiisical icrttes antl sounds, the musical gei^rapli\ oi pLue. läiaiacr.s ]'l to J-t encinu|h» aspect of ruu^ic hí cultural p.ililies: Chuptn I J imi-sli^alea jMiptilui iiiu.s.1- as a \idiic)e lor political ňCtiviim ,md social lltOQW' H11411 «js in trlattrm \u ihr- cnusLniclion o-" social ideiiiiáes, Mimic as ttilmral politic?, udiiiis Ui lu Ui- d^jiiJu-iiice k.l llih !H](:Í(h:ciiiiiitmÍc COnlíXl in shaping c^iliLii'4t] i .11 jiiiii^ iit tin. music. t :liii|/ti-r K5 uses hulm iial case .studies lu show lum atlempts lo rcgukili' |h)piiLu iiiusii, is- lair and peihiciiiers have con.siíinirrl 11 Idi-iti ol 'moral panic' (']ia|<[| II la mi atiitc mii.úi (lolčcy, Tin taliiliu of lite 'ii||iui,il 1111|1 i.ilisin' tin sis and the concept of ^kihiüi/.aiion au- rlist ussed m relation lo popular 1 a unie in I lanada and Ww '/ealunii, Thr rcspiOM.' of each lo du ik.míii.iiiii n|' Allien- \llH|ll,l|| tUllrtil ptlJ.'itllM |HI,-,sll)|c iii.,ills till Ulil, i Mllll.llK iii .Hill Hinwill ii1i11 ihc i|iiesiiini ol what mi^hi i oiiHiiiuli- tin ' i. 11 ii' 11.11' in ciilnir.il luniM. A dilliiultv laciiifi any inin mIm tm t IchiIiih ik 1. 1 In- bitlamr U'lvvrrn ^i-ncinl dl .. 11-is mo ol it'lcvalil Itipicn, kis miwlpt« .....I 11« I..... uilliiu lit .1 -, .unl Ill rWŕfiŕ..' I.....■■ •/•»».' .hltw illlltfl.ili.i i'Xilinpl.....I null. iiivril llir euiislraillts of length.. I havi: rhiisrii hd-addi iii|n mil <1i-|>ih. I111 ni du: topics covered is siibmtaniial and 11< n ľ. i.........ii ■■ i ■ i m u. ľ \| 11- Hi i .u h nuť in detail: at times particular aspevis Irin inni'h (h mtmdiiied und ľiullin hneš (tí enquiry suggrsicd. Al dw end of , n li i ln^iii i, Mini ni Mt.i. inirochíľtiúji, we provide ii selected range of key iourcca li i ntilii'i ■iiml\. svlme tin n- is further ^ukiinirc and links, to uiir-ľnei resources uu [In i iiiiiii.iiiiiiii website lor ttatimtuiidiiig I'opuinr Milík CuliutK tvww.ruutlixlgc. ;«Mti/iHukrr. 1 'Every l's a Winner' The music industry and die record companies Further reading I In lullowing is a selection of general owrvieivs of Hie field, edited collections, and ílisťusiiijiis of ke\ terms and concept*: lir i inert, A,, Shank, B. and J'oynhec, J. led.i) (2í>ufL| Tňc tfysfar Musk toadies Jtmdcr, l/indoii) New Vorlu Roudedge. Uiirliins, 'I', [«!,) i.li.H'7;. 73iř tftwt tftitoty New York, [xnidnn; Rotitledge. t-Sec also his iníi^htlitl discussion uf the process ciť pmdneiiig tin: reader) CatrlWis, rl". |'J(iOy| 'Srnuvrs ;i:iii Storytelling; Teaching die History or Rock llnwijfh its Primary l><'Ciimeni»'f Jmsnutt t>J t'bpulm Minx; .Studies, 21, I; lill-^H.i f.ilayton, M„ Hrrl.ierl, T. and Middlcinn, R, (eds.i [W 12) '/Ať (Mtitrat A'tud)- nj Mask. J Crilkal fatfwtutfioa, liuii cdu, New V(irk> i virion: Knmledgť. FYiih, f>. (2l'l07} Toting Pajwixr Muw; Semmto. J/cttriat Kutm, Aldershot; Ashjjiiie,. I'rith, S. and Goodwin, A. ;eá^ (199(1) $r RkW: fl#i tutd {he \Y>iikn Wi.tiL EÍS^y York: Pantheon Boolu. {The scofx* of this iniliirnual early study tan Vk uscl'iill) set iiluitgMdi: and eumpaicil tu laiei 'readers', In .iliow liter changing emphases in die ticld of study.) I lvMiii->ndluilgli, Li. and Ncga*. K. (tds) (2001-) Pvputar .Mask Smdux. Umdon: Arnold. ISejnJS,, K. (lEJÍlti; J'upuhr Musi: in '! hairy, ffitnhtflfljffi rol i ty rYras. Shiikrr, R. (:í(il'J) ttynfor ,\tusi,-; '/he Key fŠHtnpa, 3ncl rdu, Loodoii: Roullndjp', ] jr:idinj; jn. J (ťds) (I0ÍI7) ftofiuítt Muík Jilueíiei: A Seieel íiilvitiatitnutl tíittliiígyííp/ty, lůndvjll M.in^ll. li can lir U|f[|.i1t*d lir rH'r-rriiig lf.» die lmematianíil Assu<'ialioii |hr llir Sludy (»1 íililinfrruptiy, Hill the ,\KSOrÍJltiii1l'li wť|j;itť. lASI'M Ii;l\ intiiiiaiiii/LiiJ uiitl rrgiuiíitj ínnli-ninen nud hIhii [^ulilbilit.-i u iictv^lťtttirj ii-e (hr vecbctt^ m^w.tii^tni.ixuii i lie mtisiľ iiulustiy i.in ľi^sl be defined as encompassing a rswjpe of etonuiiiif aH'ii^'itks or revenae simems, Tlu-Bť arc eiig-a^i'd in |jy i'firioui eeoiioinie endues, pniii.trilVi but not cxditsively, die soiitid rerurding toniptuties, coininotily rtrlrr* ivú to as eIk 'rccfffrl lídiŕlí1. Tlir.se husiness itistitutions arc tľbafaeiŕrtíťd Ly ;u'ŕoni|>í4uyiiig serial |iratui:es: tJir: maimer i'< which peopL1 DiJtralc withi'H and in ľelatííni in difiu, I nesard an unda'standing oi'politiriU ecoiiuiny sad Uie associated nnlinn nf (lie riil[in;d industries as cential to die iiudy uf tlie muw indiwitry. rollo^vui^ an iiiucdueiiiin 'm ilieric reliUed concepts, 1 Innis uti tin- Iitjii u| tbe indtisCrVj the: record finTipsinies [lietiiseJveuv ilisrorieally, diesf: U&w. Iimi rujrriutd in a etinsiaiit ttiu^j^lť U] cimlU4)I an un<"*:rtiiin mttrkctpluee, ui'tniafily ilirtiuj;!) ecbiľ response to it ami llic I n i-b-Ľikt eijidi^uraiiuii t ď t Lit* industry'. 