Mum- (tm! tťriiMtagy '27 2 'Pump Up the Volume' Music and technology Vlir history ni music is. in part, one of a shift from ortil pcrforniancc to notation, iheii to nuibic being recorded and stored ;uid disseminated utilizing various nwdiii of sound [iiiicli latLTh audiovisual) transmission, 'l"licac Lire hardly discrete stages, I j i;i i bey fin oiler an organizing logic lor the overview here, Any new medium of eLBtniuiiiirauon or '.echnalogical lorm chiingca ihc way in which, víc experience music and iliis lias Implications tor how Wtf iclaie to and consume music. It is imports:) 10 acknowledge that the impac- of leclmokigy on music is nut solely a twentieth-century phenomenon, «tsw»ciii|t:d widi the advent of recorded sound. Prior lu lliis, prim was central to the transmission of music, with the ehvubuon of Itand-wriiieii son^s and scores. 'Hie printing press facilitated the árriilatiori of ■ i■... I ■. ■ i .ill;:.!■ bum die early sixteenth century, along with sheet music, which peaked ill the cud ul' die uiiielecjilli iciiluiy. Technological changes in recording equipment pose both constraints and u]j|ju[iunitiei in terms of the organization nf pnoHnrrinn, while devcitapmimtt in music J .inijiiiucLilJtiun allowed the emergence oi' 'new' sounds. New recording Ihrmats and modes oi' transmission and dissemination .dter the process of musical pi eduction and consumption and raise qiiesrinns about authorship ,ind the Irgal si.iuis o£ iiiu.iic ii priipcity, li is not possible here to cover iill aspects oi' these topics, wh.di liave been tlic subject of intensive study (sec further reading}. Kathcr, 1 have attempted to signpost n.mif nf ď.eřr .-ulnirat Impliralinn*, with brief examples to illustrate lite interaction of technological, musical and cultural change. As Pnul Thcbcrgc observes, 'technology1 is not to be dtoughl of simply in terms of 'machines', bill miller In terms tif [iiacdte, llir- uses li) which it wild recording and playback deuces, recording formats, smd radio, rorripmnn and the internet ;irc put: 'in a more general sense, lbe urgaw/aiion of pp'nijuctifin awl ™naiimptii>Tl' (tf>9!l: Vilfi 17). My dUciis^uM rmrrs mulini |tnulitilrnn, ihe i:iHn-eiKe of lien' iosmimenf- uu music niakingf sound recording and imil Ičimiats, sound reproduction ant, sound dissemination. Simricl production New lechiiologies of sound production ,*rc dciniiLuii[:iiLi .niiimc dcbaies aiiiiioi:l iheir JegilinuiCY and \A\uc vviilim nuisii.ii cuttiitr, Hu iujtilliĽĽ; 'ílu: Jl'riviil ol lJu- |>jiij.ihturic ililo A imhicjil Ulll'.ii'e llwl Ti-AiTcd die li-iip.i!i:linrd \m Fsŕľ Home iui iiri\vinc;uiinl inliiision bv n ruuchaníiäiil device' [ľáich and Hijsn.T^-clds ^t)(j:i: ">.17i. ľiuilirr exnidiplcs of Lhís pmcťsa iire tbc iiupacfl of niiieLceiiih-ceiifciry hr.!* baud iu.st.uinciiw; die mícropliunĽ in the lí>'ÍUs; the eltxmc guilaľ iii die t*ar|y J!Jr>Uif; the MiM)g ayntliestwr in the liŕtíLis, and ílu Mll.)[ iiiiusical iiwnimienud digitiiJ :iucilacc) síihľ dula te l'JUOá. Victorian Ľngbuul sins' an unpreeedetiietl exjiiiitsioii ii: |vnrti<'i]iiiti\e music, wth biiiia Iwiida u iiwjor pun of this. TtCSW Herbeľt tlíH)ít,i examincj Low .ind wliy brasi biuicLs ilmv|n|ied, tlicir distrihiittoii iiikI .ultijiii. mi, ;md the nature iind ^iiiiillii :uii i ul lln.ir inip.h I. Jn tilling Sti, lie illtibUa'.es die i(nii|)l.'x iiilci st ilinii <»ť ucliniiK^y, iirtidiiiiuiiiuti wid nikisical IbrniÁ ;:i ivork in shaping itie Itiass bam) äWntHlHJttti ľhť iirsl balľoľihe nineteenth eenlnry was die iiiiihi ii[i|nirl;i[l( peiioil m lie liisiiiry nf brass kinds. 'I'hey emerged us a new bun j cflei^iin; ariivHy, with the devi-sopmrnt of new brass Lwrrinncuts made puaíľtc by the invention nf die putou \-nlve: \Suddcn.y bni.s.i iiMnmirnts possessed a nerv iminieal liuiliiy, and pibtenUaĽy a new mrhl idĽiitily* íUitIíiti, \&ft&! IJO). 'lliť advent of new inaUuiLiiiiih made |Missiblc new iiiii.siiiil tťiliiiítjues and an cxjHiuiled band i'c|w.Ttoirc. 'I'lir iiitiudiKtjiiii ot ib<- mieniijhone in die lltlllb ievolutionhxd die practice oi |nipnlai singiiitri iii vij..aiirsts ci>ald now iiddm>s lisieiiĽis with uiijiiTcetleiuril inii-lliis.lii.1 in niv. uiuiical creativities ami -iiies. oi' (Uiihiirsliiri, bruce Johnson trace;) the emcrgein-e al'die miernphonc as a '[x-i kaiuaiice iiľí-es**!!'1 m Aiisiraliii, .liii^iu^ Ihhv it Wrt» iiiiĽiiln:d by gendei |ioIÍIÍlh. MaaujJiut: re.siNUi t u i: I (í 11 lis 'iij'iiliľiaľ aid left it primarily let wronien jinjgepfl to ejqiloit tu |ii.M»ibiliiir-s In die \'.':'MK 'In jiarliciiJar, ihcy «>Ji[i« iineiUrr) wild prejection, tiinhle and st-ii>ibiliLy in a \iay Lbal |iliieed die iiitiluitlc "j^ram i>l lite VCHCc'* in the ^iibla anna. bi)inii th.: li .iindatiuns for the distiiiLtke vocalisaiioii >>f rock/|>op (Johnson, Ľ lluid and hornlike sotoSi while die cnuiiu'y ami jnn [> lilncs genre* popular in die Ian- forties cneooraged ilu'lll In t.'liit)LJiale u mare pcR'USáAL and rilling ec lliHtkei 'ubig^ed in' In i'lili-n.iiii llieiii (Wiikoti.il., I'I'Hi t!li.i|.