CLICKTIVISM, SLACKTIVISM, OR ‗REAL‘ ACTIVISM
CULTURAL CODES OF AMERICAN ACTIVISM IN THE INTERNET ERA
by
MARY BUTLER
B.A., Washington State University, l996
M.A., University of Colorado, 2011
A thesis submitted to the
Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Colorado in partial fulfillment
of the requirement for the degree of
Master of Communication
Department of Communication
2011
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The quality of this reproduction is dependent on the quality of the copy submitted.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.
All rights reserved. This edition of the work is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
ProQuest LLC.
789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346
UMI 1493845
Copyright 2011 by ProQuest LLC.
UMI Number: 1493845
This thesis entitled:
Clicktivism, Slacktivism, or ‗Real‘ Activism?
Cultural Codes of American Activism in the Internet Era
written by Mary Butler
has been approved for the Department of Communication
________________________________
(Dr. Michele Jackson, Advisor)
________________________________
(Dr. Karen Tracy)
______________________________
(Dr. David Boromisza-Habashi)
Date______________
The final copy of this thesis has been examined by the signatories,
we find that both the content and the form meet acceptable presentation standards of
scholarly work in the above mentioned discipline.
iii
Butler, Mary (M.A., Communication)
Clicktivism, Slacktivism, or ‘Real’ Activism?
Cultural Codes of American Activism in the Internet Era
Thesis directed by Associate Professor Michele Jackson
Abstract
This thesis interrogates the normative meanings of traditional activism versus new, emerging
online forms of activism by considering how ―activism‖ and ―activist‖ work as culturally coded
folk terms in an American speech community. At the heart of this exploration is the question:
How is activism communicated in the digital era? Examined is the metatalk of online
commenters, who responded to a prominent American journalist‘s claims that the Internet served
no role in social protests and revolutions in Moldova and Iran in 2009, and later in Egypt and
Tunisia in 2011. Talk of these current events offer a relevant jumping off point to examine
discourses of activism, and, specifically, how people describe their own positions and sensemaking
of activism. These modern social movements also provide an interesting backdrop
against which to consider new communication processes of activism, and how they create
normative challenges to traditional views of activism and the appropriate actions and roles of
activists.
CONTENTS
1: INTRODUCTION 1
Communicative processes of 21st
century activism 3
Digital activism in popular culture 14
Social media activism and social revolutions 20
Overview and questions 21
2: MATERIALS AND METHODS 25
Online commenting 28
Online commenters as a speech community 29
Context of comments 30
Typical comments 34
Speech codes theory 37
Limitations 39
3: MAKING SENSE OF ACTIVISM IN AMERICA 42
Activist as identity 42
Semantic dimensions of activism 45
4: ACTIVISM AS SOCIAL CAPITAL 65
Real activism: High risk, hard to accomplish 66
Digital activism: Low risk, easy to accomplish 67
Resilient activism 70
Activism as relational social capital 72
Today‘s digital activist 75
Definitional rupture 77
New research on digital activism 79
Limitations 85
Conclusion 87
1
Introduction
Public discourse plays a central role in social change, defining norms and values, and
solidifying and polarizing individuals in support or opposition of causes and social movements.
In the pre-Internet world, persuasion in public discourse has often been privileged as ―leadercentered‖
(Simons, 1970, p. 2) and ―managed,‖ (Scott & Smith, 1969, p. 8). But in the largely
unfiltered Internet world, the meanings of social movements, activism, and activists, as
constructed in the everyday talk of ordinary people, may carry just as much—if not more—
weight in how social change is made sense of and brought about. Such talk is happening around
the clock, every second of every day, on media and other organizations‘ websites, as well as
social media and video sharing sites such as Facebook, MySpace, Twitter, and YouTube, among
other online ―places.‖ If freedom is indeed ―an endless meeting‖ as Polletta suggests, that
meeting—during which ―talk helps people consider the possibilities open for social change‖
(2002, p. 1)—is most certainly happening online, with the luxuries of anonymity and no egg
timer limiting constituent input.
Academic researchers extensively scrutinize the role the Internet can and should play in
public civic and social participation, and began doing so even before its popular emergence in
the late 1990s. Yet understudied among scholars is how the Internet and the everyday talk
(Tracy, 2002) that occurs online are disrupting the traditional communication processes of
activism: Likeminded individuals can easily connect without the need for organizations;
Mainstream media are unnecessary for spreading activist messages; Movement ―leaders‖ may
change day to day; And the voices—the unfettered words—of ordinary people may carry more
consequence than ever.
2
Grassroots activists, who‘ve devoted their lives to causes, are recruiting ordinary people,
who, in many cases, were politically inactive before, to be "online activists" to advance myriad
causes. Yet at the same time, activists— and scholars and watchers of activism—are also
engaged in defining and critiquing what it of means to be a "real activist" creating uncertainty in
the connotations of activism. The purpose of this study is to interrogate the normative meanings
traditional activism versus new, emerging online forms of activism by considering how
―activism‖ and ―activist‖ work as culturally coded folk terms in an American speech community.
At the heart of this exploration is the question "how is activism communicated in the digital
era?" which I explore through the frame of ―how does online activism and its related
communication processes disrupt normative meanings of activism?‖
The first chapter of this thesis focuses on a review of traditional social movement theory
and then shifts to considering how the Internet redefines activism to lay the ground work for the
analysis that follows. The second chapter is devoted to methodological issues, including a
general introduction to the ethnography of communication approach taken in this study, and a
primer on the materials at the heart of this thesis, as well as a detailed description of how
materials were chosen and collected. In the third chapter, the historic connotations of activism
are discussed, leading into an analysis of the semantic dimensions of ―activism‖ and ―activist,‖
and how the terms function as cultural codes in the U.S. In the fourth chapter, I present my
interpretation of the findings, implications, and the conclusion. The interpretation is set within
the larger conversation of civic engagement in America, which serves as a means to explore the
implications of what these findings say about activist groups in society, and how Americans are
making sense of appropriate social action and their potential to participate socially and civically
in society.
3
CHAPTER ONE
Communicative processes of activism in the 21st
Century
Social movements are defined as exhibiting specific characteristics that differentiate them
from other types of collective action. As researchers study them, dating their emergence back to
the late 18th century, social movements are distinguished from targeted campaigns, revolutions,
trends and fads in that they must be at least minimally organized; they have members and
followers, leaders and spokespeople, and affiliated organizations and coalitions. Social
movements as a rule are grassroots efforts made up of many factions, offering conflicting
ideologies, philosophies, and strategic ideas. New movements tap existing activist groups with
similar leanings for support to build momentum rather than seek person-by-person support.
Social movements have lifecycles and stages of progression from emergence to maintenance,
decline to termination. But the rise of the Internet and its accompanying pervasive digital
technologies are changing many of these accepted processes and ―truths.‖ Perhaps, more than
anything, these new channels of fast, cheap, and easily accessible communication are
challenging traditional notions of what it means to be an activist.
In the 21st Century, the work of modern social movements can be solitary, anonymous,
and take place on digital devices, through email, and social media campaigns often seek to
mobilize supporters‘ intellectual resources, as much as, if not more than their time and dollars.
Many theorists argue that today‘s activist doesn‘t need to be well-connected, have much time or
money, be smart, or even passionate about a cause. But this is far from a widely accepted
concept outside the world of academia.
4
These developments in the world of social movements are especially prevalent and
important when considering the pressing question of why movements form at all and theories
surrounding social movement membership. The cost of participation (Olson, 1968) in social
movements has been generally accepted as a motivator—or demotivator—of potential activists.
Lower participation in collective action has been tied to large time and financial commitments.
But the Internet has dramatically lowered participation costs and even allows for individuals to
make smaller contributions that, when aggregated, account for a much larger whole. Aggregation
works on a number of different levels in modern social movements, perhaps most significantly in
that it serves as a way to demonstrate support for a cause, as backing by large numbers of people
is widely considered to be at the heart of any social movement‘s influence and ultimate success.
One way aggregation occurs is through online social networks, which allow for individuals to
quickly and without cost ―click‖ their support, and, in essence vouch for a cause, often
implicitly—and sometimes explicitly—asking for others within their networks to do the same.
Given this ability to mobilize via social networks and person to person, one is pressed to
ask: What role or roles, if any, do social movement organizations serve in the 21st Century? Can
movements exist and accomplish their goals without organized groups and leaders? Is it possible
for the aggregated actions of disconnected individuals to bring about the same or better results
than organizations have in the past for cause-based movements? Is the 21st Century the age of
the dispassionate activist? For many individuals, particularly those who‘ve devoted their lives to
causes—and others in the U.S. who‘ve participated in, or passionately believe in the power of
collective action, protests, sit-ins or other traditional forms of activism—these are quite troubling
questions.
5
Traditional collective action versus ‘smart mobs’
Until recently, social movement theory has demarcated collective action and individual
action, as if they are two different things. However, contemporary social movement theory and
the recent ‗Internet turn‘ are recognizing the increasingly important role of the anonymous
individual, both together with and independent from groups of people, in social movements.
Internet-age political participation can be categorized in three ways: activities that are
only possible online; activities that are only possible offline; and offline activities that can be
carried out online (Anduiza, Cantijoch, & Gallego, 2009). However, even the question of what
counts as political participation has become fuzzy in the digital universe, and Anduiza,
Cantijoch, and Gallego ask whether online participation can be considered participation at all.
The Pew Charitable Trusts (2006) defines civic engagement, a basic concept of public
participation, as:
Individual and collective actions designed to identify and address issues of public
concern. Civic Engagement can take many forms, from individual volunteerism to
organizational involvement to electoral participation. It can include efforts to directly
address an issue, work with others in a community to solve a problem or interact with the
institutions of representative democracy.
Online activities, particularly identifying issues of concern and organizing and mobilizing people
to address issues, certainly fulfill this definition. Consider the possible effect of a well-crafted
political argument posted to one‘s Facebook page or a homemade video expressing a particular
viewpoint uploaded to YouTube. If one‘s message resonates with even one other person,
regardless of an author‘s ethos, digital media allows one to express an opinion that can be widely
spread, far beyond word of mouth that might begin at a cocktail party or neighborhood barbecue,
and with the author‘s message as originally presented. The successes of once-anonymous
6
bloggers and even individuals posting short ―tweets‖ on Twitter—some of whom were launched
into fame with book and movie deals, and even TV show pilots—illustrate the possibilities that
exist for not only raising awareness, but also prompting desired action (Gallagher, 2009;
Lawson, 2010; NPR, 2008).