7'/tť iinriii indusliy 'I'lirn- is n li'iidi'iii y, t'ipriLdly in f>ttHTal tlktiľour^Ľ, [ci crjualc lliť *niltsíl LlLlu.itiy' Midi dir si ki i r ii I i'Ľi-iitdiitK t'iitiiiiauiH'h, wltiili dt-vťliijj mul iiutrbel ;iHhľ>,ľid iluir 'ni híí W m \.iiii>ni liiniJitU, im lulling tli^ii.il I liiu «•< im h»\ liísiinirallj been at lln* liľiiil iii' llie ntur.ii iiiilimlty mimI ll iriininly niti.iiiiit u very ií^mliimil pan I .' t ):,',,:l,(ti ilW. pt'ltultfl nni\l- lIllSiiK m| ii In ,t hrnariri uriine. however. 11«! music iiulusl r>' embraces a rangr tf odirr ítMlituDiiUJi and lUMoeiutrd markets, which cult be considered 'imiími' d ■ us' illull rfflf, JOI I, provide an extensive overview;. The mosi important ni 11.4 -,i ,iu' music i >ki 1 plížilkLiil.r: music retail: die nmr.tr press; iriu-ii^ hardware, unlnrlln^ nuiniiLiI ilMfmmctltl, sound recording and reproduction technulity; mm* ami concerts, and associated mcieliundiziiig 'posters, t-shirts, etc.); lilui. trh-vbioii and MTV, ud royalties and rights ane. their collection/licenang ngrnrir», 11» lotlowuig are a lew indications of tin- nature and value ol these activities: • Duňhg LÍC I 1 Adele'a album 21 sold 1-1.5 million copies fHohully, contributing to ii -p |x:r cent increase in album sales in die US uurkel [done. * 'I In- concert business saw overall ticket sales in i.1h- US up by 5.3 per tent (I a.'t let 16.7 million;, boosted by L'Z's '3G0' lour. • Music hus been the lop entertainment product driving the condimed growth of mobile phone services, especially among the ltt-:i.r> af(e group, ■ I'rime TV music shows, notably Idol. The Voice and (liec, i:rjn tinned in play a signilkant promotional role, boosting record sides and panel participants' i at eers. * With I M million registered nxn, cNsiy Ira* become .a primary source fin music buyers generally arid record collectors in particular: in December 2(11 I a copy of die Beatles tudy 7" single^ "Please Please Mc\ signed by all lour Uleuila-is i>t" lint group, sold for /JtlOUO ■ Růititig .Vúm magazine has partnered with online subsi tipnou service M potily to oiler pLvlists and review^ along with free streaming music. As thr liiirniariuital Federation ui'llie i'honugraplik Industries ilFPll observed l>ttek hi 2UfJ«o: The recoirird music industry is die etiguic helping to drive a much hroader music swlnr, wIjVIi is worth more than US$100 billion globally. 'lTii$ is o\tr Jute lititei the valor nf die trended iiili.sk- market, and shows music (O have an cronninir Ittípeřt^ttcí tliai exLfiiťb far beyond the scope of iv.-ord sales, (1ITI, 200Ó) i shall return to other aspects at""the music indnsiry' throughout this study, but concentrate here on the sound recxudhig euinpaities ar.cl their activities. The critical analysis of these has diuwu lieux'ily i»n lkiIÍIÍijI f umíniv and a view ofrilUSÍe as coiutituting a enltural industry. Political ecottomy A p.)litifí*l eroivimy apjJTn.ieh rr> dn~ popular mass media huts m its ii;u.....■ pttiot i|k' lin'l dial the pTLiihwi-rJi d( rnii» rii. ■ I■.■ .m iinlnř,tiirti irmiitiihiiirn 77ft1 mmii: immlni ami i/ie wcW in/iipa/tito 13 Cfflentially driven bv the lrij;k- of capitalism: tin- pnrioil of nviKiniuju pftifir, The l'aut dial Uk-sc itutitulioiLs are mviud utuJ euiiimlled Uy a reliiUvcly small number ol'p.-uple. and thai many of thr large*! nc;il( firms air bawd in dm US, Is a Ntuution mvokirig icnwideriLliIe eeuoomie a»d hh-nlngieiil pOVfiiVi A laimbcr ol' atroimh have traced tin- |jrrvaiivi! and inerfa.djif- rix-i |iioljrs.' in aness to intbnnalion ajid cultural [m.duets due tfi die conimfieializaiicui and I liiviiiizalion nf bioadcaslinif. libiarirs, higher cdue^rion and odn-r meni ul puWir discourse. A small group nf large industrial rjjrporaiionji hiiw syiti!in-.uiiiilly acquired mtme public commniiti:aiio]LS power than an;, private busings lia» ever bclbre possessed in world hLmory, nealinx a new eoiiuiiuiiii aiioiu i.n tel. The nuiik iiidiwtrj- hits been part ol" lliii pniti^s ul k:li:;i>I i l.idniL At thsue ij) the conscrjtieui qitciliun ai~ (onlrol ol" the media ati[| in whenr inii'ii'.'j^ ihey o|jeraie ami thr iclalinnship bel.Wmi diversity and intiovatimi ir, (lie maikel. 'Ilir inllueni.e ol polidcal ecotiOtK) is evidcui in the aJirmuenl of .sin lir.^ ihal riii|jliHsJKe (he power ol" orttptiL-ate capitalism In nianipulaie and even tou.siiLni lliatkeLi aial audicncss. Tlie picttire (jf a jKin-eiiiil ixirporair i-apitalUt iliiisjt indiidtry, able lo manipulate and even cunstruei markets and audiences, rtnfrwni Inav the nnisir bnsineis is now- an itilnJial pii'i uf a global iiftwoik (if leistit'c ami eiitenainmeiit roipniaiion.