|ri li .'II / 'nfaitanártg pofwiat intuit culím Ilir ek-mnim synlhcsiicr, developed in litr bte l%Us and early 1970s, lni ,11111- 'ilir inn ánivesslhl rltTtronic iiistruiiieiil of die twentieth century' 11J i i ii J i nud Hijsteiveld, MUM: 5-1 E>). Moog beranit? trie- rlritnittant inaiiulatitncr, in irati because he made his machine available in as many musicians, as pnssiblr unci worked elusely vviili iIh-iii in eorstanlh modify lůn desifrri. tiis lyudteKeer became a keybiiard dr. he, pruvidiny mi appealing lealure or Mong advertising material- 'Whenever someone wanted to :ukt? u picture, lor h< true- re a* n-i nr other it Souks good ii'you're playing n licybuaid. Penplr nudes^c-ind ihen 11 in you're, making niusiť (Moogi. Tin? aecrplLii ire of a kevhoird A-iilftt-shxr idlciird ilir influence of the wider culture «nd ihc historical statics of the piano JILlI Olgajl. Waller f iurlos, n skilled studio engineer and eoiuposei uf clcctmnir music, formed a close irliliunship with Moog, exchanging advice for custom-built modules, in 1ÍKÍ8, with Raihrl F.lkiiiH, In- produced Sivikkvl th ttarh, tin album of Bach's "greatest hits' pcdbiiurd un die Moog synthesizer. The rriiioil and commercial success oi the allium helped popularize the sytiihrsiztr. I'sychedclir muninuns, ahead} lascbialed vviili unusual in,4trtiiiť:aLs such an tin- sitai mid iht:ie-irmi, muk up ihc synthesizer, dor {■xjmple, the Bynts on Ike ,fytittiwn> tiyrd liiulWra, Columbia, and Un: lle.idrs nn Inter alliums such as- littí>!nr(, ťarluplirsjít*. KJIlíjj. The production of da? iir.ii purtahlr keyboard, thtr rheaper rtiid caaici ui use MiuiuKxig, v. l.irU became an essential pall af progressive rock in the catty I97fo consul idaled litis |jopuk]°ityi 'it wis llit fust syiithesiae.i in hmv mass appeal -ami w.;is sold In ,i new way, (HlfTrtiyj retail music stores, thus laying (In- foundation for a retail market in synlhesuia-s1 (Pinch and riijsiervclc, 55+1. Tht: MaiintiH^'h pitrialjilily, case of ii™-, reliability Ltnd hardhvu'wl unund, made it an iinfmvtaiil [irrriir.snr fn I a.| di^ilal iiiiuunicnrs, notably il it-Viimnliii |3\7 (l'J83) WJtJi ÍLi ividi: array fit'yrrijcla, Tlic atKitnt ui' MIDI (mmíca) nifininienl digital interliiee} anil ■iJi^ital ekcirn-dics iciiiijiletely restructured niusiii' pimliiciiuii iWim l'.Hi'l nnwi.idi, ifpn?!w;niing a lumidi^m -nhift in the liiitory ofjjofmlitT mmii-, The nov ^eiii-iatioii i ii' ii-siniiurnis .uid snfivare t'teiKed ircsli iuunrl pussihililies, csijaiidtd style, techlúqvo and iijiieepls i>(' pioductiuii and raised the status of ptmhui-rs {see Chapter 3), Sound recording Sound rcerii'diiig ii llie pinuciis nf tmnslerring 'liht:1 luusirjil pcrfalrnatlCfl uulu a pltviiLa! [i[odtu-[ idte ri-i uiiliii^. Che liisu.iry ofsoujul rrcmrding is one ai Itvh-itical advajiees leading In ilian^es in die nature nl tlif pniiess ^nd the dills in tatkii and i.mlnrj n|' llKwe ^wjrkiii^ with tluiii- n-d'f-.nnlugita. buch chiipfjjr:!i mr nut iiannsvly (eil)iiieal, as diflcrciu recording irehuolugies and lliL-ir as*n-iated ,\nrk' inj; practices (e.^. multi-lraeliiii^, nVfidnhlmijj, tape delay! enahie mad mHlaiti dilleieut icslljetjrn {fnr a detailed liinioiy, arc nurinlngluim, Itl'.ki: fof n ■ hik i>ri-iivervien', see Millard, KM}: Ciiaptcr 1*;. In the recording siudiii, tin mirk ol llir IQuOd iiiiKer. dl W*Utd clt^itieer. wu wlien- niusn .mil luiwlrvu mhii'itiiny met, Illili.ilK desi^liaii-d a? Mo In in imi!i'. 'uimul inixrri havr eniiviiKil a fi.ili im<..... Minií imií tňhuilhtp art, willl consequeiu hi^lier stains mid rewards. Zak n-ferii u> dieni as 'U.ili i laliiinrii aarl alianuuis' \'2\M\; lo5), who an? now ics|Hiiisil>lr Ji.ii linuji nl'^vliai wc hear on si rcconliiis, ai uug as a kind uj'ir;insliitnj- fo) njii&fuuti >nid die oiJua1 iiii'tnhers ol (liu reeDiiliii.ii (ram I'aniculiu icti)t(lin^ illuiiiMir iideaineh; in sound reenrding, ;,t tit:u^ jh einn-jianied by giťfiily iiicreiistrd nsr ol'sludio dun. \pproiieliiuji ill'- tiLsiory n| p<»pLi-l.n inusii i'riiui (his pcrsfjiietfliii ttoian quire a difFen-ui pitiun- of artí$ttc high P'liulS tlild itnlear hgnrcs. in mi i|i,irison willi die cl>11\í-I1IÍoiimI (dtrdtlOlůglcS, I I'Jinpaie, lor examplc, Ůse folintviiig recordings; I Ijs Paul and Mary Ford, *Íb>w Hi^li is the Míkjii', wJiieli oeeupierj tin: i-jo. i Unnilliiil on the Aim-ii. mi i'hat'l Tor niivr weeka i.i spring TJ.