Social movement theory
Resource mobilization theory (Olberschall, 1973; Tilly, 1978; McCarthy and Zald, 1973;
Gramson, 1975; Jenkins, 1981) anchors contemporary American social movement thought and
centers on ‗how‘ questions surrounding the formation of movements and engagement in
collective action. These theories center on mobilization processes and practices that emphasize
shared interests and political alliances; as a paradigm, resource mobilization theories hinge on
the rationality of collective action. For instance, the prior existence of grassroots organizations
(Putnam, 1993), such as parent-teacher organizations, church groups and educational
organizations, are seen as something to be leveraged to get a social movement off the ground. In
contrast, theories of new social movements are at the heart of European thought and focus on
‗why‘ questions surrounding collective identity and social movements‘ socio-political
significance (Mellucci, 1989). Rather than seeing social movements as organizations with
common interests, NSM theories consider them in terms of collective identities engaged in
discursive struggles that transform how people view themselves and challenge the legitimacy of
widely held cultural codes (Cohen, 1985). Under this model, groups are non-rational and seek
distinct identities and autonomy. ―American theory, with its insistence on instrumental
rationality, tends to pass over these distinctive characteristics—feminist attention to
‗consciousness,‘ for example, and black and gay ‗pride‘—to which European theories of ‗new
social movements‘ direct attention,‖ (J. Gamson, 1989, p. 353).
7
Combining elements from both of these frameworks is the viewpoint of Reingold‘s
―smart mobs,‖ which bring together ―people who are able to act in concert even if they don‘t
know each other‖ (2002, p. xii). Because of this anonymity and autonomy, smart mob activism
becomes less about the group or organization and more about the individual. Smart mobs are
made up of anonymous individuals who become linked by pervasive digital devices, such as
phones and computers, which connect them via the Internet and locative technology. Diverse
people with overlapping interests can join alliances and come together in solidarity without
having to negotiate postmodern identity politics, or acknowledge who they are beyond what they
support. As a result of such possibilities, what it means to be an activist has become less certain.
The traditional American activist: stopped working to strike for workers rights; burned
bras in solidarity for women‘s rights; and protested segregation in the South through whites-only
lunch counter sit-ins and freedom rides on interstate buses into segregated states. However, the
lines of activism have never been solid. Efforts that might otherwise fall under the guise of ―civic
engagement,‖ such as volunteerism, get-out-the-vote campaigns, and community based efforts to
enact local change for the public good, regularly bleed into activist territory. One might ask:
Where does civic engagement end and activism begin? And, are there stages on the public
participation spectrum that precede civic engagement?
These questions existed before the dawn of the Internet, but pervasive technologies and
the possibilities they offer to the activist realm have brought them to the forefront of public
discourse. People are asking: Does an activist need to be a passionate crusader? Or can an
activist be anyone with an Internet connection, who shows support—regardless of how fleeting
or sustained—for a cause?
8
Participation: Intellectual resources, time and money
Costs, whether that means time, money, or resources, among other things, represent an
important element of resource mobilization research. Social movement success is also said to
heavily factor on the availability of resources and opportunities for actions. The Internet
facilitates each of these things, and, as a result, is thought to bring higher social movement
participation. This helps illuminate why the Internet is such a revolutionary force in activism,
especially for people, who haven‘t been politically active or civically engaged before. Marc
Smith, former in-house sociologist at Microsoft, told Reingold:
Whenever a communication medium lowers the cost of solving collective action
dilemmas, it becomes possible for more people to pool resources, and ‗more people
pooling resources in new ways‘ is the history of civilization in … seven words
(2002, p. 31).
On the Internet, information, and the ability to easily and quickly communicate it, is a
resource that‘s as widely and cheaply available as air is on Earth. People don‘t necessarily
contribute or share their knowledge with an end in mind. Often it emerges as part of an
interactive process and Internet websites and bulletin boards serve as depositories where useful
information is collected and stored and becomes a communal public good (Fulk et al, 1996),
from which anyone can benefit. This sort of uncoordinated collective action conflicts with classic
notions of freeriding (Olson, 1968), or sitting out on the sidelines benefitting from others‘ work
because the costs of participation are too high. Knowledge, in many forms, is an important
resource when social movements are brought online and comes into play in ways to flatten
hierarchies (B. Wellman, Boase, & Chen, 2002). Digital technology provides flexibility that
means more than one person‘s knowledge and skills can be brought to bear in getting a message
out. Additionally, ―communities of practice and learning are flourishing, as similarly-occupied
9
people share knowledge within and between organizations,‖ (Barry Wellman et al., 2006); and
traditional leaders, who may have risen to the top based on connections, education, or speaking
abilities, have been replaced by those who have special technical skills that allow them to better
harness technological capabilities.
If large displays of support or aggregations of knowledge make up for deficits in other
areas, the role of the individual activist becomes fore-grounded because it becomes possible for
each person‘s small contribution to add up to bring about change. The possibilities of knowledge
aggregates are highlighted by Gamson, Fireman and Rytina‘s (1982: 82-93) ―threshold‖ model
of resources, which argues that after a point, more resources don‘t make any difference in a
social movement‘s success and resource deficits in one area can be made up by surpluses in
another area. The threshold model is important to consider when measuring the effects of any
resource in social movements. For instance, a deficit in organization doesn‘t necessarily matter if
there is a surplus in experienced leadership or knowledge. However, there is little, if any,
agreement among researchers about the most important kinds of resources, but most—such as
labor, capital, and technical expertise—have more than one use.
Aggregation versus organization
This rise of the digitally connected, individual activist brings into question the role of
organizations. Social movement organizations (SMOs) have served as a means of maximizing
resources and reducing participation costs. But in the Internet era, in which individuals are able
to skip the middle man and become arbiters of action, or engage in ―brokerage‖ (Tarrow, 2005),
the need for formal organizations (Ganesh and Stohl, 2010) and ―institutionalization‖ (Simons,
1970) are less clear cut and not necessarily a hallmark of a social movement‘s success.
10
In fact, instead of thinking about how to incentivize people to support social
movements—and not freeride—theorists have in recent years begun focusing on how pervasive
digital technologies that have followed the rise of the Internet allow individuals to cross easily
from private domains into public domains, and as a result, leverage private connections to bring
about collective action (Bimber, Flanagan and Stohl, 2005). Similarly, Wellman, Boase, and
Chen (2002) documented a societal shift toward ―networked individualism,‖ in which the
boundaries of tightly knit, largely homogenous groups have become more permeable to allow for
interactions with ―diverse others.‖ Personalization, ―wireless portability, and ubiquitous
connectivity to the Internet all facilitate networked individualism as a basis of community‖
(2006). The idea here is that the individual activist doesn‘t need to gather with likeminded others
in a physical space. Alone or together with others, perhaps at a crowded coffee shop or even in
one‘s own family room, the individual can ―participate‖ through the sharing of one‘s resources—
whether they be intellectual or financial—or by expressing support for a cause with a click or
more.
While in the past, a large protest may have garnered attention and raised awareness of a
cause, today, in-the-streets protests occur regularly and, except in rare instances, receive little
media coverage or recognition by American politicians. Consider large-scale demonstrations in
2002 and 2003 against the American war in Iraq (which continued to be waged in 2011, although
the mission has changed to ―advise and assist brigades‖). On one day in 2003, more than 600
rallies were held worldwide, including in Chicago, Los Angeles, Gainsville, Ga., and Juneau,
Alaska (CNN, 2003).
Sometimes, these forms of physical protest can bring about the ire of American
politicians rather than desired policy changes or even increased visibility, as has been recently
11
demonstrated in the global AIDS movement (Stohlberg, 2010). A notable exception are the 2011
protests in Wisconsin, which began after Gov. Scott Walker put forth a budget bill calling for the
end of collective bargaining rights for most public employees. Tens of thousands of people
jammed the streets surrounding the state capitol; state Democratic leaders left the state so that a
vote could not be taken; as of mid-March 2011, the protests continued and a district court judge
issued a temporary order blocking the law from being implemented (Desk, 2011).
Can ‘clicking’ equalize class differences, motivations to participate?
Researchers are rethinking resource management theories and considering the ways in
which people are using communication technologies to express support for social causes and, as
a result, influence networked others to do the same. For instance, one might ask: Is conflict, a
once necessary ingredient used to mobilize people (Schwartz and Paul, 1992, p. 213), still vital
given that Internet movements have eliminated many of the costs thought to result in freeriding?
Does moral concern for the state of the world and the wellbeing of others play a role in
motivating modern-day social movement participation? Resource management research largely
ignores such arguments of postmaterialist values (Ladd and Hadly, 1978; Yankelovich, 1974,
1981; Ingelhard, 1977) as influencing social movement support. However, there is empirical
evidence to suggest the Internet has activated a ―conscious constituency,‖ and it‘s not just made
up of the wealthy and affluent middle class, as one might assume. Fisher and Boekkooi‘s (2010)
study of the 2007 Step It Up National Day of Climate Action demonstrated how highly
motivated people may seek out interests on the Internet: 60 percent of those who learned about
the event online traveled alone to the event, as opposed 26 percent of those who organized via
12
face-to-face channels; and more than a third of all 454 survey respondents said they learned
about the event via e-mail, an e-mail listserv, or Web site.
Even before the world went digital, Marwell and Ames (1979, 1980) tested the freerider
theory in a series of experiments and found that more than half of participants were not
influenced by incentives in their decisions to participate in collective action. They asked: ―When
will a collectivity act to maximize its collective interest even though such behavior conflicts with
a course of action that would maximize the short-term interests of each individual separately?‖
(1979, p. 1335). The researchers‘ experiments involving high schoolers in Wisconsin found that
individuals were more willing to invest money toward the ‗public good‘ than for individual gain.
―There can be little doubt that subjects in our experiment do not fit Olson's description of
rational free riders in this isolated, abstract, but financially real situation … free riding probably
does occur but only in the behavior of some subjects, and usually only to a mild, rather than
strong, extent,‖ Marwell and Ames wrote (1979, p. 1350).
Social media, in particular, allow loosely structured groups to ―operate without
managerial direction and outside the profit motive‖ (Shirky, 2008, p. 47). The individual activist
can be anybody surfing the Internet or casually cruising Facebook or other social media, who
stumbles upon an issue or cause that interests him or her. Again, this opens the door for anybody
to be labeled an ―activist‖ without knowing many people or the ―right‖ people, having much time
or money, or needing to be well educated. Does she need to even care about a cause to make a
difference to earn this title in American society in the digital era?