^, typified by n t|ucsL for media sytifirgy and proill ma.^iiMKiiiKut idhapjile and Uarofalo, 1*177; tibadmnti, UJ*>7; He-snioiidulilgh. 'J(Kl">. An extension ol' tins is the rlassir (orm of die cultural iuipeiiidi^in (hi'.si'i, |w>pnlarized in die 107% which implied thai mass jnannlacinrt-o! [topuhi' ■ nltiue, primarily thorn the US, is swamphig Hie iittcgitly and i-ilalil^ of local ' uliinal lorrjis [sec Chapter 14). I lassicd political ecuEiuiny tended co devalue the siKiiihYance uf euliiire, ••1 "».t; it pilinaiily as the lellection nfilit etotiomk: base of society, all too easily 'ili|i].nii(< into a form of economic riricnninuim. A group nf (imimn intcJJcciijaJ*, .....W Iroui the hi'Mh, the fViuddaii S^:lnx)l llieorists, ei'iliei^cd mass cultiue in i i n< i,l1, ainuiug thai under the capitalist system ol production culture had '"Ktiie simply aiiiiilirr objet'l, the 'culture industry', devoid of criiir.il tlwjuyhl .iiiil ,iny ii|npdjsiiiooa! pditlcaJ possibilities. Adorno applied this generul hir.w jnuu (f»-i i filially tn popular nuisi^ especially in his attacks on Tin ran .■VEey and l.i;/, Uontemporae)' polilkal econnm> tbtorists have brenroe more s<^>liLstieated ni ihrir -i]iprc* ia:iou ul the rerciprocal relationships belwecti (jasc ami supei-aim tun , coonOffiks and mkiuI activity. JWid llcsmondhitiHll I'lfiW) convin-chi((h ii. uiuiwlratis, it is necessary to emphasiic a view of lite cultural imln.strics' 1 ......pl'-v, ambivah'tit and [::>iiit-jtrti. Media insdtutiuiLS have been txainined li> .iikiiif,' pf nirdi.1 loua. Win* produces die lest? For wltat audieucer" In vihox* inifrestsr1 What is excluded;" Such an imcrrogaiinn uea'satataS fmm- .......: |f......-iihiT uh'diu in lenns ol' their pn)iluelJon pnictices, fimuioiaJ ie« htio|i«ny, |i^L->laiivr tiaiiir works and their (u nsl ruction oTaudicnues. This inw work has rearmed (he inipori.mre of political economy, which has been pi i mi i ii nut iii ihr I.ni ill i m|i in (onmcn inn lb«" uuuire ul niiiHi as a culluial i miliary. ] \ i ffiilmianiiia^ fiopuinr vihsic taiimc The i* ní t \ i t í i t ■ŕmlii.-iíľii A dríi'ľiplivr li'Ttii ľiinl minťid and dirvtrlojifd by Adorno, wlio rťťerrcd lo L t lít jj l íli llie 'rultun- i:uÍL]j(lTÍi:a'. llu: itiltural illduilľicä arc dludC econotlliť il1.illluri'.)J13 ■ivJiith cn.pkíy tlu: rhíincUTLitic modcs uf produťlioii and orgaiilKtltoii oí"indiLi-ii!-'I mr|HpT;iii[iiis lt) prľidiiEií! and dirSi'tnjiiilL- s^cidjoäa in tlie lonu úf culmraí goiivb .ilile ťor globál dominance uľmediu markety Jliis baule ridicrtcti totnpiuiies' aiiaiiptä locomrol boih liard^aíe and software mailítiEs and distribute dudr l-ÍIÍjiií; Eiii-iibS: ti talige of uiedia prnflnrrj, a synergy thar rnivili-; niiijiitiiiííllkitl nľ pn-idkiit [ÍĽ-iii5 Lind iiiarkťtiiiť, idivjpai^iiH iiiids Ľoiist.jl|ueiiLlys pnitita (sec lbe wíítimpfc.s oľ ihis in Chapifíľ 7), Sneh [íii-rĽeis tcllecied dif ecoiiomieí cť scalť and gjnbal incegruiŇn) rrrpi'iv/H to ťuifipťlť on d u: Aíiiäd medlil nuikri. A sinull gľuup oľ iniern.il.il nudly biised liLT^ť Cíjrpor&tifJtiS aprpid ilicir inlercscä dtrosi u. viiiicty uľ incdia, im ludi ■wjimd rtM:ĽndiiLf;, nesjllin^ in multiinedia ronjlrjiTiL-i .i ws such *i>: Tinir-Wiirari-, 'l'wii nt" die main ťtiqioiaie suLiicgies used hťft mr IniiiwnHrtl -ind venii^il iinr-íiiiliľ.ui; ľioruíoiitaJ intígratifiD dťscritje;s liiť autions oľ a íinn m Imy un4 (or inn-[nit, usually itimngh markerir^ and dUttributiuíl ticaLn) c^iupctii]^ (.uiiijji.Liiieb jli dlľ ...ihj kvfL iis V.'idl Ufic iihisú: ifluil ifiuin jlijljÍi Íiil; liiiiiLIh'i lljuíjl- j<:Lati rliíiin; viTtk\d iiiLctrmLiu 11 rek rs lu a iíurkri in vfhirh a tiint owns niiin- dtan onr asjjccE of iIk pTodní'rioii iluiu ftuuí m^nurar-tLirí dirotigb rlisu'ĹbuiJoii aitd niar-kening:, -ľ> m/ítIi a ihľiííc: rliinibutor tltnt o.vns a rtitisíc Tvtal cliajn. 'lltĽse linke d eťunuinic m.mcfpls have hecn ncady explained in Lcrnia of a carnmuiiity listí utnkr r.DimiiiiiiLLí,. i;i eoniLiollíiij;, odier áimilňľ íizcd Hah in ihc t^nk í.a .in iľj^implr of 111 'i r.'.i ľni :il jiíLľ^iluÍuji. vľllji:J ii itcgfňtiein occHiis whcn a kitgc fiah o^ns tbe Unk. llie ■hVJter, Llie plaitu. thc iticka and thc Ibod aupph, whitli it diatril.ní(.tb to thr otlicf Hili (Uishop, ™>5: 447). (jĽinian nicdiii ^iarii BrrHímm-u ílliiH.intť.i ihrst- jhim^sííľíi ,i< vvLji-kf I . 