ŤI, lannidied the i uiieepi i irsnund-o.i-aiinid recording, CUUplcd witli lead's dtcoveiy nl'inpe deJ.iy. The lt:i'hiik|iM! for reemdingiord.s vuii-e wa.. Aso intuivaiive, us ftuil rwalls: "Ihe unwritten rules staled thai a vi«:alisi ilmukl lie pliiied nu dnst-r lh:m iwn ten tinm die inicroidioiif, but I wynicd to i'U|itiu.* eeciv litilc hreaili and nuance in Mary's wiiee. Sn 1 had her staj»l i-iglit on tliť tnic, jusil a •. n.iple olhtelies away. Then, what happeiiedy Rverybody stalled to record \in-^(s that way]* {Cunning!lam, lí>í)6: 25) 'i Klvia Předly', "I'liati Aleiglit Manu' {Sun, Ji>.jii';. w;ts rcrordcil al tlic session in whkli pi'oilurt-r Sam Phikp introduced ih*- i!,i|)-baik rhlay sound, u-.id nn Pre-iley'k esttir-i Sim single* and ihc UheP* trrardit^ hy mlifr ii ii L, J .Hily artistu. I The tteaelt Buyt, 'íjood Viliraiimis' i(.:np:(nl, I[166), Brian Wilson's, 'pneket .'.vuip:uniy\ (ililwed a Jtufie caitKr of iiisUiiumiií, includini; ;i ilien-min :,i y,ie- 11! li, - - i/, i ,,U , i :,,!■,!.. uu,-Il,.m. ii,.di i....., |,,ail-, l.i\ I i >. r,,,-,] -.,.- i-.j • w-rduhs. ( 1'itik I'luyd. ihii Suit nf tht Mi/tiii (CJapitcl, 1117'!), sei a new pm-rilriii in sourul ivnirHinji (euliiiá|nes- i'iaiii|jh, in ha hul1 ni'imi*- g^ilti, dirvii:-rs (hai .illnw audin sigiiah Lu In: lizard once ihry rise abovr- a pťcdetL-rniinet.l ^'ohiuie iliieslinld and an ťMiHiaive nse of synllicázcins. i n.mgci- Mnuse, 'Dn> l-W' .Wwill (2f*fl-1j, Innk an a i-appella vi-lsinu nl' i-.i]i|.in- ],u-/.s ih- Hliid Album and unipled it will i siiinpkts froni die Jieades' 'P't White . Uhlan. I'lie H-suJtani luadi-itp' was widrly ilistriluiUid n\cr ihc ititt-riihi mid was t *i it J i jinpiilar and i initi.iversial diť disi-nssini pflt in (iliajHc-r S). Jin* pi o!i j um I 4'liangi'^ wi'iiiidit hy satuph-is, MIDI ,uu| mlier m:u i,:dmi .Ingi-lal plu in hi !<■ n-i aie • icditrd wilh giving kn-vx lili' |- in Mimpline mi, like ■ iibisui, h-.ipin «1 (•• t am I a m,n .ilnuil [i\ iikinK (he tvlinlr liuiini -in to pine.v lední i • i u 3(> i/mirrstanding papula? mtak atkwe it tit lis n msiiiiieni components. It's slsu an attempt lu lonk tn a paftt tradition and to tiy and move forward by |iElicliii^ dial tradiiiun in a tif.v, COHlCKL [Beadle, HWH: 24. Through the HWUs and inm the 2000*. new recording led urologies have continued to open up creative possibilities ;ind underpinned llic cincigence ol new genres, notably (he. variants of techno and hip-hop. Most recently, tech noli >gy lias enabled liit.' riraiion nf'maih-ups': recordiiigii combining two existing recordings, usu.illy illegally unci from radically different musical styles Kid |ied'nrmrrss tn create a Haw lexi (us jusi seen vdth Vta irV/ ,Mwm), Digital sampling allows sounds lo lx- recorded, manipulated and suhsenueiirly pluvcd back iiom a keyboard or other musicid drviic. liiti'mlnced hi die late HJ7(ls and subsequently widely used, difrirul sampling iUiLsiraira die debJi.es sin 11:i.11 liii!: musical teciiitolugica. Its use is sr.en variously as resrriciuig [lie cntplnymiint ol* session musicians and as enabling the production til" new sounds, e.g. iUr. u*- uf previuudy recorded music, in the creation of rhythm traiks I'tir uat. in rap and dance remixes. Ltac iutreasiilg emphasis on new such iccluuilogicsi ii v^nificijiitly rluingmg ihc process ol producing |X>puhu' music: 'As pop becomes more and mote u producer's and programmer's medium, so it increasingly is a sphere ofciKiipoiiiioti, as opposed tn [wrfonrtaiicc' (Goodwin, I99tt; 130). Sound formats Willi die advctil of sound recording, music beta™ a 'thing', as recording r:-( I mollify in die late iiiiieimnh ccimtry enabled us Hcvd-r iptnenr. in comnaxlily lorui, independent of its live' pedum l ante aspecis. SiiIjitipjr-nL sliiks in die popularity ijt various recording lurinats ait iiiiportanl in explaining the hisKnit ,il evolution popular music Ivach new recording Ibnnat rdleieal liesli recoiiling nnd marketing npponiuiitics and ailceietl tlir iiciHur iiri:iii:a]l;r tln^i1 enmritutc a protrusion, ol' UjniinTt^, ullliouKh sfiaie. air nnv.T mi.dly siipt:r-seded and hceome the piotervtr oroilleanrs: die wax cylinder; ihe ibeilae 7H, $e vinyl 4;i, the tl1 and the I.It's CiLSsetifi atidin tape, the rampaa disk, digiiai ,iudin lapi1. dm crasabjc cuinpati disc and MPS downloads. 