13
The rise of the dispassionate activist: People who care a little can do a little
Why does someone get involved in activist efforts? Who you know has long been a
gateway to social action. He or she might have a parent or family member or friend who is
involved in a cause; a person might have wealth and philanthropic interests; or the issue hits
close to home in some way, which then again gets friends and family involved, too. In the
Internet era, knowing someone still serves as a gateway to social action as it has in the past, but it
is no longer the primary way people become involved in social movements. Online social
networks, such as Facebook, MySpace, Twitter, and video-sharing site YouTube, serve as
communication channels to easily and inexpensively spread the word about social movement
issues to friends and acquaintances. Individual recruitment is as easy as ―bloc recruitment‖ of the
past (Oberschall, 1973; Snow, Zurcher and Eckland-Olson, 1980; Jenkins, 1982), in which the
most efficient form of recruitment was to solicit the support of existing activist groups. Social
movement activists have always struggled to convince others to invest time and money toward
important efforts. Thanks to social networks, ―instead of convincing people who care a little to
do more, you can convince people who care a little to do a little‖ (Shirky, 2008, p. 181).
The Internet as a channel for joining social movements lowers the cost of involvement
because it allows for the aggregation of ―microcontributions,‖ (Garrett, 2006) spreading
leadership and responsibility among large numbers of people. Strong relationships among SM
membership aren‘t necessary; Hampton (2003) showed that even weak ties among organizational
members can be sufficient to sustain a movement and effectively convey messages.
Given this ability to snowball resources and people, what is mobilization in the Internet
era? Historically, mobilization has been seen as a way to create solidarity and moral
14
commitments to the ―collectivities in whose name movements act‖ (Jenkins, 1983, p. 538).
Mobilization is a process, often led by an inspirational leader (Payne, 1995) that brings together
people and resources to voice opposition or support for a cause, a way to effect social change. In
the 21st Century, however, can‘t that be achieved individual by individual, thanks to digital
technologies that collapse constraints of time and space? Websites allow people to access
information and seek out answers to questions at any time. Such characteristics allow greater
autonomy to individuals who seek to organize and mobilize themselves (Sunstein, 2003; Ward
and Lusoli, 2003). Even—or especially—the disaffected can participate in movements in their
own ways (Frau-Meigs, 2002, cited in Anduiza and Gallego, 2009). In fact, Anduiza and Gallego
posit that ―electronic identities‖ formed online will be brought into political activities and result
in new forms of participation, which contrast with traditional hierarchies and conventional
formulations. In the digital realm, some people argue that being aware, concerned, and willing to
talk about social issues is, at a minimum, a form of activism (Kerwin, 2010). In fact, one could
ask: Is the role of the individual in social movements more crucial than ever, even if who the
individuals are, as a group, is of little consequence, as long as the aggregate of their resources
and commitments can get the job done?
Digital Activism in popular culture:
Clicktivism, slacktivism and armchair activism
He would have been writing statements and sending them out to the world as a blogger and a
tweeter. –Yoko Ono on John Lennon if he were alive for his 70th
birthday on Oct. 9, 2010.
In exploring the questions of activism‘s meanings and how Americans make sense of
what makes somebody an activist in the digital era, one can begin with mainstream conversations
surrounding political calls to action made online. One example that sparked significant debate as
15
to whether it constituted activism was this Facebook request related to ―the fight against child
abuse‖:
Change your Facebook profile picture to a cartoon or hero from your childhood. The
goal? To not see a human face on Facebook until Monday, Dec. 6 [2010]. Join the fight
against child abuse and copy and paste to your status to invite your friends to do the
same.
This request, which people copied and pasted into their Facebook status updates, went viral
around the world and prompted millions of people to replace their profile photos with images of
Wonder Woman, Fred Flintstone, and the Tasmanian Devil, among many other whimsical
cartoon personas. But what did it accomplish? Many mainstream media critics called the
campaign worthless, a prime example of feel-good ―slackivism,‖ (a combination of the words
―activism‖ and ―slacker‖) defined by UrbanDictionary.com, as:
The act of participating in obviously pointless activities as an expedient alternative to
actually expending effort to fix a problem. Signing an email petition to stop rampant
crime is slacktivism. Want to really make your community safer? Get off your ass and
start a neighborhood watch!
Indeed, the Boston Herald‘s Lauren Beckham Falcone wrote of the Facebook child abuse
campaign, ―Armchair activism only goes so far. Changing your status doesn‘t change anything.‖
Yet, Falcone reported the Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children saw a
spike in visits to its website following the Facebook campaign and received 17 new donations
the weekend of its debut. Also, many of the visitors to the MSPCC site clicked through to its
How to Get Involved page. Imagine if no Facebook campaign was launched: Would the MSPCC
be better or worse off? While not a social movement per se, such political campaigns—even
about such noncontroversial issues as child abuse—engage individuals, even if just for a
moment, in thought about an important societal issue or cause. In order to participate, a person
doesn‘t need to know many people. A family member could have posted such a call to action.
16
Changing one‘s profile photo doesn‘t require a financial commitment and takes less than five
minutes of one‘s time. How passionate do you need to be about fighting the scourge of child
abuse to get involved? Perhaps not at all, but such a call to action may likely inspire curiosity in
some people, who within a few keystrokes can learn that 1,740 children died in the U.S. as a
result of abuse or neglect in 2008, according to the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data
System (NCANDS). While some people changed their profile photo and did nothing else, others
most certainly took further steps. At a minimum, people thought about child abuse, when they
would not have otherwise.
Because of this ability to quickly garner attention for a cause, such requests are not
unusual. Others have been aimed at raising awareness for cancer:
Some fun is going on....just write the color of your bra in your status…just the color,
nothing else, and send this on to ONLY girls no men... it will be neat to see if this will
spread the wings of cancer awareness. It will be fun to see how long it takes before the
men will wonder why all the girls have a color in their status...thanks ladies!
A simple formula is this: ―If you believe ____, paste this as your Facebook [MySpace/Twitter/ or
other social networking site (SNS)] status update,‖ which allows people to post such messages to
raise awareness for a host of other causes, from supporting the troops in Afghanistan and Iraq to
calling for bans on puppy mills. Andrea Rader, a spokesman for Susan G. Komen For the Cure,
an organization that raises funds for breast cancer research, praised the cancer-awareness raising
Facebook status updates, which coincided with October‘s Cancer Awareness Month. "It's a
terrific example of how little things get started on the Internet and go a long way to raise cancer
awareness," she told ABC News.
Taking slacktivism a step further are campaigns that ask people for donations. What
differentiates these online political campaigns from others of the past, is the amount of money
17
they ask for: starting at only $5. This kind of small-dollar, modern-day fundraising was virtually
unheard of before the rise of social networking. U.S. presidential candidate Howard Dean
pioneered this brand of everyman Internet money-raising in his 2004 campaign, and as a result
was the top Democratic rainmaker early on in the campaign. In the years since, social causes
have leveraged new media tools to take advantage of small donors and the power of aggregation.
Following the devastating Haiti earthquake on Jan. 12, 2010, more than $5 million was raised
within the first 48 hours following the quake through digital media donations, by texting HAITI
to 90999; each text generated a $10 donation. The pervasiveness of this technology seems to
have aided in this sort of fundraising. Consider that following Hurricane Katrina in 2005, when
66 percent of adults in the U.S. had cell phones, only a fraction of $5 million—about $417,000—
was raised by text message, versus in 2010, when 93 percent of adults had cell phones. The
ability to instantaneously give money upon learning of a disaster ―is great,‖ Lucy Bernholz,
president of Blueprint Research & Design, a philanthropic consulting firm, told BusinessWeek.
"It is the perfect tool for the Twitter generation … people lose interest [in disasters] really
quickly.‖ Beyond disasters, text donations have been used to raise money for a number of other
causes, including to fight HIV/AIDS in Africa and India. In late 2010, a number of celebrities,
headed by songstress Alicia Keyes, banded together to ―sacrifice‖ their ―digital lives‖ on Twitter
and Facebook, to raise $1 million for the HIV/AIDS charity Keep a Child Alive. The Buy a Life
website described it like this:
How many real lives can be saved by sacrificing a few digital ones? MILLIONS. Starting
December 1 - World AIDS Day - the world's most followed celebrity Tweeters are
sacrificing their digital lives to help save millions of real lives affected by HIV/AIDS in
Africa and India. That means no more Twitter or Facebook updates from any of them. No
more knowing where they are, what they had for dinner, or what interesting things are
happening in their lives. From here on out, they're dead. Kaput. Finished. But they don't
have to die in vain. And they don't have to stay dead for long. Just watch their Last Tweet
18
and Testaments, and buy their lives back. Every single dollar helps Keep a Child Alive
fight this terrible disease. And when $1,000,000 is reached, everyone will be back online
and tweeting in no time.
The successful Buy a Life campaign, which began on World AIDS Day, Dec. 1, 2010, involved
texting ALIVE to 90999, which sent a $10 donation. Another option for giving to the campaign
was to use a smartphone application, such as Stickybits or WiMo, to ―scan‖ or take a photograph
of a bar code to make the transaction. Bar codes were printed on T-shirts, adding a new twist in
digital donating. Donations then helped ―buy back‖ a celebrity‘s presence on Twitter and
Facebook. Until the campaign met its goal, Keyes, Lady Gaga, Lenny Kravitz, Justin
Timberlake, Elijah Wood, Jennifer Hudson, among others, ―went dark‖ on social networking
sites. Fans raised $500,000 and a philanthropist matched with another $500,000 to meet the goal
within a week. Donating is no doubt a good deed: The money will put toward meals, shelter,
healthcare and education for victims of HIV/AIDS in Africa and India. Activists of this sort—if
you‘re willing to call them that—don‘t have to give up much: $10, the cost of a movie ticket to
see the latest Hollywood blockbuster on a Saturday night. A person supporting this cause could
even build one‘s consciousness cache, by posting their donation on Facebook or Twitter or
buying a bar-code T-shirt to wear. Anybody with an Internet connection can participate. The
same could be said for anyone who chooses to support any other person who solicits them using
online fundraising portals such as Crowdrise, which facilitates the quick and easy creation of
personal fundraising pages in exchange for a small percentage of the money raised. More than
1.5 million people have created such fundraising pages since Crowdrise‘s inception in September
2009.