2(IUH ISt-riľUnianii owncd Ixiok jtublisliing ýRauď-in H ki:l 1 nft iTfWps (book 4ňd V*]1) rlnbsjj nnlinť ipiteh-ŕiU (<;|Jlitiw]i .iijil, rln liľiirt oľ thor niinpLiiiy, lirrirlsnmtin Musit l.imup {HMfIn lídľHi Unii hntiutn liini ,vM 'íle- '•■••i- intimity fHtii iňc recňid Cňiufmititn 15 MM t j ptililislitiiŕ llie wirJiľi liiird laigeít iiítisiť pulttisblRj) QlWIJ^b^ wídi ÍIUIS IťVĽiliie uľť;<7l JuillÍLiii, In Uitivt-r-iitl Mušli:, Vet, índaViiLiii^ diK linge stlipi: of IhLutsLTVdnnV inu'nnms, iIllll lljínri: ihth oni y ;uccoimtcd lóľ abont i\\x) per cent oľ die ŕt>[|ipaily'i toial itt/dlne. 'I he ciLlliLiaJ iiidniin-ieii are enft^d: Lti lAjnipetítítín lby iíniiicd ol" díi- I n jľíí i b le: ineoine, which tvill iUj^tuaiť aťvijľdin^ to ike econoinii" Litnťs. A'VIlIi ĺls laatoi"itHÍ asH?t"iiitioii wilh vouthhil ptirthasiíí,, llie music bdn.ilry is punieui^ivly Tiilncfabif ro shíltK iri the rclaiive sbse ol ihe yimnger iige to hore, iht-ir itm oľ :ipeiLtitng powet- iti it period til liítrli youtli ititertipluvniťnL svorldvvitfc mi. ihrir sliiliins inodes uf eoitsitnijiiion in Jiľ era u ľ : 11 ■ ■ doiviiloutd 'Hii- iiilinuJ nidu-iii-it^ ure i*š»n ertgngťni in ^-í>lnp^-^^^l^>n Ei. n~ iukci-iistni/ r<,\tMitiL,1 coiisiiitijnitin limr iintl skiiletl ktl^iir, Kadii>s iĽleviiiDii und nnríir ftutgaiciilťs are idl Imrai-ily ' h| ■^■■ukiii oj t iulvrrlLsiiií; revenut, Not oidv nrc:- e.oitaiiiiirrs ni h teiitii ^ thc u rxiícnditLUĽ, Liiey íuk iJm.) tiiťitiiit|if iliĽrr tillic ajviuílij; diŕi h,-ai-y!ilg chÍIluhJ ton Mi.ii[ŕtion iipjjĽiiiiuíLiirH tt^'LiiLililĽ io lIiilii. ^VitEi dic ex]3anfled ran^e oi' kristire i ip|»itijjiiLÍ£s in recĽnt %e.tt&, at W.nal hi iIh i^e uhle- e o arliiirl thr:ni, iht cí)iii|>f.it-litrti .iniLwijj eIic Lulttiij], lecieLLlitHi.d lliilE tisíci t.tii i mení jidLLitľies liir c^g^íUiLtfer iMletllioil llitS ílli.Tt:ílSľd. ťl" reeaľd companies \ \w [rtiird o.itnpLiiiieii \\yk Ltij iinpinutiiL pitrt of dtfi rtilttue indusliies, Siná1, its niilial dcciílopmcrtl iit dir k:tr|y !;)(WJs, llie neumri íŕioiduii^ i [li lustry has (leitlOuati-dlCrl |biirihiiMidiiiriiílt-rĽ(ti(-.',((*;t; í'rilJ,ř ľtfW', tirbcstliaii, 2009}. ■ .i Imi^Ii LmLicLiitr.ilii iii nl maikt:!^ • liti: \ l 1 tItJijl lili', ^JLtliiíIl LlE'íll'EtlH • lltiir traitttitalioitul niiíL ^InEiiil opiíiLitiŕiin • ii dependeilce itn copyright ľegiilalti in*;. ľhťse rcniLiíncd evirkii; in thc äjhic^uent evohitii.iu oľ tlie rtcord ftmiiiLiiiicí, nlinh ililii llie MlLttis cunlinncd to clrntnnsiľiiLr (hr Irulnn-s iíViiliticJ hs cliar-nr n-ii>di oľ tlie cultiital Itjduf>tiiira (Vu^d, l!>y-l; Ik jíiieieri ihe lemi ' i-111 [j 1 .i n ii i itrnt i i j. 11 l.-. i r:Ľi' j: ľtmltli ľľOlii a Wiy ÍCW Jlidliy p^tihir pľodut:ľ( íirti gťi-ii-riilly rrrjuiľnJ tu ullítt liľiwii ľroii! ntatiy niedionitieí, tivcrprodtiction ji k.llitre of iwírdľd mnsit, vcítit nuly .i ŕiinitll pľijpíiiľioii uľnelcLiseji LuijLľvini/ i h;irr kvrn,fi, ,iiid Ĺ^nintei-cinl niicre.ti und H fciw uic^it-dith ir. |hľu[)pieig Hp tdn: nuvňi iiidiiMry lu udirľ-vt'iíK Ic.tit petiuds le.tr. Michael Jiickson's, "ĽuiHiir, silica of siniľ iniUiiiiL ľiijMi-s iluniijrhuiii iIlt M!lld>V tMtíľkťriiiL^ t,LK|M'ndiiuren pol hilu itrr pi'(i|>oi(lomili) Imelti: iJu.-h iin[>lieľi in ílu: UtitHic itidtiMliy lo n-h'iLíCŕ. tintii Liľli.tla ivtlli a jittľvetl Iľriľk rfiiHíl. Ainilliiry uť nľi-iiinliLľ} tunrketi prtnidľ di-.pi.ipi.iinnt.iirly hni^c rciioiis in |»>|iiliir iiiuiiic thi.hii^li liiľiľ.inii; mul icvrtiin- tťttti rnpvi iľIh i ,cí willi Itlln *i lULldh'aeksy fkipitnl rvisH arc rr I a r\vr-\y liifrh -mil nlijJi ipnlislh: 1 e i K \r. i ic"l rS 'Art-| Hit,tit i it; in die music nuliisu-v llski is t:vii liVi il hi die. duLiaoaiier: of the liLapi-s, in |)Lill J tit- to i Lj l* greHtrr development and promotional capital duty haw ..'...il.ihli * ()niroii)LJ ire I mi domical iltivirjopniciit mftkcs.it ever easier and less expensive To in.LiLitl.ii. line. ilisliiliLJte and receive eiilertaiiunenl pnKkicts and services. « l''.[iii'[L.jiiiHii:iii pnodurts arid services have universal appeal, as evidenced l.iy liie inotiiiaiioual appeal of many popular music genres and perlbniicrs; litis is enhanced by die general accessibility of music as ii medium, ilu miller what I........!!■■; a sting may be stilly in. A sikniificnrti, albeit frequently debated, risjiwi i>r the record <:cim|ianiei ii i&eJr I inj.i. 1 division into major and itidepeialenl lain1!