'Llic shifting diwaur-sK surrjixntliiif; fbi'iiiats relkcts a search for realism, luk'li.v and [Jiirl.iliitity, ahrn^ '.vlQj i!il- l-lul ul atk.l:&3 and Uie HssuciiUcd imi, (JhaH^iiiu lorniats nstuilly appe.id in mnsunicis wanung better sound Uilttiouc^h whxi constitutes "better' is debated; oi jjjtaier convenience and tn thos« who pOSSrSS U "iiium IlLlVu' COILaUElllClLjl ui icnttiiion to slk.ll ii™ te* hll"l< l^U t, New initrkeU are iican-d hs older consiimcis upxradc both their tuirdwarr nnd their reeunl colleeiioiiii. 'Hie Litdiuire hIki-i vvitb rcgiud. fad tl>< lltwifawig mnm of the vinyl »tt^k: and till nun, vcra» the am~.nubin< y <>l >b1' ' h '*< ■« «'iv I nnr, 'i'heie v,ete np]Kirtunities in fhii imii lot dm>e Mill rrtuitiutuiil) u«d tn vinyl, tw tlK otirly nw a boocrt m iIn- ni.d n'nu-il Mntv IniMiteu iu C|J iiinwili I nil lltni li inril > ullei'liiili* mi dieil >viiy In huyn^ tlirir lit .1 di-ik Afyái and ía:hn«ltt^y 'J I pl.tycr. TJie curreiK diin-uucrtaliiatiini til' lite stiund rerordit^. ivilh MP'S dnwu-h)Liďi, rejnewnts another re\oltitionaiy inhnral diift. i shall liuvr more to say an ihU lain-. A short history of the single \ history oi' die vinyl single and iia digital snreessnr is an t'sani|ile of die n-l.iticinship henveen umsie making, marketing and consumption ill relation to a liamiii. 'llic iiiii(uluctíijii uf die virtually unbreakable vinyl single i.lii>tori*alk "ben reterretí to as a 15 - die rpnll in the eariylLlaOs weis an iinjKirtiUit jactiir in ihr rmrrgenw ol a proliteialiLni ul" smaller indqwiideiii m:un, label.-, uliii.ii wtn xigiiinVam in po^uiaiiting itui "n1 mil Tltc was cirijtinaJly a 7" vinyl liirin.it, iviili tm 'A' side, die recording cim.Hidcred nnst likxly it) receive radiu air]iLiy am] eharl 'jicijniV, and a 'U' iide, usually wii as a i ecoj iln^ uf k'-ii .ippiid. Abu knpnruiiit yWSj thr an 'eMeiuled jilay' single, a \'inyl 7", Visually null khtir siing.s mi n. la the Lk, die LV ivpresemed in early linrm ol' 'greatest bits' pacLage, allrai'live přeOrd Co\ers, am I otltsnld albums nnlil 11 i: .ally h)60s. In llic early IHÍiíls the vinyl single fA'crtook its shcllat 78 eounteipail as llie dioriiitant music indusby iruirLetintij veliieh-. Singlei became die major aelliiig l"in.at, the basis lbi iuiLij kuid television pnjgT'Jiri[]]iiig and the most impiinant i ban listiiig, with the*! in an appairiilly symbiotic relauonshiu, Singles appealed >n y.....n}> peopti- \viih limited clůposabtt! inrome, wiiutinu, In keep up sviih the ii. i i hi4rt hits. I'or die record cutupanir.*, Miiglr« were ■beapet hi prului'c dian ul .illinrn and acted its market 'testers', While singles success was iiii|)ortaiu lor I h'i dinners and tlic record companies, ii ws« also impoi-tnnt as a means ofdiinv-mg kiiir-ulHin in die hcl-omp,inyiiig, úr luhsccpienr iilb.mij with diciekase níboth I.....A closely related. Willi a lew significant e^eeplitwis (íbr esarnjilc I ,\()j became the fir4 single to lili no. I iu die IS willniiil l.^i.ig reli-uacd aa n vinyl -t-.l. T^rlvc-incli ♦inglfs, iiu lulling triiiuies, became an inipormnl p.ut of the dance music scene l»ťi' Slia^v. '.Í01H I, and, ,n (oinpiiiiyiiig the general tisr nlihe (JIT ionniiL, die CJi .tni'le .dsn began In iim-i,^' .i' .1 pi.ipnlui iii.irketin^ IhhiiI and cim.Minier pitfiiiiiH Negtin tiTi) diHiiuieiits the ouiseijuenl decline ní die vinyl iill«lf through the I'lHds In die US, sales ul dngle.s U'lvveen IU7'I and lyííil ihiliiK'd b\ Jd, |.. i i^iit, limn l!l.ri,.r» million I2J fi million uttita, and despi?c die t!nitn.,himl\tifi fx'/inliii muw iultoir e,n>v,tli ill tn-w Inmiiita, IuUjI sales of singles declined hy 41 per rem. Tn Britain, the single's decline uin lean ihiimatic, villi total sales falling by 21 per ccui, limn 77 H milium in IMK) m Oil million in l'JlMJ. This retiecied the continued ihitWry practice in the UK of releasing one ur two singles prior In llir issue uf an allium. I'lit- itiaiivr decline of die single reflected the higher coals iff the urw liiuii.nx and die pressure to piuduct ii video 10 accompany a single, a [narliee tli,n v.i- n l!,,miLl-iI as iMxcssary liiv supporting radio airplay dud rlian success (M (Simpler % IVi liiruH-tTt \vcri- idlrcied by iLc shili lo the CD formal, Whatever the aesthetic i.mi- ni Ihr rock/pop single, its material significance lay in its availability to aHr-i* viil limited i-csntinvs. The 7" 45 and the I2'1 dunce sing:t, with tlicii p. ■ uilni in.ii k:-i lii-tl tu \\te- iLib scene, offered such perlbimcrs only .i partial ulilmlltntr linked to litis, is the point that many of the indi-prudent record mm-(t-.mii iniild nut initially allord