Beyond social causes, such as child abuse, disaster relief, and HIV/AIDS, in recent years,
digital activism has been brought to bear in countless instances of political decision making. In
19
2007, Canadians expressed their collective displeasure at a proposal that would have allowed
people to place digital ―locks‖ on their copyrighted content; within days, 20,000 people joined a
Facebook group in protest of the legislation, resulting in its delay. Eventually, the number of
online protestors grew to 90,000 and the bill was tabled and later died.
Digital petitions have pressured private industry to pull products, such as was the case
when Apple decided to stop selling the "Manhattan Declaration" application, which was critical
of same-sex unions, after receiving petitions with nearly 8,000 signatures in 2010. To sign, all
that was needed was a belief that it‘s wrong to condemn same-sex unions and a ―click.‖
Socio-cultural political movements have been born and responded to online here in the
U.S.: In February 2009, CNBC commentator Rick Santelli ranted on cable TV about the Obama
administration‘s $787 billion economic stimulus package. His outrage sparked likeminded
individuals to post their support via Twitter and Facebook for Boston Tea Party-inspired protests,
which were soon realized all over the U.S. A few months later, in response to the fledgling Tea
Party Patriot movement that emerged, frustrated activist and documentary filmmaker Annabel
Park vented on her Facebook page about mainstream media coverage that portrayed Tea Party
backers as ―representative of America.‖ Her posts were met with widespread support and within
two weeks, an opposition movement, the Coffee Party, was not only born—more than 75,000
people had pledged their support via Facebook and organized local ―coffee parties‖ around the
U.S. Again, in each instance, digital ―activists‖ needed to do little, care little, and know few if
any people to become involved.
20
Social media activism and social revolutions
Microblogging site Twitter, in particular, has been credited with having an important role
in social revolutions. In June 2009, Twitter and YouTube posts were said to be instrumental in
uniting hundreds of thousands of Iranians to protest the landslide election of President Mahmoud
Ahmadinejad. Social media—often in 140 characters or less—allowed protestors to quickly
organize despite the government‘s attempt to squelch communication by disabling the nation‘s
telephone system. Similarly, in spring 2009, people used Twitter to help mobilize 10,000
protesters who marched in Moldova in protest of their country‘s Communist government.
―Without Twitter the people of Iran would not have felt empowered and confident to stand up for
freedom and democracy,‖ Mark Pfeifle, a former U.S. national-security adviser, wrote in The
Christian Science Monitor, in a call for Twitter to be nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize. Less
than two years later, in January 2011, as many as hundreds of thousands of protestors flooded the
streets of Cairo, Suez and other Egyptian cities to demand an end to Hosni Mubarak's 30-year
autocratic rule. Police cut off Internet access, yet protestors—armed with mobile devices—
worked around the shut-down and organized themselves by Twitter and word of mouth.
Similarly, Twitter and social media site Facebook were credited with facilitating mobilization
efforts in Tunisia, where a Democratic revolution coincided with Egypt‘s uprising.
Wael Ghonim, Google‘s marketing manager for the Middle East and Africa, was arrested
and held for 12 days for creating a Facebook page memorializing a victim of the Egyptian
regime's violence. The Facebook page was credited for helping to spark the Democratic
revolution, but why? Ghonim said the social media sites functioned as virtual pub or living room,
where people could share their views and not feel like they weren‘t alone in their beliefs. He said
21
in a video posted to TED Talks, ―The Internet played a great role helping these people to speak
their minds, to collaborate together, to start thinking together‖ (2011).
In these instances, social networks were used to mobilize individuals in protest. What
should a person call that kind of action? Armchair activism? Those who did not march, and
watched and perhaps commented from afar, could arguably be said to have contributed to the
causes, simply in their support. Some theorists have coined new terms for this form of political
awareness and participation. Marichal (2010) calls it microactivism. Examples, he writes,
―include the formation of political Facebook groups, re-tweeting of articles of political interest
and sharing politically relevant videos on YouTube. These acts reflect micro-level intentions and
are not necessarily geared towards mobilization like more traditional forms of digital activism‖
(p. 1). But should such acts, as often-criticized as they are (Gladwell, 2010), be given weight
because of their potential to help cultivate political identities?
Overview and Questions
The events in Moldova and Iran in 2009, and later in Egypt and Tunisia in 2011, provide
an interesting backdrop against which to consider new communication processes of activism, and
how they create normative challenges to traditional views of what constitutes activism and the
actions and roles of an activist. As a result of the role digital media played in mobilizing
protestors and shedding light on the oppression that prompted these revolutions, a wide range of
people—from activists to technologists to ordinary Americans (many of whom now find
themselves clicking for causes)—began talking about what it means to be an activist.
The flames of this conversation were fanned, in large part, because of an article published
on Oct. 4, 2010 in The New Yorker by best-selling author and social commentator Malcolm
22
Gladwell, who critiqued, in great detail, the notion that true activism can occur online. Instead,
he wrote of online activism, in the 4,000-plus word article, that ―it makes it easier for activists to
express themselves, and harder for that expression to have any impact‖ (p. 9). Gladwell disputed
the validity of the words of former national-security adviser Pfeifle, who called for Twitter to be
nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize. Instead, using the research of Stanford sociologist Doug
McAdam on high-risk activism to back his claim, Gladwell argued that the relationships on
which online activism is based are too weak to bring about substantial social change. Why?
―Activism that challenges the status quo—that attacks deeply rooted problems—is not for the
faint of heart,‖ Gladwell wrote (p. 4), and McAdam‘s research shows over and over again that
strong relational ties among activists are a key component to success in movements ranging from
the desegregation of the American South in the 1960s, to bringing down the Berlin Wall in the
1980s. And, he says, Twitter had little, if anything, to do with the demonstrations in Moldova, or
in Iran, where in June 2009, Twitter and YouTube posts were said by many in the mainstream
media to be instrumental in uniting hundreds of thousands of Iranians to protest the landslide
election of President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.
Gladwell‘s argument, published in a well-respected liberal magazine with a readership of
more than 1 million subscribers, provides one perspective in a far-ranging conversation
surrounding online activism in the early 21st
century.
In this thesis, Gladwell‘s New Yorker article provides a particularly relevant jumping off
point to examine discourses of activism, and, specifically, how people describe their own
positions and sense-making of activism. Because the New Yorker piece was published nearly
four months before the work of social media activists was again credited for touching off the
Democratic revolutions in Egypt and Tunisia, I look at texts that span that period, beginning in
23
the fall of 2010 and ending on Feb. 21, 2011. My analysis considers more than 200 online
comments, posted by the readers of online blogs and publications including the New Yorker blog,
TheAtlantic.com, the Celebrity Circuit blog on CBSNews.com, The Huffington Post,
Boingboing.net, GigaOm.com, and the blog for activist organization, She‘s the First. All
comments are written in response to articles that directly address Gladwell‘s original New Yorker
article.
My interest here lies in how Americans are grappling with what counts as appropriate
social action and productive modes of engagement in the digital era. It is my contention that
through such talk, norms and values surrounding activism and the public good are weighed,
debated, and, constantly redefined.
In examining these texts, I focus on the meanings of ―activism‖ and ―activist,‖ in the
everyday talk of Americans and how they work as cultural code terms. However, this study is
limited by the scope of the texts, which were published in a range of online publications that
cater to specialized audiences. While The New Yorker and The Atlantic have large readerships, as
do several of the blogs from which comments were gathered, readership of these publications
reflect a middle – to upper-class demographic. Readers tend to be college educated; readers seek
out such literary and technical publications to be educated, entertained, and, ultimately, engaged
in cultural conversations. Ideally, I would have been able to gather more comments from readers
of more mainstream publications, but I was able to find very few—posted to a celebrity blog of a
CBS TV affiliate—even though many newspapers, including the Chicago Tribune and the Los
Angeles Times, carried stories about Gladwell‘s article and the controversy that followed. At this
point in time, interest in this conversation appears to be confined to smaller, less mainstream
American audience. This perhaps is not surprising given the newness of the Internet and digital
24
activism as a concept and a set of practices. That said, these texts provide a wide sampling of
American metadiscourse on the topic of activism, allowing for the interrogation of normative
meanings of and the tensions between traditional activism and new, emerging online forms of
activism. In exploring these tensions and normative challenges, I hope to shed new light on
activist groups in society and their evolving communicative processes.
In summary, this thesis is an attempt to better understand, (a) normative meanings of
social movement activism, particularly shifting beliefs about the role of the individual versus the
historical role of the collective in activism; (b) the communicative processes of individual
activism and engagement online; and (c) how average Americans not only view themselves and
others as civic and social participants and make sense of the activist identity, but also act on
these perceptions.
This study begins with the guiding research questions:
1.) How is activism communicated and what meanings does it take on in the digital
universe?
2.) How are people in the U.S. making sense of the normative communicative processes
of traditional activism and those of new, emerging forms of online activism in
relation to one another?
25
CHAPTER TWO
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This chapter describes the materials being examined for study within this thesis, as well
as the methods that will be applied. I begin with an overview of the ethnography of
communication approach taken in the analysis that will follow in Chapter Three, and then
provide background on the history of online commenting, as well as a sampling of online
comments and the texts to which they are written in response. Following this orientation, I
discuss the specific methods used and provide examples as to how the analysis will proceed.
***
In every moment of talk, people are experiencing and producing their cultures,
their roles, their personalities (Moerman, 1988, p. xi).
At the heart of the guiding research questions for this thesis is everyday talk and how it is
people are making sense of digital-era activism in their performances of culture and who they
believe activists—and themselves as activists or potential activists—to be. To get at these
questions, I take an ethnography of communication (EOC) approach as informed by Katriel and
Philipsen (1981) and consider patterns of meanings as embedded within the metadiscourse of
activism. ―A primary aim of this approach is to guide the collection and analysis of descriptive
data about the ways in which social meaning is conveyed,‖ wrote Saville-Troike (2003, p. 13).
Douglas explained the approach as beginning with the question, ―What is being communicated?‖
and seeking an answer that provides, ―Information from the social system,‖ (1971, p. 389). In
studying conversation, Carbaugh called everyday talk ―metasocial commentary‖ on what we do,
―who we are, how we are related to each other, how we feel about what is going on, and the
nature of the situation,‖ (2005, p. 1). Embedded in these ideas is not only how things are
believed to be, but how individuals perceive they ought to be. Given this, it is my contention that
26
‗activism‘ and ‗activist‘ are culturally coded folk terms, deeply tied to cultural action and
identity.