*. Calling the ttme? The majors Tin: record vndihKlry lias liwti n ically lieeil dl u i tin lilt: d by il group ní large inLei llíitiútul ei it iipanies commonly referred to as lbe majors. The major lalreis are mnally involved In all aspects fit the management, production, distribution and sale (if iitoidid music, attempting as far as possible to control tliest; different aspects. TJiey have simikir Drgaiiia^úotial structures, with lypical inailageiiienl hierarchies and various; divisions: A&R; promotion; sales and marketing (lor a detailed discussion, SCC I lull it fli., 'JU I I; for an iwighlfiiL aiiaiyaiř uf llie process Iil the littlCls. which remains irlevatii ried company Seagrams; and Philips (llolhind) by libdti I u uher c:oiii)oJidiidun. and mergers had left four: Warner Musie ÍJrini[i, jiart of AOl^ Time-Warner-] LUiiverstil Music i.iioiiji, owned by Vivendi Uartcnid ISA ui' irairet; ÍJony-í(Mtis iúiiuly owned by the j;^hiitcae Sony Clorjidrulion iitid bi.TielsniaiirK vrhieh h;id ■.ricr^-d In ".'11114; md I?,M1 [,td, u l.K lira), In ^011 industry consolidaliun i^iuinued, .as. KM I, ike mumllpjsi ul' dir Iriur [emaiiou^ mtijor labels, petaltii^ resulatory n\iprovul, vus s-ild In Universal Musir, willi staF luyoffs and rosier fiilbiik.1; oť jitrilbrciirri likely to h.hikj'iv. I'Jiib lull L uiver.sa! nvitli a market di;ilT of annual +1) pel f/iiL, nveisliadi itving Smy lujlI Wan in, di.r otJier remaining iua]rjri>, 'Hie niai-kei sluire estiitisid by tlie majors varies I'roiit country to mutiny, I mi in hi ii ne [Liivrs Lsmi'i ill J pri ui il kbi'ir it- ei inMdeuibli" drlhiii' uvvi lllr i:t oiiiiuili 1 to' mtssk iiiiinsin' end th* umti ixnífrmm 17 and cultural implications nf su^li nnaki'i [luiniTi^TiLT, rN]irr!»lly ibe flrenglh of Idem I music industries In relation to marked litikk towisii the L^nhali^nion ot'tlie Ltilluťe iiidttstries and p;owrnmcntaJ polir.y catiopses lo das. sittiilltou (see tin.1 examples uť Canatia and New Zealand, diaeassfd i:i filLaplrr 14). Siimr mm-inentators re^ird die itntiiral coTolliir)1 of'stteii ccuieeiitiationi of omicirsliip as lih ability to ekvtuidaily deíérmine, or at lbe very least ítroiif>ty iittlucnt^c. iItl- tiatinf ui the demand lor panieufcir Iojitis of popular culture. Uy the: same toki-n, iiuMe i.ipllildiitie inetlia aiialptrs, ivílb n preléreiuť ří>r Jlltmail agency. Cllipliitsba: (hi1 individual consumthr's Irradiim id lI.....w, tin-ability to decide lanv and when; ■ iiItutal texts-arc to he nard and [he m^tb^s and message* to be assutiatL-d vdth I hem. The debate in this .area is one or eniphtmia,- íint*: etenrly Inilli sets of ittlliiritces or determinations are in iiiietation. At issue is the consequent question ol' L'onlioi of dir media itcid in wlLO.se iiiteresi.s they 11|iterate iiTifl 11ic r^lfitionsliip between di\trsily and iuiKivaiioii in the marker. Free- niaiJtei fcootunists iirgtie thai innovation will occur more fm'|i|ftidy under tvatditiotvi of oligopoly (increased coiiceiuriittoij, fewer piodiiL'fi's), sit ice larger ftrnisi are beLterable in rtiiaiie.c inno\Ttliott and pass the costs aad btiQifes along to consumers. Conversely, olflef analyits argric dial eourlilions t$:\$feiftofo i ne 11 n a lack of incentive lor Jirtni in fie[jitil much itoin iLuc: tritrd and rested, ii Milling in o higli level uf prodmL hoinog^ui'liy, I■ -1■ ■ I imalyscs of the relationship bikMin c......■ iinaiio.i, tiuicivaocm :ut:I dneriiiy in irupuJar music suggesred a nt^gativii rtilabonslrip helweeil concentra-iiihi and diversity in the recurding indusuy, itLiting diLi to n cyclical partem of niacb't cyiHeis in symbolic pruLluetiott, l"his suggests dun ui i;iiual musie^il ideas ■ md styles, seneraied orpuiietdly, arc raken up by I lie; nsnoird inditíliy, wiiieh llitii |H '[*ukLiiits lbem and arJlrcves tn lhr:m as the Maudald foiiiL, Meanwhili-, new iohml^l: Lit:ntls i:[ii[iL,t- iL;ii have ni Ijreafc tluotigli tire* new ordiodnxy, I'htis ilr\eln|ta a cycle, ol' hiiKiVftliuii atiJ Lonsolidatiou, v.'luch lias bt:en jeliirci^d in hi-.ini ii.iiJ ilLilts Lil ecijiminie cliiji eiaratiiin and markr.-l COIItlvl ill die music mi Ili>[i y, I In: irueial qtiestion jm thi.n debate is how does such coocentTtilioii ait\:t tin": nitlgi- ni ii|ipomuiilieSavaiJabkl Ifi inuna-iaii^ lljilJ iKlier.i involved in the production "I pi i] in] n 111 ■. i i i and div- r.aiLlli' anil j": lj i l-.i ui' |i|ixhifls n.alabl.....he enh- iitniers ol' popular musics In olher words, what is ihe mltnral difínihcanic of 11 lis .ilM.itnin mill wlkll rok duvi if play ill lire ereatiun ol uie^jiiii^ in |><>|JLikir musics 'i'ite i'liii-fti-uili-iitx tin- SoLijiiF?' dtHfiiriftte tbo Pfronkd niLisii. nutikct. flic 'iiiik-pciidiniLS1, ia-'nnb', play titi intporliLiit role These ,itr gcin^iEdL>- janaii n:ioid laixis that are ....li pemlt'in of t|ic iiujurs {al itňuit in (emui of dir artist Hrqtiisilion, recůrdmi; ami pioiuotiuti), a!|biHj[i,li ifj|| re-luuit on n mitior foť dhlTibuliítii ru«i mun: *,iim;jH htstorieulLy uicludi- Crentkm, 4AI), Sub kup, Sogůi' I liH, Hi ii 11 ■. 11 11.n|i- aial Slil!';. 