to produce fIDs, restrktiiig the murkci uptinns KVailable to tin ir arti-sts, lh ihc \*VMh (he overall lift- nl die single irk die charts, due Id radio airplay, iriii.itnril bitpntnuii lor drawing attcnuoa lii the alburn. The single is now less imporiant. with Htka in all formats having continued to decline in the past dn adr, NcVrrtlwHeia, it remains ii-.ir.ial to < umuiodi lying pup music linr the teen inarkrl. Tin' appeal of |iariieol.ir singles is primarily assessed by die placing achieved on tin iluna, -ls well us longevity diere, (It should be noted llia( thcie air not i|i(tte thr same; siistainahiliiy imLicalcs a broader market appeal, following iiiki.lI Ctlc* In a performer's nicite market or cult support,) Making .subsequent .i* ■•■-mil nit of thr < iiumitMt'.iid, and thereby piLsmiied cultural, imi>ac.t ol" a ;■ mil on ihc li.iiU iA total nates and the length of time sjierit in die charts, a common praclio:. The physical nature of die single, and it* relation in promotion and thr charts, underwent a radical change during 'jl)(.lo 2UGo as the music market moved online, hi die UK. hy early 2()(Kj, digital s nglrs made up some KO per cent of the single inai'keL an a whole, u|j hum 2'i per cent hi Sfltil-, Music meg;Htores, .such aa \;iri;iri on Ltindoli's Oxford Street, moved tlieir 'singes wall1 io the reai uj'ihe nhop utid only fr-iuured the *Top 20' singles; oilier reeortl shops stopped jtocking tin: lliiniat. This initially produtitl n sttaage situaiiun in the weekly charts, with duvvnloiids only eouillilij; for one Keek helinrc tt CD single was released Jiid livn weeks after die CD \a deirted. However, many singles- v>err available to download seveiaJ wreks beiote tln-ir CD ri'li^isc, t>fti:n increitiiii^ in popularity as the recouung's release datr approached. Recopiwiiig iliLs situation, ilie EutcrUtin-Jiietil Ketailri's AisociaLii.ni began to ulluw all digital sales to count, su thai Utc iiiigti'S- chart woutd jtiii^ilii di'finiiivc uf nnpnilmlty. Il^c availaliiihy nil dilivnkjtttts transiduikL-d die way in w\\kh consumers ohtainrd music, giving them greater iliteet input into the charts and at much less cost, A striking exiimple el thts iw-nirrcd in the UK in lair L'lMiy, whrn it caiujiaign on laiiehncik enuiuragcd people tu t!oi\iilo;id Raije Against the Machine's single 'Killitg in the Name' untginalh,7 released in 11192), Ui .tueressliilly gi-i it to tlic presttgii>nti no. I i'li.m |il;n iiifi -iln-.m.l nl'the X I'mSih winner, ,1/uu'r (aid imfiiniitgv H Sound reproduction and dissemination I hi hLticH ic.il devcio|Min-nr of die pltoiin^raph tlila vaiiints soltM^ineitt sutmd ■.. ill 'ins dit-li; home atci'tio; ilie Oimaibtor radio: audio tap* pl.iyvi'a; (he W.ilkdn.in. the Cü jttiyer; liie il'od; ihe penional conipiiteti is mure limn simply ;i sticceisioii ni 'ii-rlinical' Érhttnphs. Kcfli'i ling clunges in the technologies ot simiid recording and prudut lion, each I ■ i r i i l nl'sniind ifpiiidnctiiui has Eiern Lirtoio|iariif.-cl hy ■.ignilicaiii ihaiigi'.s in hnw, when aid where we listen ;n ihli.sÍc. d talking machine Idisiiit itivetilcd (he plionoiii-apli, a ludkin{i iimcriine', in Nuwniliti IH77, t'he phniH)gra])h represríitcd tlíc true Legiuning of (he ivprudutliun ol recorded WIUWÍ, Hilacing the shurcd Vtrtoriim plfasnvw nf bändelnd and music hati vith the .solilan deliglit ni a privatr world uf ioiind' {Millmd, 'Itih: Li, IMisiin'.i jiIh)- ■ n^raph ttised cylindei-jj und was aljk- id retord arid i'e|jrudin'e sound. Other i, 'ii .in hers developed lite new leditiulogy litrdici': Berliner's gr^tvpbpue lUlíWJ), nid it disc iti^ead uf a rylinder, ih'lbile LUlisoii riiniidcndily iinpruvcd on 11 Li original in 1887, N'aiiims comtiientators haw identified a succession ol' phases In the levhiiulu-gtral history of (he phrunrgrnph: *n ucioiulie one lrum 1Ö77 in the I9"it3s; the us-uf h'li'(trii'al/niagne(ic tape, fiiini the lí>í(ls, and tile liigital age, with the til), Iihipi (982 "i'lie industry built on die plioncgraph was dn'vei, lur^'urtl by thr ■ i nisi am cLiiirii| itir.it i off ttinoValHiii! iw>w systems «il" recuidiug, new kind.i uf .....'line, ;uid newer types, of lecoided nninii' (Millard, LiUťl.V. ,ť-li; aec ,iho Si. Hm, The ^|tiC2iEřmi is the culmrid sisiiiirctuu.i ihf such develcpmniis Rot ■■'i.iniple. the domestic rclticalion of innsie eousuiuptifiti, faiiliutud I» the l'l......»tirnpli. raised fniesrioti: of die uatun- uf ihr liitcaÜlU prou -v Aitymte, lixiiij- mi matter where, hau only to turn a knob ur put tm a reťswH in beat what hi likes. Indeed i( k just in diis ineirdihle lacilirv. this htck ol" nei'i'Msiiy Ibr any ellin't, th;it die evil o| this so-c.illed prucess lies, lor tute uut li.aeii M'iihoot hi\niiigT j((?i( uj one can Look without seeing. 