In EOC, language is a socially situated cultural form, representative of the culture itself.
Language serves many functions at the societal level, and what words people choose often reflect
political goals, and function ―to create or reinforce boundaries in order to unify speakers as
members of a single speech community and to exclude outsiders from intragroup
communication‖ (Saville-Troike, 2003, pp. 12-13). A primary interest in EOC is how words can
be used to create and maintain power. It is asked: How are words used as vehicles to segregate
and divide people into social categories? In this case, it appears words are used to divide
activism from nonactivism, and activists from nonactivists, based on cultural beliefs and values,
which carry with them certain assumptions about meanings and rules for acting. What does it
mean to be an activist? What rules does one perform or enact as an activist?
In examining the talk of more than 200 commenters to online articles and blog posts, a
spectrum of views on and metatalk about activism are presented: from those individuals who talk
about ―real‖ activism and disregard new forms of digital activism to those people who applaud
online efforts to enact or influence social change. These online conversations provide a portrait
of how activism is understood by one American speech community in 2011, more than 15 years
after the mainstream emergence of the Internet. I also consider the context from which the texts
were born, and the original texts, which both prompted and kept the online discussion about
activism going on American magazine websites and blogs.
How does this study of Internet comments qualify as an ethnography? To be clear, this
study is not a traditional ―thick description,‖ as coined by Geertz (1973). Instead, given the
questions at the heart of this inquiry, I look to the idea of ―ethnographic reconnaissance,‖
27
meaning ―preliminary examination or survey, usually followed by a more detailed inquiry‖ and a
―necessary fact-finding stage of action‖ (Wolcott, 1999, p. 187). Ethnographic fieldwork
techniques have been borrowed and adapted to fit the limited scope of this study of online talk.
Hymes (1964) identified eight factors important to ethnographic accounts. Each is key to
this study:
(1,2) the various kinds of participants in communicative events-senders and receivers,
addressors and addressees, interpreters and spokesmen, and the like; (3) the various
available channels, and their modes of use, speaking, writing, printing, drumming,
blowing, whistling, singing, face and body motion as vis-ually perceived, smelling,
tasting, and tactile sensation(4) the various codes shared by various participants,
linguistic, paralinguistic, kinesic, musical, and other; (5) the settings (including other
communication) in which communica-tion is permitted, enjoined, encouraged, abridged;
(6) the forms of messages, and their genres, ranging verbally from single-morpheme
sentences to the pat-terns and diacritics of sonnets, sermons, salesmen's pitches, and any
other or-ganized routines and styles; (7) the topics and comments that a message may be
about; (8) the events themselves, their kinds and characters as wholes-all these must be
identified in an adequate ethnographic way. (p. 13)
Commenters‘ texts were mostly anonymously authored, but frequently included authorprovided
descriptions as to why the person was commenting. Authors include activists, who both
do and don‘t use the Internet to get their messages across; academics who study the topic and
were following the conversation started by Gladwell with his initial Oct. 4, 2010 article, ―Small
Change‖—to which the chosen articles and blog posts and their corresponding comments were
written in response; and finally interested laypeople, who as cultural observers, have a stake in
understanding their roles as potential activists. Many commenters confessed to being fans of
Gladwell, who is the author of three bestsellers that each ranked No. 1 on the New York Times
list, ―The Tipping Point: How Little Things Make a Big Difference," (2000), "Blink: The Power
of Thinking Without Thinking" (2005), and "Outliers: The Story of Success" (2008). A fourth
book, "What the Dog Saw" (2009) is a compilation of stories published in The New Yorker.
28
Gladwell‘s star power and voice as a public intellectual certainly brought an element of interest
to the topic that may not have existed for some commenters otherwise.
The channel, setting, and genre of communication are all closely related in this instance.
All interaction occurred online and comments were crafted on computers, meaning that that
interlocutors were not face to face, and their digital ―conversation‖ was not held in ―real-time,‖
allowing for large pauses and gaps that lasted days and weeks in some instances. Commenters
had as much time as they wanted to carefully (or not) consider their words before responding and
were also able to easily reference other commenters‘ posts, as well as hyperlink to other relevant
articles and materials. Commenters may or may not have known one another.
Online commenting
The genre of online commenting was born in the late 1990s and early 2000s, when print
publications began offering their content online and online-only publications and blogs were first
launched. At that time, publishers also began providing readers the option to ―comment,‖
allowing them to offer their opinions and reactions, much like a letter to the editor. Readers
could also to interact with the author of the original text and with one another, adding a dialogic
element to a medium that has historically functioned on a univocal or conduit model of
communication. Comments sections are frequently as much of a draw to readers, as the original
article, and allow people from all walks of life a chance to engage in a dialogue with others who
are also interested in the topic at hand. Little research has been done on online commenting as a
genre. However, in a study of the online practice of ―flaming,‖ one graduate student at the
University of Twente in The Netherlands, distinguished online commenting from face-to-face
discussion by length of engagement (Moor, 2007). Comments come in bursts, sometimes with
29
large gaps of time in-between responses. Also, conversations occur among many commenters,
with few returning to comment more than once.
As online commenting has evolved as a practice, many publications have declined to
provide online space for it, as a number of journalists have questioned the value of commenters‘
contributions. The New Yorker does not allow readers to comment on online articles also
published in the print magazine, but it does offer space for comments to readers of its blogs.
Commonly, commenters may be anonymous, but many commenters provide their names.
Uniting the commenters in this study are two things: an interest in the writings of
Gladwell and the topic of activism, to which commenters each felt compelled to add his or her
voice to the conversation at hand.
Online commenters as a speech community
EOC is concerned with speech communities, which are formed through patterns of
interaction and are organized as systems of communicative events. What speech community do
these commenters‘ posts represent? This speech community is one of online commenters, in the
U.S., who share a common interest in defining the meaning of activism in the digital age. They
were brought together by an ongoing public discourse about activism, ignited by a number of
international events involving digital activism, and a controversial argument made by one highprofile
journalist.
Saville-Troike (2003) wrote that in defining speech communities, a key question ought to
be whether
our focus in initially defining communities for study should be on features of shared
language form and use, shared geographical and political boundaries, shared contexts of
interaction, shared attitudes and values, regarding language forms, shared sociocultural
understandings and presuppositions and even shared physical characteristics – skin color,
etc. – may be considered a requirement for membership in some communities. The
essential criteria for ―community‖ is that some significant dimension of experience be
30
shared, for ―speech community‖ that shared dimension be related to ways in which
members of the group use, value, or interpret language. (p. 27)
The shared dimension is how members of this American speech community of online
commenters interpret activism and activist. My interest is how these interpretations work as
codes and thus bound the speech community along lines that separate, unify, and stratify the
individuals within the community (2003, p. 27). The opportunity to debate topics is a draw for
online commenters, as well as a defining feature. What is the purpose of commenting? To elicit
other views and, in the process, help further refine one‘s own beliefs and perhaps influence
others‘ perspectives, on a particular topic.
Context of comments
I discovered this particular speech community of commenters by way of Internet and
library database searches, using Google, LexisNexis, and Academic Search Premier, for articles
about Gladwell‘s original New Yorker piece. Following the essay‘s publication on Oct. 4, 2010,
it was nearly impossible for media watchers to ignore the bevy of new blurbs, tweets, and blogs
from public intellectuals and journalists, who weighed-in on the meaning of activism nearly
every day. Even six months following the article‘s publication, a Google web search for the
words ―Malcolm Gladwell‖ and ―activism‖ brought 263,000 results. However, based on an
exploration of these articles and blog posts, while much was written about the topic, few articles
drew large numbers of commenters, which was the group that best offered ―everyday talk‖ about
activism. While comments are crafted on keyboards, they are untouched by professional editors
and offer an aspect of ―conversation‖ that articles and blog posts do not. Commenters respond to
the article‘s authors, as well as to one another, directly referencing—and often challenging or
agreeing with—other commenters‘ posts.
31
I chose to focus on comments to articles and blog posts that exhibited certain
characteristics: 1.) The article drew a large number of comments (nine or more), which offered
rich, deep metatalk about the meanings of activism and activist, sometimes with commenters
responding to one another multiple times; 2.) The article was published in an outlet that attracted
a nontechnical or layperson audience. This criterion was meant to capture talk by people who
may or may not use social media; However, because this issue is important to individuals in the
technology world, I did include articles written by authors hailing from that field; 3.) Articles
were to have been published during the span of time before and after the revolutions in Egypt
and Tunisia; and finally, I sought a diversity of voices, so I chose articles that were published in
different kinds of venues, i.e. an activist‘s blog versus a literary magazine.
Comments varied in length: some were a few words, some were several paragraphs. It
was typical for commenters to reference other texts, including Gladwell‘s original article and
other authors‘ opinions. While about a quarter, or 25 percent, of comments strayed away from
the topic to poke fun at Gladwell or make a snarky comment about something another
commenter said, the majority of the 212 comments—3 out of every 4—addressed the topic of
activism and the meanings it held for the commenter.
In all, comments were written in response to seven online articles and blog posts. They
include:
 ―Exclusive: Biz Stone on Twitter and Activism,‖ by Biz Stone, published in
TheAtlantic.com on Oct. 19, 2010. A group of prominent writers including Harriet
Beecher Stowe and Ralph Waldo Emerson founded The Atlantic in 1857 as a literary and
cultural magazine. The print edition has 400,000 subscribers, and the online edition
32
boasts 4.2 million unique visitors per month. This article was of particular appeal because
it was written by the co-founder and creative director of Twitter; 57 comments.
 ―How Malcolm Gladwell Misses the Mark in His Recent New Yorker Piece on Social
Revolution,‖ by David Helfenbein, published Oct. 2, 2010, on the HuffingtonPost.com
blog. The Huffington Post is a liberal online publication that attracts 9.8 million unique
visitors a month. This article was of interest because of the large lay readership.
Additionally, Helfenbein has a history of activism, as he founded Kids 4 Hillary, and
worked for the Secretary of State during her time as First Lady; 15 comments.
 ―Memo to Malcolm Gladwell: Nice Hair, But You Are Wrong,‖ by Matthew Ingram,
published on Oct. 19, 2010 in GigaOm.com. Ingram is a technology journalist and
GigaOm.com is ranked as a Top 50 blog by Technorati, an Internet search engine for
blogs. It has an audience of more than 500,000 readers; 32 comments.