'I'Ih-m- l.dii-k ;lh In i|iiinrl', enruidr-ri'd to hn ItHHi" l|i'\llili .....I Him n.niVf in llnil l.nni i.l allien iind li.iv, |n ■|ini|l|y I ii i'll I h (iiidmtaiulntg jiaputat timsk rultutf us-neijiterl wiih ilir BfWfÉwifiř nf nrw gmres The torn Indie' denotes not just u iy|w ol emiiomu cul in,', tint ;i miisiral attitude. Both senses of indie are linked to a set Of dominant musical values, with authenticity sit their eorc\ with these values east .is i lianirlrirally oiqtnsed In \i .-/irrrt iryprd niiiinstrrnm and tlie major? "Hie crossowr of indii: bands from sntallir labels iiun rtu: mainstream music industry, as occurred with \?2, RYM and Nirvana, li:d ro considerable debate among ilieir Luis. Independents ha.iv a rirJi and often lauded mle in llir- liiunty nfpopular music, h hua hern argued dial iinkiieiitleia record companies in tin; I USDs did nol have tliť miporait: hierarchyof the majors and sn řind inrutir Hexibilify in pk"kii.i|r up i'h and promoting new trends and talent and a grt-alrr ability t li)M. about one thousand new record labels were formed1 (Kennedy and McNult. IM xvii... T acquired a sij^iiiliťTun market share, as. did Motown id tliť l%bs; lliesc became mid-range companies, .situated between die majors and dir indrfienil.-nis., but were subject to absorption h\ their lmtrei ilvaJs. While, dici* *re a Ihikc number nf independent labels, and llicy produce two-thirds of the titles rele.ase.d. tlieir market sliaic remains small. The operation fit' the. independents and the precise nature of llicir reUlionship with (he majors continues TO be debated ami ihe interaction between d'eni remains a dynamic process. Hie indr|>riidnii sector lias continued to be an important pari n|' the music industry, made more viable by ibr iipportunittets (lor marketing and distribution) '. i : :. i ti by ilu- internei. while nl'ieu .siill acting as developers of talent for the nuii'us. The ixaiu[i|e.s of Ureatioii iuid the career of Oasis and Ro-ifdi I rude in die UK during the 19*J(Ja illu^uated a defmiir tiiurririg of the boinidariej between the independents and use major companies. AfCORlingly, argues Daie, 'indie erased to Ik- an abbreviitiion of the word independent, and dtus ceased to denote a sigiiifiauii distinetion Irntn die mujoi labels' (lliile, HiCK>U: 17J). The eon-tcniponuy music industry, where many indies are in faer jiart of linger networks ollaheLs, rcquirei a more tiexible and ijaalified detinil ion, with the indie record company "characterized by some degree of separaiion bujni die Ijlisíih-s^; prainres ami Lirati'.e (uniiol uf ike Iňrge ccqjorations operaiin^ majttr lands' (NgvíOI and Henry. 'itítíSk Kiů). Music in cyberspace: the industry ifties online 'lid- dm- 1£)í)0é «aw the beginning of a king iledine ol die majtn- Kpsdbig nun (lnul- mil llitir nuuket diioiiilum r, an llir iiitriinl i,i iiuj.sic as digital files; for record coinpiuiies. perlbrniers aiid lans; i inline music jouiiiaia, unline eimteilii and iiurnnesvs; web radio and biilk lui Iniaidi ^Cutiiuui iind Taidiiii. 20(Hl). These irpic-seiii new ways o( iiueiiuiking die ,uidii!iiciVeonsumcrs ofpopiilu music, lite lierloriiiers and liie music umusuy, 1 lull letum lu dlese in laler eliapter.s; uty eiiipJiwits here Li on die impact of the web, and digitid music, on die recording liulii.sity, I'juiy discussions of lite significance of electronic commerce via die web emphasized the business and economic asjietb;: the benefits tn firms ;ind con-■itiijeií; ihe baniera and dittkuliici associated wiih doing busiiiť.s.s vi;i die nrl; tlie ili'iongniphics of net users; and ilu: op|)tntunities tor eompiMlies oii die net. If was ......t i-L-i'>gnÍ7Mrd dtaf ihcre wetx; also signilicimt cultural issued aahittijitetl wtlh |pn|)iil.ir niiiMu on the net, which linked tip with ongoing Jebatfca in il t* |Hilliiel>_ 'Lbe lltl .>i.Heitliaik/ ina.id j;ri:iih:r ciinsutiier stivent-ignly :»ud <■ 'bok' r lij bypassing die tiadilion.il iii!eiinediarie.i Je nf iwcntic, ltd SLTeraJ aJli?Hi (jiolably ll|e hnnd Mrt.illiiai aiul jeemd labels to sue Napster foe brent-h ot copyri^tu, I lie issue* involved wrie ciitnph-i and ihe liUnaiinii pi'trss wan a lengtliy and very public oni' Na|mlrr Win ItUM'd In eh we rliiwi., tint VrtiH trlttuturhed flat a k-p>i[iiuair .irum 'J'J fJnilmtajuimg popa/ar music culture hi late 2(Jfl:l iNapsler '2.0). Newer n-t lmnlm.im"; and providers moved tiling lu another level: Wherras Naipster required users first lu log mim a eenirnl mrver to access oilier users' MIJ'i Hies, these newer networks allow direct user-m-user peer-lo-peer lOimeeiioos involving mull pie lile types. These innovations expand ihe universe of lile sharing Activity ttud make it virtually impossible In irark oners in the files they choose Os