1 he ulwcmc pif •lilive elliirt aiifl die liking itrqoireit idr diu íarility timke foi U/tut'tw. IJsletn','- I.ill int.i ,i Im,I nl'u.qjoi. (Blraviusky. in Kisriilu-ig, IQUÍÍJ lie pltonugraph wit* uiitunally intcjidi'd |nini,uily si ,t Inishirss n«d, hut nun-rd into eiUci'tiiiniurui initially lluou^h cntn-tiperaitd plainngraplts (In nil lUttS). Willi the development uf prerecorded cylitidein in ihc early JDOGSj die phiinogriipliic industry mok nlh While in IHIÍ7 nnly ,iImj(h SOOjOOO rtxorda had Ihcii Mild in the D.S. hy IMWJ dii< tuimhet Ii.mI re ,u lied J.II million .oil il tnn- .......d tu liste, Ihr iinp.n ( ol the Mikity iii.uhioe wan uu<-i ii.iiiiui.il (Jerry Iburell't iliwnuoiai ur tin early day* ui du ^ruuioplione In Indi.i picHiit.% ii liuii- iiilOOK ""try ui lit* mli isicliiint Ih iw.-i n inlliin.uv .md It chn-niifnniL-4. niKk'q)iniu: writer Ijfl'i into tfar Indiím subtotititicnL As Jobu VVmson ILiwf, Nm agent in i ;,i!mn.i, |n>t it; "Thr native niLCiit is tu itir wivrsc lIiu.il Turicsh hni as long as it .■ni il ■ mi .mil rdíš wrll what tlci we care?' i Fandi, lUIJtí: I'm' \h: lux linu* Indian iniJsiťíaii-H entered Hir world oť Weiltin media r ;ns pliotof>]aphy J.mi rtťorxtcd jdLiLitl tiiim:il "native1 musit iiiio a saleidilc cniiitiiudiiy. I"liť graituipliuiiL arrived in Indiu only a ic.w viíaij alter tis invention in ilir West and recorded sound hinughi many tin in* pf (\a\&kmi Indian musit out .jf iLii- HitiHi'tiriiy oťpcrfotitiiiiH-i- fallings sudí complex li.giitkvil piolikius. I'-allilities of the new tci-linnlo^y ailetU'd the styk* and ami lure til" lbe music, recorded. While. I'arrrll is cniiii.ius not to geueralLie Imm I hi- one detailed i:.\tuiipif lit* presents, he |tigg£IH% thiU one pos-ablc limilalinn úl the biief duration rif (lie early ittotdiugs Víí to l^ad Hilisu to give greater weight to die tJuanprrted 4ii li\ed purls of tit*.- pcdorniaitct- diaa tbey would normally have linn.' hi livv rcdtab' (Fiu'ivll, l!-J9!); 711}. Stereo S(rlYiJ|thuilic riiUltld VVUS lil'rit l1i'Vl:1iijji tilt- ljasa, Li itlid-raiiLjc: drivťl' Lllld tile snlallt-r 'hvrctCl'1 lui tin: aflilr, Due lo tlie iXťprťssiuti, and thr rliflHiilly ď rL-aching agit-einr-jil on ji cointium ■íLTMi MiUidittd vťomjiaíťcl with dv butik' u\tr rcujiditig foi'niitts), diis system iv'is not iiirtied into a commťrciiu (.u'uilm't until the Liti- J[ťftíía. In iIn- L9$q« ia|jc wlls the lUnnai to lirstt iulroiluLť aWiro stuuid iiiU' lU* liome, Thr iiKTiiiicd atdes ui'magiii'iir. Wjie ii.:torilei'd and pvtrttL'rtrdfd tn\}c lu|tct) dn- riToird iiniipibiiiirs (o rfeVČlop ;t l'UliipftiiiK Jiterco pnidtl^t, pai'licLil^riy (iff dtLisieaJ nmsii' uudio-philc. By the I'JGOi, steritj suund was iiitorporaicd into llir loudspeakei*. iwnl in Iiuiiil' sttrt-'os. lJcťLimljí-i' lř*.>7 iinv Lite rim stfifm ttcuvds intnidni-tsl to tlie nuirtrl These ivefť Hul luteoctcd Ciť thi» n\a^i oiLiikrL jnd roli".-, wclr initially nut higli, but hunu.' stcurus h^i-aiiK' |K)pulnri/cd duiiiif» tin- iStiOs. (ioiitg mobile Mnliili- lunib o| sJHiiul tcpiuiinctii.ii li.c.c Imii imp nMiii |mi diLiuuiin' 11 .• lÍMi-iiin-f priwi'Mii :uid liu liriiiH iilrlililird witli pnt'licul,n lid-.idi ,-nd •.. i i.il -i and (uJuiutúg? 35 k'l'oups. <.iuni|uii f.HKettt- audio tape and ťataeitť tape pLyere, di'Mrlo])od in (tumid iDliOi, itpprairtl becctim: of llu-ir imtiS sizr ,jiid i-i-flodau-d [ToiKibiliiy. iniii-.ilh a lijw-tiddtiy inudiiuii, .i stiJiidv inipirovi'iin-iji nf i|k- y)imd, diroujiii mučí-llnalinnsi to inafrni-eii' lii|j*- uml llie iiilmdiHiiuii ul' tlíc liolljy uafee ri'diaUtlll systDjir t-nhaniiLd tlir ,;ppcul (if -:assctt-is. 'Hie iraiwiator radiu [rnadr poaSic by lUcr iiivciiliuii of die tiamisiot in |y4Hj and tlic aiidio la^-tte bad b*ec«mE assc>. i i,i((-(J lithll'jlugif'sbv lln- |t)70!ir wilh widťly popular tbuiip uulini crtiiSťUť playf-i-. and the cašttttt playc-r incoijjiiratctl into lii^li-fidi-lily linur strrros. j\n diii'iriil loiniai lur the* t-K|]aruion mlu rťiuote inarfert^ tape aiiarihis 1 hiiih' tin: main sound i-jtrrtfj's in ^^-ML-kípiiig1 (otumiu and, by tlic nid cit ůti MlílUs, caMt-ttw were onisrdLy nilier lbrmaiq llurL- In out'. ;\n a jorteblr rci'onl-uiii UThntilogy. (he tape was u.vt'd in iUl prodit.i;..tir ilupliiMioii ,aul 'li.