 ―Letter to the Editor: ‗Small Change‘ by Malcolm Gladwell,‖ by Tammy Tibbetts,
published on Sept. 27, 2010, on the blog for She‘s the First, a nonprofit that supports
girls‘ education in the developing world. Tibbets is a 28-year-old activist, who has only
operated in an Internet-enabled world, providing her with a unique perspective. Her blog
primarily reaches supporters of her nonprofit; 10 comments.
 ―Internet-Enabled Activism Versus Malcolm Gladwell: Snarkypants Edition,‖ by Cory
Doctorow, published on Jan. 28, 2011 on BoingBoing.net, which attracts 2.5 million
unique visitors per month and about 10 million pageviews. Fast Company called
BoingBoing ―one of the most popular blogs on the planet,‖ if not the most popular; its
themes are cultural in nature. Doctorow is co-editor of BoingBoing.net and is an activist,
who has worked on behalf liberalizing copyright laws in Canada; he also created the
33
popular #WeLovetheNHS campaign on Twitter after American Congressional
Republicans attacked Canada‘s system of socialized medicine in August of 2009; 27
comments.
 ―Malcolm Gladwell Blasted for Comments on Social Media,‖ published on Feb. 21,
2011, on CBSNews.com‘s Celebrity Circuit blog. This article was published on an
unauthored celebrity gossip-style blog; 9 comments.
 ―Does Egypt Need Twitter?‖ by Malcolm Gladwell, published Feb. 2, 2011 on the New
Yorker blog. This blog post by Gladwell broke nearly four months of silence on the topic
of activism after his original New Yorker piece; 61 comments.
While the majority of authors took a pro-digital activism stance, as was typical of the
responses to Gladwell‘s article, commenters were divided and, even among those who had
favorable things to say about digital activism, many commenters were nuanced in their
endorsements of defining such efforts as true activism. This provided a good mix of metatalk
about what is and isn‘t activism, and who are and who aren‘t activists.
The data included 212 comments and 152 total commenters, (with 60 commenters
posting more than once). Seventy percent of comments offered a clear position on whether
digital activism constituted ―real activism.‖ Within that 70 percent, the majority, 55 percent (81
comments), came down on the side of digital activism, and argued that digital efforts contributed
substantially to social causes; 45 percent (67 comments) disputed digital activism‘s merits. An
additional 10 comments saw merit in both perspectives.
34
Typical comments
To provide a sense of what typical comments to each article or blog looked like, I offer a
few examples and discuss how comments were analyzed for their use of the words ―activism‖
and ―activist‖ and descriptions closely related to those terms. The excerpts appear as they were
posted, with no corrections for spelling, grammar, or punctuation, to give a sense of each
author‘s style and voice.
Excerpt #1, CBSNews.com Celebrity Circuit blog, by fantomas
God, I'm so tired of hearing about how this was a "facebook revolution". It wasn't. The
revolution had very little to do with any influence from facebook whatsoever. All that
social media did was to help bring attention to a revolution that was already occurring
based upon the fact that the cost of living for most Egyptians had reached unacceptable
levels. The people of Egypt made this happen, not Mark Zuckerberg or tons of pompous
tweeters and facebookers. If anything, this whole ordeal pointed out just how out of touch
most American media outlets are. Malcolm Gladwell was right.
A reply, posted by pippofin
Actually it did help a lot especially Facebook. Wael Ghonim
(http://twitter.com/#!/Ghonim) from Google create the Facebook group where people
would see where to protest (Watch his 60 minutes interview). Of course it was the will of
the people a computer cant overthrow a government. However without social media these
people would have no idea where to meet and how to get organized. Maybe they would
have found another way to meet but the didn't. That's the reason Mubarak shut down the
internet so people couldn't find a way to organize but he failed because people still found
a way to get online. So to say social media had nothing to do is wrong. Of course Mark
Zuckerberg didn't create the revolution nobody thinks that its absurd but social media had
an important role in it.
A reply by btlslvr
To say everyone who's on Facebook is pompous is completely ludicrous and I'd say even
heartless. There are people on there who have cancer or other serious illnesses who
wanted to get in touch and keep in touch with old friends. Don't be so sure of yourself
and closed-minded, especially if you've never even been on it in the first place.
35
In this exchange among three posters to the CBSNews.com Celebrity Circuit blog, the
first commenter uses the word ―revolution‖ as a substitute for social movement activism, which
is something Gladwell does himself. The subhead of his New Yorker article was: ―Why the
Revolution Will Not Be Tweeted.‖ The commenter equates ―the people of Egypt‖ with
activists, who made the revolution possible, and positions them as the opposites of Mark
Zuckerberg, founder of Facebook, people who use Facebook, aka ―Facebookers, and people who
use Twitter, aka ―tweeters.‖ He calls them ―out of touch‖ and ―pompous;‖ they are not ―the
people of Egypt.‖ Given these things, they are nonactivists. The commenter notes that social
media ―brought attention‖ to the ―revolution,‖ but that does not make it activism.
The second commenter, pippofin, replies that it was the ―will of the people‖ that resulted
in ―overthrowing the government,‖ or the revolution, not a computer or Mark Zuckerberg. She,
too, equates the revolution with social movement activism. Yet she gives agency to ―social
media,‖ writing that it ―had a role‖ in the revolution beyond shedding light on it. The role is
defined as being necessary to enact the ―will of the people,‖ because otherwise they would have
had ―no idea where to meet and how to get organized.‖ Revolution, or activism, she says, can‘t
happen without organization. She pointed out that the Internet is powerful enough that Mubarek
sought to disable it to stop people from organizing.
And the third commenter equates social media such as Facebook as vital to keeping
people in touch, especially those who can‘t get out of their homes to enact with others face to
face. To dismiss it as important or powerful, is ―pompous‖ and ―ludicrous.‖ The third commenter
picks up on the first commenter‘s use of the word ―pompous,‖ and turns it around on the
commenter, saying that no, people who use Facebook are not the arrogant ones; in fact, the first
commenter is the snob.
36
Taking all three commenters‘ posts together, the word ―revolution‖ was coded as a
definition of ―activism;‖ the ―people of Egypt,‖ was coded as ―activists;‖ Facebookers, tweeters,
Mark Zuckerberg, and computers were coded as ―nonactivists;‖ ―social media,‖ ―organization,‖
and ―will of the people‖ were coded as ―allowing activism.‖ Facebook was additionally coded as
―keeps people in touch‖ when face to face contact isn‘t possible. ―Pompous‖ and ―out of touch‖
were coded as qualities that are antithetical to activism and activists.
These posts and the following short analyses provide a snapshot of how each of the 212
comments was analyzed for patterns of meaning within the metadiscourse of activism. While in
these comments, neither the word activism, nor the word activist was used, both were implied in
the commenters‘ posts. Activism was also the central focus of the blog post to which
commenters wrote their posts, although it is possible some commenters skipped the article and
may have read only one or even none of the comments before adding a post. (Even in that case, it
is assumed here that commenters were drawn to the article in the first place because of the
original Gladwell article, which was about activism.)
In coding terms, I sought to explore the following questions: How were words used to
divide activism from nonactivism, and activists from nonactivists? What cultural beliefs and
values were at work? What assumptions about meanings and rules for acting are present, or, in
other words, what does it mean to be an activist; what rules does one perform or enact as an
activist?
Through this coding process, I created a semantic framework based on Katriel and
Philipsen‘s ―Semantic Dimensions of Communication‖ (1981), in which the authors‘
ethnographies of two American women were read as texts and the speech of their informants was
analyzed for metalinguistic patterns. Their study focused on the use of the word
37
―communication‖ and its localized meanings. Communication in their research is conceptualized
as a cultural code that carries with it values, beliefs, and rules for appropriate social behavior. (I
go into this in more detail below in a review of speech codes theory.)
Similarly, I coded the ways in which commenters talked about activism and activists to
discover how this speech community made sense of modern activism in light of recent world
events in which a mix of digital and traditional activist communicative processes helped bring
about dramatic social change. As part of this, I investigated how the words ―activism‖ and
―activist‖ functioned as cultural codes.
Speech codes theory
Just as the English language is found in many places, and just as many people speak
more than one language, so it is with cultures: Culture refers to a particular system
and not to the geographic or political unit in which it is found ─Gerry Philipsen, (1997, p. 125).
Bernstein‘s coding principle (1972) asserts that within society, communicative practices
vary among people of different social groups and classes, and codes in interaction govern what to
say and how to say it within a given context. This foundational idea helps form the basis for
speech codes theory, which contends that speech codes not only influence how people talk, but
also how they act. According to Bernstein, the ways in which people talk shape and reinforce
how they understand themselves, as well as guide their feelings and attitudes toward themselves,
other people, and social life.
Equally important to speech codes theory is the work of Hymes (1962), who developed
the ethnography of speaking as he studied the culturally distinctive communication practices of
people in a range of societies. While Bernstein was interested in making links to socioeconomic
differences (what speech was absent or present in the speech of people from different social
38
classes, for instance), Hymes privileged the meanings of communicative practices to those
engaged in the practices. An example used by Philipsen (1997), who further developed speech
codes theory, is of use of the word ―brow‖ (as in ―highbrow‖ and ―lowbrow‖) in English life.
While Hymes‘ work would focus on what discourses might reveal about the use of the word and
its meanings to people, Bernstein‘s approach would consider who used the word and how.
Bernstein‘s work paved the way for the study of context-dependent speech:
A study of the ways of speaking of a particular speech community can proceed by an
investigator‘s formulating in advance that certain phenomena will be attended to, and the
nature of the phenomena can be formulated quite explicitly according to some preformulated
scheme,‖ (Philipsen, 1997, p. 125)
Meanwhile, ethnography of speaking placed an emphasis on exploring discourse with the
assumption that, ―it will be found to house discursive particulars (ways of speaking and
resources for producing and interpreting communicative conduct) that are locally distinctive‖
(Philipsen, 1997, p. 124). Philipsen brought the two together in his approach to speech codes
theory, in which he argues that culture can be found in codes, represented in systems of symbols,
meanings, premises, and rules. Culture, as defined by Philipsen, is: ―a socially constructed
system of symbols, meanings, premises and rules‖ (1997, p. 125). Symbols, he writes, citing
Geertz, are ―tangible formulations of notions, abstractions from experience fixed in perceptible
forms, concrete embodiments of ideas, attitudes, judgments, longings, or beliefs;‖ conceptions
are, ―meanings, notions, definitions, and so forth, which symbols express‖ (1973, p. 91).