share. iGarofalo, L'lKCi: i\\ M1J,4 i:ha!ieuged die reconlioir company's control over distribution and, since die Lull tut had no built in ivuy to prevent users from obtaining ai:d disci i Iluuui; music illrgaUy, could represent tJon>idrialilr lust revenue. The majors, through trade organizations 5Lch its die- K.IAA (Recoidiui; Industry Association of America;, joined together to create the Secure Digital Music Initiative (see www. sdnii.org:, in an attempt to icasscTt control over music distribution and also l:ct1)H US Digital Millennium Gupyrigh; Act (see íiirasscr, 54-5), An alternative industry' stratégy also emerged, when in Jul HI, record minpuiaea began esiahlisning copyright deals with internal music producers. In the entry uf Apple into the musir ninrkc(place, with its f l'n i trs service, tin with considerable success, encouraging the development ol' limber such services, nmst notably eMusic, which only sells music bom irifie]'lendein labels, Their is a I nits it I ens ion lietweeu protecting the rights and income of I lie ori-i; ii.lI anisic, aid the restriction of musical output. Cnpyrtghi was originally conceived its u met luuiism to balance private and public interest!: by eliiuhiatmg piaprinaj moiio|>olirs over creative works To some commciiiainrs, die media conglomerates weir, now attempting to "use their power and |inie|lectuajj properly to itdhieinv iili1.iuji.lI and interiLaiioii.d laws in uider to lock down culture, and control creativity' (Bishop, íitítlá: abstract/, the battle over P2P file sharing lias continued, with the music industry targeting new, iKist-NapsLec aervktm inn) individual consumers whom they perceived lu ínliiiJL.iiijj copyright. National govrruuiruis continue co Ik: involved ill such attempts at rciíiilaLioii. 3.l■ New Zealand, for example, in May 21111 lbe government parsed the Cupyii^ht {Iiifruigiug lair SI taring) Amendment Acl, giving itiiirr powci to j cupyitghi tribunal, enabling diem to require ISl'i to seno wurniiu> notices it' illegal ckjwnloading occurs. After three warning letters, a copyright I ii .' ■ I. (.in :.i,.' , claim i.i hi- triliiuta.. I in 11 • ai i 11 n n ■ i: ,p -■. iii;:-.iiu..... I ii : ■ - nf (NX) S15,0ÍK> to the current acetjunj, holder. Tlie act has already provoked considerable hostility and opposition, not least as unsuspecting parents whur children download would l>t- uirj/rird Í" Internet law n,Liy ralcb parents unaware', Dommwu hut, l"i Api'il líbil: A-f, was typwul of ucwi cwyorwge); i|nesiiom, ,ibu Tilt music imtuiliy tintt thr. mmtl miajmmti 23 lemaill around the cost of srnding sue!) lelLeiS land who will hind lliein) ami it ii'itmins to lac seen ifTlbc legislation is workable. This local debate has mirrored I he filler iutertiatioiiiil diainn^r around downkwding firatticcs. '['here are several roee issues in tlieud-babed sen-iivs- A major ieaturc uf this resurgence was die hic.eaNctl ini|Huiunce of live music. Concert ticket prices have risen well ab:)\'t: inllaann ■......■ l!J!lb, at tlttr sail*1 time there lias been a decrease in revenue from leamLrd uui-iir. f liiiti'.equendy, li%e perfomianne is nov, utn of the |iiiinai\ income sticants [in pi'iJii.iuers and the tiuisic ijidtLsiry, Heuiiioii concerts and lours by a nuiul/M "I pieviiiusly lung inaciice bands or perloniK-rs, who nevertheless rciained the Lillecdou of ihcir ■igillg liui bases, have bectiiite a leanue of die cnnteill|.mu ,u% ii>niiii ciiiLiii (!ijr rsaiuijlc. the liagles" I Ore;, tlie íš|M.LtÍEtb,; liolj heger). liiiibsxmi ui.ii'.a/.iiic rrjiidady docuiiiciits income generated by concert lours, stiouiug lurtl tliesr are a uiLijiir income stream for periomicrs. Úlelndini; those vdio have nut 1 (leased "new" music, or toured, tor cudtc some lime. In -Jiítř^ColdpluyX four behiml ihe telrase of the album 'Viva 1,1 Vid.ť canted (US) li"J'3.7 uiilliuit: dn Jihi,is! Ifriifheis vvoiitl tonr netted iheui )i')l,4 million; and Ij-oinu,I Cohen, jilayirig his Hist US cioncens in hi yews, earned $fJ.2 niilhtui 111 box "tin c share, I In emergence of Use rvatiou as a major maikei lon^ is indicative of the new 10-.l......mi- i.t ]\\',- niiLsii: as ;iu liidusuy income siveant. In líltió the Amen, an kiiberi Sillenlian ami his lofnpuny SFX Liilertaiumcin began acquiring ctnnji;i-on ■, in tin liv- Illume sector, lu iJUtid Sl''X was biijui^hl by the l|]Ljlfiuiitliui..l I ni|Hri'iiiiiiji ii), „1 (Ihuiuicl, wliiili ilii-ii combined its live enieilaiinnenl asien lulu .1 .cp.iiLin- 1 ■ Jiiqsiny. I Jvc Nalinii. in 'HH)rt. IJve Nalioii now dominate* .......11 pnntmtiiin in both the United Kingdom and North America anil i.i ibe 1 nul :.i nui>i[ 1 «111 j,ni v lu die ivdilil (Ik