-.t-iiiiiiiitJiiii uf'kX'iil tinmic: ;ind die ■■ívatiuii ul w.:w iinisical .itylcs, riiCJit notably lunik and tap. thus tttiding m dcn-mralii:-' cotllrul ovrr [ir-xluctioij atid toil-ntimptioii. llomi- (ajjititi h. ludtvirJuid fopying (lit .uidiit or vidtrsi, a^H \Mn{ wJth inner Hty ,\JiÍL-iii:-Ar.ieiíl^ji yonilit rreated a new form afwi&BÍ itlentilii ,1- '..... and a new kvd uf tioiat: miiiiaiice. 'i'be Jatiiaii.an 'sound sy-a-jir, Um: lii-.ivilr aniplírml mobile clisojs and ilii'ir idmitindin-r rej^u- culrint:, had I 'imlai impawn. 'I'licae firi|| i-mei-^ul in Junaica, licin llie lí>;>t>s nivwaób, ani wi-ir naiisplaiui'd in lir.tain wt\\ thu* iijIUim of t.ladbljisiii inn nigral kk The Imsic di-stii'ipiiou ola sound syíitaii as a lat^ie mobile li!-li tn- rliscn tlurx link justice in il.e sp.-ritieilies of die li.nri llie siHiud lkal diey Rnemle lias its own efeai-iiťitrijilJcs. partii'nlai Iy ,m i mpl.a^ib on the n-piDtliK inm ..i bass Irt-o.uendei, its umí ae.ttbctifs and a unique rn-jde ol eoiiMiiiipiK.n, (fiiliijy. Iirt!7, in GiddcT mul Tliui'iiion. MJN7: Anqtb^r mohilv form nf iotmd ttj'item^ die Walknian, hml ,i tnajpr iinpatl .vlii'n ii *a* uiircdiKx<\ during the I9i((>a, unal-liiig-the lihieiu-i in iii.iini.n,. tn individual pnvarri^&fcmz in pitbtk KrSÍags lw-e Guy ^ ^L, \WM\. ■\Vnlkni.ni, iiIiIioiikIi a Sony (Imputation (liideniiiik. htianie a popular feoert( teim loi Mi. Itai-I Hull n-ntis 'pGmwi MGttttttll [Buik 'Jt.HJOi. he nim luiii-ni^, perno-ii,il rtrivim allow (lieu u.senj to reappro-iriaie pkioc and dim-, widi li-,n n-p, ■ ..liking .....n.,| ul linn jtuciilory envinaiiiil*tils by blmitiiifc mil tmtlrtiialik uiiroiiiirlm-- iioím- mud |M'oplt!). They also reamuj-jre ii-kj1'* pxpriietice ol' ......-I" 1 Mill ttlille w.liliuji ol diiiiiiij Havel hmli lln--.i- l.m.u- w.'it- pan ,,l il., ,.ppral ul lain i'io.iin.il tHeiro™, lnu smiIi .mIiIiiI iiimeiiiťnl;, m.ilikd by lb. lOiiil.Jul.n h| diHi|n| iinitlt . MIM ] 11.- v i i - il.al.il pi ,u Ik i--, 11 i.i I urif iimI 'Ui IUriiiattihm; fvýtiltit mum lulluit Music and tohivAaw U7 I oisilih- imiIi i'lilni piMiii.il stereos, audi as ihr- Walkman and the Disciiiau, winch wri' iirr| ui physical music formats. The fnsi :■:,■ lahh MPJ player released in 11H- US was thr Rio, from Diamond Multimedia in 19-9B. Since th*fl mtftfty iin>rc have .ipivared OO ihc market, but the mosL .successful and ubiquitous fk the Sony iHod from Apple (kiuipuirr, launched in October 21X31, "[he iPod lias Ijcmmc: the sound carrier and fashion aceftiMiry or die dayT a cross between ihr Walkman and a hard drive used to More files mi n rmnputrr. The ilW docs Tiot pltty music from physical formats such as cassettes or CDs, bul holds il inrcrii-iUy as digital data. The ii*i^d is not die only digital mu&ii player, IhjL il is the mifsi i, of die brands now on the market. In terms of itsr, the ndviuimm u of die ilVd ±ue presented by its marketers ami supporters as threefold, [■irst, il can store .l hugs tpi-mUry of music ilmw much depends tin tJu; eajiarity uf the model) and all you need r<> carry with you is a audi, self-contained drvice; Kt-mnd, *ymi can Uren to wliuirver you want, wherever vmi urcr"; mid, third, it can be ciiiurdcd up Lo home stereos or em sscieos: "you i::m have your entire music collection iiw.uidy Etccessihlc at \nnnct ai friends1 houses, when you're driving - even on holiday' (Jlutkley and Clarke, tfJUS: l-ty. hi addition usiif; Lin- associated iTuncs, the iPod opens up access to a huge raiiftr nf music: You can play tracks duwutoaded from the Internet htthuul having the hassle trf burning a CD. Yrsti ran instantly compile playtists of selected sonjpi or alliums. Or have your player select your music for you. picking tracks randomly from across yum- whole collection or just from albums of a particular genre. (ibid.; The extensive |)opular .itid academic disenssian surrounding the ifefl is reminiscent of that winch accompanied die mvis.ii: yidca in the l9iJtk "tht iftid raiies qursLiuiii of riLielifijny and design,, mobility mid agency, tonsimwrism .11 id thr <'iniiiiint'il validity of thr album formal mid associated notions of a musical emion isec t:lta[Hcr b on this last |k:iuO- 'Hie control associated with ihr Walkman ii n-lini;d hv [he ifue], an tlic ability to create custpuiiml pliiylisti eiubfes ILstc-nera to itcaic their uwn MWldtrarks. 'I hey- can he used lt> accompuny iiintiin; acii\itie4, v. ill 1 the ■:< leeditrw prared Ifl 1 In- -i' ii-. ;i\\ m tentM "I I «WirJ OS Kid fetation .cl i-cqnii-ed dmMtioiL. In hit quirky take tui nescajirs, H&td Tismfort 1 Am, llylan Jemes ;'2««,i;i cdclivuies thp, ability of his poriahJe iU:\\ix to connect h-.s past musical rx|m-rience\ ni»d to thereby consrnict a pitrtional liinsk-aJ hisHnv. Li|-q,e parts 1.1L the liimk aie made u|.i ni w.n<> l:sl.