Premises ―express beliefs of existence (what is) and of value (what is good and bad). A rule is a
prescription for how to act under specified circumstances,‖ (Philipsen, 1997, p. 125).
People study differences across codes; they also study the substance of codes, which is of
most interest here. ―Speech codes are distinctive thematizations of the ends and means of social
action. Each implicates a distinctive conception of what goods humans should aim to secure,
39
how to secure those goods, and how to judge efforts to attain them (Philipsen, 1997, p. 139).
Another way to think about this concept is offered by Scruton (1979), who conceptualized a
speech code as a culturally distinctive ―social rhetoric,‖ which provides members of each shared
culture with rules for how to feel and what to do. Additionally, speech codes help members of
cultural communities determine what connections or relationships can be appropriately sought
between self and other and what symbolic means can be used to achieve those ties (Philipsen,
1987, 1989, 1992).
In the online commenting speech community at the heart of this study, activism and
activist are examined as speech codes. They are represented by meaning-filled symbols, with
beliefs or premises tied to them, and they are governed by rules for how to feel and act.
Limitations of the study
Interpreting the speech of online commenters presented several challenges. While a
majority of comments (70 percent) directly addressed the topic of activism and/or what it means
to be an activist, the word ―activism‖ was used only 35 times and ―activist‖ 18 times. Instead,
commenters described activism in terms of how it is enacted, how it is embodied, and what
meanings it holds for them. Similarly, what it means to be an activist was debated in terms of
personal attributes, as in what kind of people they are, as well as the kind of devotion they must
have to a cause. For instance, activism might be described as being, ―carried out by
revolutionaries who are too busy to Tweet.‖ Activists are ―busy,‖ they don‘t ―tweet,‖ and they
are ―revolutionaries,‖ so activism must also be revolutionary.
Additionally, the speech of commenters was constrained in a number of ways. Most
commenters only posted one response. Comments were in conversation with a number of texts—
Gladwell‘s original article, the blog or article to which they posted, and/or other texts on the
40
topic—as well as with one another. Recipient uptake and tone were not always clear. Comments
were typed and not spoken, meaning they are crafted on a computer, allowing for a level of selfediting
that face-to-face conversations do not. I could not read the texts for intonation, prosody,
pauses, and repairs, among other characteristics of speech.
In order to interpret comments contextually, I created a table and organized coded
comments into columns for each of the seven articles and blog posts. I also left comments
unedited so that they could be read for emphasis. This, too, was tricky. If a commenter
capitalized a word that is not a proper noun—as was the case of ―Tweet‖ in the example of,
―revolutionaries are too busy to Tweet,‖ I had to decide whether the capitalization was a mistake
or intentional.
A surprising number of comments (54) were tangential or off-topic altogether. For
instance, one commenter used the word ―ferment,‖ as in, ―a government was so afraid of what
social media had already done/would do to ferment revolution that they cut off the Internet,‖
prompting a side conversation about whether the poster really meant to use ―foment.‖ I set these
types of comments aside and instead focused on comments that clearly spoke to the topic of
activism.
Even with the excluded comments, I decided that the sample of talk was more than
sufficient to interrogate how people were making sense of activism in the digital era. The sample
provided talk from people who described themselves as activists; people who had participated in
digital activism; people who worked in digital media and technology careers; and people who
were simply interested in weighing in on the conversation. There was a variety of opinions and
viewpoints represented, but much of it overlapped, allowing for the analysis of patterns.
41
I conclude this chapter by acknowledging that this study of online commenters treads into
relatively new territory. Few, if any, communication researchers have considered online
commenters as a speech community. The boundaries of online speech are unclear, and such talk
is difficult to study. Inferences and leaps of logic had to be made: One was that these
commenters were American, even though the Internet has no borders. But none of this
diminishes the fact that people are talking online. The Internet, social media sites and blogs, in
particular, offer discussion forums that encourage debate on all manner of topics. This talk is
increasingly shaping culture and American culture is shaping online talk—here and elsewhere in
the world. For communication scholars, the growing influence of online talk makes it worthy of
our attention.
42
CHAPTER THREE
MAKING SENSE OF ACTIVISM IN AMERICA
This chapter sets the scene for what resources Americans draw from to make sense of
activism locally, and considers how the term ‗activist‘ functions as a culturally coded identity,
before the chapter concludes with the analysis of data.
***
Native meanings: Activist as identity
As a word in a living language, activism has no one single meaning in the U.S. How
people make sense of it is a cultural process. Just as Katriel and Philipsen (1981) asked, what
does it mean to ―communicate‖ in a relationship, and what is the difference between ―really
talking‖ and ―mere talk,‖ I seek to ask similar questions about how ―activism‖ and ―activists‖ are
locally categorized. Instigating this investigation is an emergence of discourses on activism in
American literary and technological magazines and blogs, rising from disputes over the role of
digital activists in political revolutions in Egypt and Tunisia in 2011, and in Iran and Moldova in
2009. These discourses suggest that ―activism‖ carries local meanings, tied to historical events in
the U.S. and around the world. While activism is not as pervasive in everyday talk as is
―communication,‖ it still carries ―moral freight‖ for users and is ―an important term in an
American symbolic universe and vocabulary of motives‖ (Katriel and Philipsen, 1981, p. 302),
making it worthy of study. Additionally, the term ―activist‖ is of considerable importance
because it serves as a way to define one‘s identity, which is seen here ―as an accomplishment,
not a thing‖ (Tracy, 2002, p. 17). Identities, according to Tracy (2002), ―are best thought of as
stable features of persons that exist prior to any particular situation, and are dynamic and situated
accomplishments, enacted through talk, changing from one occasion to the next‖ (p. 17). A
43
person has four different kinds of identities: master identities, such as one‘s gender, ethnicity,
and country of origin; personal identities that reflect one‘s character and attitudes (a dog person,
versus a cat person, for instance); relational identities, which negotiate the power distance
between people (friends interacting versus manager and employee); as well as, distinct
interactional identities, such as one‘s profession. Being an activist is an interactional identity
because it is situation – and relationship-specific.
The word ‗activist‘ connotes ―action‖ and involvement in matters of civic and social
concern. In this study, I argue the term exists on a spectrum of civic engagement, defined by the
Pew Charitable Trusts as, ―individual and collective actions designed to identify and address
issues of public concern.‖ Additionally, I contend that being called an activist, self-labeling as
an activist, or describing another as an activist implies certain understandings, actions, and
attitudes.
This study is examining ―activist‖ and ―activism‖ as cultural codes and categories;
activist as a contested interactional identity is important because it is a political type of person,
and as meanings shift for this category, so do characteristic behaviors, activities, and rules for
belonging to this group. In grasping a better understanding of the shifting meanings of a political
identity, one is also able get a sense for how individuals envision themselves as political
participants.
How individuals describe themselves, provides insights as to how people connect their
identities to appropriate associated activities. I argue that how one categorizes him or herself
appears to be one of the first steps, if not the first step, of the civic engagement process. To see
oneself as a ―good neighbor‖ prompts a person to engage in what he or she believes to be ―good
neighbor‖ behaviors, such as shoveling a sidewalk when the neighbor is away during a
44
snowstorm, or checking on a neighbor when you haven‘t seen him or her engage in routine
behaviors. Similarly, to self-identify as an activist, gives a person license to act on that identity.
But the norms of that identity have been challenged with the development of digital activism,
and this study will consider how differing interpretations may affect Americans views on their
potential to be activists, on - and offline
Katriel and Philipsen (1981) problematized the meaning of communication in their
seminal study of the word‘s semantic dimensions. They considered, for instance, what is meant
when a mother says of her daughter, ―she don‘t communicate with me anymore,‖ even though
they talked all the time; and the meaning of a theater director‘s description of a play as being
about, ―contemporary humanity‘s failure to communicate to reach love‖ (p. 302). Similarly, I am
interested in making problematic the meanings of activism and activist, and as part of this,
examining conflicting ideas about the activist identity.
For example, what is meant by the differentiation between, ―real people,‖ and ―keyboard
activists,‖ such as is described by commenter ‗adamfisk‘ to Gladwell‘s Feb. 2, 2011 New Yorker
blog post. The commenter wrote, ―This [Egyptian] revolution is being carried out by real people
bleeding on the ground they stand on and not by keyboard activists tweeting while they go about
their daily routines.‖ How ought activism be enacted, and what qualities define activists, when
one considers commenters‘ assertions that: ―Real change takes work and sacrifice. Gladwell‘s
piece is a needed reminder to activists not to get lazy;‖ and ―People tend to feel that merely
commenting or retweeting or adding a ribbon to an avatar is actually doing something. Real
change in the real world requires risk-taking action, but it's now possible to feel part of an
activist movement without risking anything.‖
45
These questions are among those explored in the following analysis of online
commenters‘ posts to articles and blogs about Gladwell‘s piece, ―Small Change.‖
The semantic dimensions of activism
In the texts analyzed for this study, three distinctive groups of terms for ―activism‖ and
―activist‖ surfaced. The first includes terms such as ―real activism,‖ ―face to face,‖ ―hard‖ and
―commitment.‖ A second group is distinguished by the use of words such as, ―slacktivism,‖
―effortless,‖ ―anyone can do it,‖ and ―low-risk.‖ A third group involves descriptions that
challenge the portraits painted by the first and second groups. Terms include: ―resilient,‖ ―hard to
censor,‖ ―expedites and galvanizes,‖ and ―grows consciousness.‖
―Real activism,‖ ―slacktivism,‖ and ―resilient,‖ are organized in a framework of three
semantic dimensions, which were arrived at through analysis of the body of texts. They are:
easy/hard, low-risk/high-risk, and undermines/supports, which help define the normative
meanings for ―real activism,‖ ―slacktivism,‖ and ―resilient‖ activism.
The first dimension easy/hard suggests the amount of effort that activism and being an
activist ought to involve. This dichotomy gets at classic notions of freeriding (Olson, 1968),
which theorizes that when people find the costs of activism too high, they choose instead to
simply benefit from others‘ work. This concept, the bedrock for resource mobilization theories,
supports the idea that lower costs for participation and mobilization—which can include time,
money, and knowledge, among other things—result in better participation. Activist efforts that
are perceived as ―hard‖ are equated with and defined as ―real activism.‖ Activist efforts that are
seen as ―easy‖ are dismissed as ―slacktivism.‖ Commenter ‗charliebernstein,‘ in response to
Stone‘s article in The Atlantic, wrote:
There‘s no good substitute for deep, constantly reinforced face-to-face relationships.