hind L1 ut v trsal,, 11 lull rt <((., Jo I I II Hi II, bur N.umn Imm Milieu, dcah uith many of music's majiu |n ilinuu 1«. M.idiiin.iV liiiigtriiu iiiiildriidilu livt Nation ih al, valued at USJjCO iiiilh,n. 11 t..i,. i\ puinarily on |miu rilial to grnriale toiiiilig ilicoior lui iuii'l luiiluual Slii kv '24 t !ndmtam{m<\ popular mum culture and Sweet tout- in 2009 was tlie lughesl grassing taut' ever by a solo artist; in Mutch "201:2 Madonna began her second world tour with Live Nation. D2's similar 12-year multi-rights dual with live Narion includes worldwide muring nvrcluitulixing and die lucrative 112.com website, which digitally distributes all thittgS L'2. Conclusion 'Hie recording hsdnsiry is now in a new pnsl-inrltisti-al phase, charaerim'/jeri by ilit- unpad ol" digital music ami ihe der^m tahzing fifths means ol" recording, reproduction anil (.isuibuLion. At die saint time, tiu.lt ii increasing consolidation ol ih« music industry as a whole, as part of the global cultural industry. The iuiei national conglomerates not only compete with one another, but are increasingly ijiitteoinsecicd in complex patterns of ownership ami business practices. The majors remain dominant, but their market share eominue.s to shrink While tin* global music industry is still concentrated around the production and management ot' rnmilMWr-iifiv ike management of ri^tilH is providing un iitereifctiiigly iitiporianl share, of il* revenues. Tbioiiirb the 2l)0fK, die unpad of die inifriiq and digital music has raised serious i|iie.stious about the continued adequacy of die traditional business model adopted by tin; majors [tin a helpful discussion erf their various responses, see I'urbason, 2 111 Hi). IliHUAir, the frequently noted death of lhe music industry1 has been overstated: 'While digital ccinligurations may allow lor new means of distributing text, audio and visual content, they do not - and. we argue, cannot - fundamentally niter die music industry, which ... follows its own imperatives' (Uitrkart and MiCnurt. 2006: 7). (lenainly, the sound recording industry has shown a steady and mitrked decline, underpinned by two factors: the tHiguing ixmsulidation of the majors; and ,1 prei'ipiioui kill in sales revenue ir, ihr I,Sf down from SI I liillnii in I0:»'t to Sri billion in 2tl(J*J (Jones 2012). At the samr time, however, wc are tin .sun ting more popular music eulune tlaui ever Ijefbre, AsJoiica (30.13) pum a: 'peofile and businesses go on paying feu symbolic goods in music on avast scale,' Further reacting burkart, P. and McLlourt, T. (2U0ti) Digital Musk Mars Ownership asti (.foii'vl of tht (klatialjukfhay, |.anliam, Ml): Bowman Si. Littletield, Frith, H. (-007) "I'he Inilii.stiiali/acui) of Popular Musitr, T'ikillg tfi/mkr Atusv: Seriously; Sekrlai Ei-itps. Aiders! tot; Ashgate (iirst (wblishcd l^ofi). I'tirgason, A. ('J.M.Hi 'Alrnid of Technology;1 Major I-did Re-spnnse u» Advancements in Digital Technology, Pufniiai J\tu.\i< flulutr, .1, 2: l4^-7t). (leocsnuiir, A. -'201)11} 'The Transiialionui Music Imliislry', in D, Scott !nl I 'Jh AifigMr Rt-ttmrh (.hmptimori to ftyuttB Mluit#ti$l; I'ainliain. Asligalc I li-'iiiMiuilh.il^lk, l\ 0Hi7) fix iitftttml iWtoni'i '-'•«: ■ - In I i in I'm Sa^r Iht- musk indmhy smA An nmr.-i wmpanw* 25 E lull. {>., HiilchimMir,. T.W. and Classer, R. [5011) 'flu- Mini? Amines nod lia: J'algruve Miifnilllim. Juticv. foenses mi the music industry as a process, rather than an insiiiiiiiou; iincihiiig ninsieiaiLs, attlsl managers and umi.uc coin pat ties as "lliey seek In eottveti utiginal h:\li created by miisdeians alio airttfeWijI syruJuilir goods.' Strachan K. (2007). Mioo-independenl Record laliel.s in ihe LfK: Discourse, l>IY Cultural Production and the Music Industry, Euviipmm JvmimI of Cultural Slmtits, 10, 2: 24.ri-ti;i. The music ptcss is cssentiaj lo keening up with curce.m ihannes in the industry: Hittfitntrd* Variety and :1/awJ- ll'&Jr Knsiness magazine Fuit/ti has included some uHellil muterial. Ijirnitcd c:ojite:it r:au he accessed ouliiiL, aldttai^li liiller access is i ,na h [ty huhscription. Websites I In briiLsb I'biinograpltic Industry: www.bpi.io.uk I lie luteruatkmal k'ederation oi'die PlKinotri-afiliic Industries: www.ifpLorg (lie UrPl iiriitnoies the interests of the internatioiuil recording indnstiy woihl-vs'itle. Its members include over 1401) major and independent companies in more than /(I Louulrle.s; ii akin huv allilkited industi-y national gloups in 4H I'OUinrics, The Recording Industry AsscHiatiou of America: Miuv.riai.iioui The variinu 'majors' lalwl.s, alcain with uv,n; 'indepctick-nls-', bive wrb sites. I nr Natinii; www.livcnaticjiiLC.fati