* and JieiMimd {'Oit.slrLLCttiiLis nf llleelijij^ with pufi and rock stars that inllucnced hLs Ibrm.iiivc ISigt&S aluttu Willi iluw uf many uf his readers. Iliert air now a number of ln>rjks uf&ritig jni;dcs to the ooiisiruction uf Ming lists nf d.nuLs, aiyLa, lyrical thelites, cic.j and tmny !ium< .ua^^/ines i'ciiluir lists til' the laieM 'essential ttpVri^CMdl^ The il'od hit? eollapit-d the mtisical test with ita pri>rhK.'doii and cfmamM......1 .AJuiit^ b&th digital music mom ^eneriilly, it bus made tin- uwiH:islii|i ut'a hur?e ami rclectic imisrc eiolli'i 1 ion commonplace, i urther into the digital realm \-, mdicaied in {..Ihapler I. digital music and the internet have had u révou*-tiutiary ittipact on |>upidar music lultrirc. SevťtaJ key new irrlinolu^ki coii-inliiiitd to iliLv. fhc ddicjii (il'ihe MP;!; a steady impYtveinenL q>riui;trily ihrau^li nu 11-ascd binadhand) in ilie speed nf fiersonal cout|jtiters to fluwnlo;iil/?treain luusic, and ihe improved tpiality of this; ai»H. as ah-eiudy discusicil, new ptirialilv uuinid carriers, most autahly the il'od, Ttigiíiltcr, ŮUBSt have eiiafjlcd new ttiudtrs >>l dissemitii'iiiiig and slrtiiii^ ttmsic, along with nťw sites tor aa:es«iiifr it on: WH'jjtl network slle>; rloud seniiirs] Vou'i'ubr, (lollcedvely, these hiivc. (-rented nrw pmcriccj of consumption (I sludl reinrtl to die.se in inure detail in 1 Ih.ipirr 10), MP3 \ diiiitnl encoding luiinai which became tin ititeniatioiial st;tndard in MIJ'i in the stiindasd encoding for die transfer (P'JPj and playback of music on com-j 1111 ■ 1 aard dritr.š ami on porlable digital nidio playei^, surli fis íIil iPoci The Ml^i wiií dLsi|iíií-d for ease of ust:, mdwrsal crartpatibility atul lieedcun uftooveiiieat; 11 is a 'container techiiolo«\' lui recorded sound, whose dta|je and huinion an-, b\ dcsititi. taiented lowvtrd fite circulation íSte.rm-, LJ00G). MIVÍ liles ntx miall HinnijL;h to rnnkc jC praciiral to transfer fdounloatl; liigh-cjattlit^' music hlen uvn 'i iitcinet and sioie them; CD-qualitv tracks 11f kicatiuti i J ml exchange illw.il ' in In-, cul.['Ii Jieu-.ni .In 111......t-.l nuih ..I 11it- |-|u'li< M.i'inili. In pi'n viiIm. a I lit.!.. >ii« al aut) i nrilcutporaiy aicoimi nf the isisue.-i (in the fields 1 if Ism, leel.....I..>". and. cnJlutej, Utfocialed ivith die uiijjoiflj tnnlliil uvci file diarin^, . mpli.i .i.-mi, ill.' . iiiKiadiitinO'i and conlliits within cstalihslh'tl economic relation, ami the pcsihle ullr I natives thai |iiehiiiired in (he pi ' (lti+), Tlie liul iniluile the piiiitiUe ol diaiiin; tin .mhI.!''- loltoie, 'luakiiin 11n-1.lk.1icd Ho UiutmUitnling frtjwiar tmw; mlltirt ti'inciInr-iLLiti truly universal' ilfiB'i. Üy encouiEiginef a de-mmmridiliriiinri (A' liili.niti.iiiüjjnl £uck!kh |ntr-io-]i('cr tile sharing taoU nchvorli icclmology Lti a i bit LlLLll new direct.on. Cloud music serviven Cluud music st.11vires arc split into t.wn rat^Rnrk^: Mi^ir-d lor-km", tnirti its iTunes MmLl Li. GniJL^r: i\lu.h!c mid AjiiLiiuJi C,IoillLl whjc.li uUii™ Luti* "At sLurt dieir iLijfLlyl L'tllLft LlMIUi , S|XiliJy'i I'UYiilly payments (i) LirLisb Hire small and, .ts a result, sotnc rerorrliitgi «TTf tieir mnilahV on thr jji-rvirx, iiti'liiding rhixse of trie Praties, Ij/lI /'.[■j ^h'liu ;i!hI ESihli Dylnii. OlLcj uiIJ^Lk niily ii:lrn^i- di["ii i.[L;i_|i[j:K 1,1 j S|HJlify alter they hmv< out for a wrtein period of lime, JiWi ,,W iKkitulagt 3fj Iv-ipmsict, Ciiiml]riHgi\ MA: iliirvurd Unm-iisiiy ftfeM Mii.jor recording studio, iire histoii-rally identified *id± phiI.ljilI.ii (Jiridiu^rs, ln:[LSf hands and sounds; see: i ukjii, J, Aiv.{ (Jl.uk, W. Hm.j {(tuples vj'Saimd. IiliUIc Lite Gim! Rfrhtdutg Studits, ■Hun IVfintisiur tlhioLiicJc Kniokd, l)^urrif:nli^y wrrica: Jluwud (mhkJ^II. Hitf liun^; t-|*i«ji.]c- sumi^jrii's >mrl pr<*a ■ i:vitw) v,wwtInnvurdgfiodflllLinj.iit./pn-hrnliHg/20ceintsrj^slIitin on cJ us io a TLie discourse surrounding niusic and tEcbiKilcgy enilirace diverjftJU. viewi .lIjimie ch-iiLivily ajiJ m-Jiicianiljjp, artiilic Freedom mic (.:■■■■.■ 11\ rigliLs [c;upy-rijflji). Nmv ttft'biiDbgif.s can he sctn as demcicratrz.iii^ niLtä- pnnjinlicm ■ n:l fLUiritiinpiioii (jp rxinstiJidaling ct-iablitlied inusir ijiduslpy tLicrimilties; Jiii'ii^iivi: ul" Li'üdiiioiiihL djitriliiuion proccsacs op tatLuuaLiiiiiji ihciu^ cLiill'jii^in^ ur ■ ■ ! 11 11■ i11l dciiniliuLui ) Am&ica mi Rtranl: .1 !h\usrv a} fisiwdrd Säumt, 2lu\ h'Jij. C^iiihriil^r: (Hainbiif^- L'tiLwKstjf Press. Slmif. I (^006) "llir MP:l jtji Culmrul Arlirart'. Mar Motu & Stffa H, 5l H^5 *SL