Organizing is hard, arduous, multi-decade (even multi-generational) work, and the
46
assertion that so-called social networking is organizing is just plain insulting to skilled
organizers and their organizations.
Commenter ‗JulieBeeDavis,‘ articulated a similar position from the perspective of what‘s easy to
do, in posting to Helfenbein‘s Huffington Post blog:
As for the legitimacy of social media activism, the medium begs for the free-rider issue
of movements. The work has been done. Elsewhere. Probably not online. Simply clicking
Like, ReTweet or Send Message requires less from each of us. The difference between
this and the free-rider issue is only that instead of assuming that "someone else will get to
solving the problem," we act effortlessly, carelessly because it's that easy to benefit from
the cause.
A commenter representative of the third group, JebInNYC breaks free of the easy/hard
dichotomy and suggests using the metaphor of building a house for activism, in this post to
Gladwell‘s New Yorker blog:
You can build a house with wood screws and a cordless power drill, or with the same
screws and an old-fashioned hand drill, such as my father had, or with only hammer and
nails; there was a long period before nails were invented in which totally different
methods had to be used to join wood. Nonetheless, houses have been built. The debate
over Internet use in the Egyptian uprising is losing sight of the important thing, which is
what's happening--the nature of the house the protesters are trying to build— and why,
rather than the tools being used.
The commenter references tools, but he was also speaking to effort. Using a hammer is tougher
than using a cordless power drill; imagine joining wood before there were nails? It is unlikely
that building a house was as easy as with them. In essence he asks: Why not use tools that make
a job easier? The house won‘t be any worse for the lack of effort.
Low-risk/high-risk are terms Gladwell used in the original New Yorker article, ―Small
Change,‖ which ignited the debate surrounding the meaning of activism. A large number of
commenters picked up on these terms and incorporated them into their arguments about activism.
47
Theoretically, levels of risk fall into resource management theory‘s costs, and Gladwell‘s use of
the terms stemmed from the research of Stanford sociologist Doug McAdam, who saw a
correlation between whether an activist had a personal connection to a cause—often close friends
who were also involved—and a willingness to participate in activist efforts that put them in
danger of bodily harm and even death. Gladwell told stories from the Civil Rights movement to
underline his point. Among them: During the Mississippi Freedom Summer Project of 1964,
volunteers were kidnapped, beaten, shot at, and killed, black churches were set on fire, and safe
houses were bombed; additionally, four black college students were called racial epithets and
threatened with violence when they dared to conduct a sit-in at a whites-only lunch counter in
Greensboro, N.C. Without strong relationships, Gladwell argued, these dangerous protests could
have never been possible. New Yorker blog commenter MCubed agreed, ―It takes more than a
tweet to get someone to stand in front of a tank, or face down water cannon." Gladwell makes
several assumptions here: one is that those connected through social media don‘t have strong
relationships with one another; another is that what counts as activism, no matter what the
context, should be held to the same standard as the lunch-counter sit-in, and nothing less; and yet
another is that dangerous activism looks the same everywhere, and that it is not culturally
situated.
BoingBoing.net commenter W. James Au noted that the comparison between digital
activism in Egypt and lunch counter sit-ins was unfair, by responding, ―I usually love Gladwell,
but for that piece, he was basically saying, ‗Haha Twitter activists you're pussies compared to
folks in the Civil Rights movement,‘ which would be a really lame thing to claim today.‖ But he
was quickly challenged by commenter ‗mn_camera,‘ who wrote, ―People with ‗true
commitment‘ are the ones facing police and the troops.‖ A large number of commenters equated
48
the level of risk with the embodiment of how activism was communicated: keyboard
embodiment equaled low-risk, while taking to the streets equaled high-risk. Only two
commenters (out of 212) were adamant that social-media activism can be ―high risk.‖ Each
pointed to an instance in which Canadian activist and citizen journalist Bryon Sonne was jailed
on June 22, 2010 for tweets he made before the G20 Summit. As of spring 2011, he was still
being detained (Freebryon.org, 2010). Activist Tammy Tibbets, founder of She‘s the First, a
nonprofit that supports girls‘ education in the developing world, pushed back against the very
notion that all activist efforts fall into categories that must involve risk. In her blog post about
Gladwell‘s article, she wrote:
My activism is peaceful and a lot of the time it involves the color pink. But you know
what, it‘s working … No kidnappings, no killings, no houses burning down, no bomb
scares, no beating of volunteers, no arrests, no sit-ins. My question to Mr. Gladwell is,
‗When did violence become barometer for the strength of activism?‘
The dimension of undermines/supports refers to perceptions of how the different
communicative processes of activism affect the long-term outcome of activists‘ goals. Digital
processes are frequently described as being detrimental to the foundation of social movement
efforts, as they are seen to have the potential to chip away from a body of support that may have
expressed more ―commitment‖ if these other, easier options weren‘t available. This goes along
with the line of thinking that if individuals are willing to get involved in a social movement, they
will do what is asked of them. However, this goes against the logic that people set limits for what
they‘re willing to contribute, which is central to resource mobilization theory. Gladwell summed
up the ―undermines‖ position in much more black-and-white terms: He said too much agency is
being placed on technology, when indeed only people are necessary for social change, and
people have forgotten what power they have to effect change. He wrote:
49
The marvels of communication technology in the present have produced a false
consciousness about the past—a sense that communication has no history, or had nothing
of importance to consider before the days of television and the Internet. But there is
something else at work here, in outsized enthusiasm for social media. Fifty years after
one of the most extraordinary episodes in social upheaval in American history, we seem
to have forgotten what activism is. (2010)
About 45 percent of commenters agreed, calling digital activism ―pseudo‖ activism, arguing that
it ―discourages strong ties,‖ and leads to ―weaker, shallower organizing‖ and ―big losses on
important issues.‖ Additionally, a large camp of commenters within this ‗digital activism isn‘t
real activism‘ group, agreed that engaging in acts of digital activism, ―convinces people they‘ve
done something, when they haven‘t.‖ Even those supporters of digital activism hedged on this
point, and differentiated between ―proper‖ and improper levels of engagement. Consider this
interaction between a commenter and Tibbets, of She‘s the First, who illustrate the
undermines/supports dichotomy. The commenter, Kermit, wrote:
Mm…sorry, but I‘ve gotta play devil‘s advocate here. Because I think your entire letter is
based on a false pretext. You say:
―Why are we pitting offline action against online action?‖
We‘re not. Gladwell isn‘t. No one is. His point is simply that for most people, social
media activism is their excuse not to get up and actually do something in the physical
world – the kind of action that has always been required to make a substantive difference.
He did give some examples of where social media‘s alleged impact was overblown – and
it was, and it continues to be – but that is not to say that it is entirely useless, or that there
aren‘t real success stories out there, like your experience with STF.
But there are millions, if not billions, of people utilizing social media. If even the number
of people following Lady Gaga (I think it‘s what, 9 million now?) were to commit
themselves bodily to ANY cause. If all of them, say, were to march on Washington and
demand Universal Healthcare or military intervention in Sudan, or any of numerous
worthwhile causes.
If those 9 million people were to each donate a dollar to form some group to lobby
Congress for any major issue, it would be a hell of a lot more useful, more powerful, then
50
―re-tweeting‖ the latest diatribe by Activist X, or ―Liking it‖ or commenting on it in
Facebook from the comfort of their livingrooms or local coffee houses.
Your success here, and others like yours, are the EXCEPTION, not the rule. For the most
part, social media is one massive distraction, just another movement in the direction of
immediate gratification instead of real sustained effort towards anything.
Tibbetts responded:
We can‘t let ideals discount the amazing work that can be achieve when charging forth
with the audience we do have engaged properly on social media. .. the same frustration
could be said for the millions who sit in front of a TV screen and could be volunteering
instead! Rather than talk about what people ―should‖ do, we choose to hit the ground
running with those who WILL do something.
These dimensional contrasts outlined here help make explicit the semantic tensions
among the local terms ―real activism,‖ ―slacktivism,‖ and ―resilient‖ activism, which have
emerged with the development and evolution of pervasive digital communication technologies
and their role in social movements and activist efforts. The analysis suggests that for American
participants in this conversation—activists, technologists, public intellectuals, and interested
laypeople—that ―real activism‖ refers to efforts that are high risk, hard to accomplish, and
support the long-term goals of social movement organizations; ―slacktivism‖ refers to efforts
that are low risk, easy to accomplish, and undermine the long-term goals of social movement
organizations; and ―resilient‖ activism refers to a hybrid of these dichotomies, which pushes
back against the idea that activism has been reified into one definable thing, and that there is a
―right‖ kind of activism for all causes. This resilient activism is ―hard to censor‖ and gives voice
to all people, especially the oppressed and underrepresented; it ―expedites and galvanizes‖ social
movements, and ―grows consciousness‖ among large numbers of people, who may not have
otherwise been exposed to a social movement‘s messages.
These semantic dimensions provide a foundation to further interrogate the guiding
research questions of this thesis, which are:
51
How is activism communicated and what meanings does it take on in the digital
universe?; and
How are people in the U.S. making sense of the normative communicative processes
of traditional activism and those of new, emerging forms of online activism in relation
to one another?
Let us first consider the question: How is activism communicated and what meanings does it take
on in the digital universe?
Symbolically, activism is coded in the talk of commenters in such ―tangible notions‖ and
―embodiments of ideas‖ as protests, facing police/arrest, and the possibility of being shot at.
Commenters were clear to distinguish where activism and activist activities take place: out in the
streets, in meeting halls, basements, churches and other houses of worship, and living rooms;
when it takes place: slowly, sometimes spanning decades and generations; by whom it is enacted:
hierarchical leaders, who provide vision, cohesion, and structure to groups of volunteers, who do
anything that is needed; and what channels of communication are most important: face-to-face
interaction is privileged.
However, such symbolic codes were not universal in the talk of commenters. Activism
was also represented as: tweets, Kenya‘s Ushahidi, Facebook posts, YouTube videos, and flash
mob protests; where it takes place can also include: online petitions, social media websites,
keyboards, and mobile phones, which were said to help mobilize people ‗to the streets‘; when it
takes place: immediately, around the clock, and with urgency; by whom it is enacted: anyone
with a computer or mobile phone; and by what channels of communication: mediated channels
were noted for ‗giving voice‘ (and a large audience) to people who might not otherwise be able
52
to be heard, especially the oppressed. An example of this viewpoint is illustrated by commenter
‗bc_slim‘ wrote in response to Gladwell‘s New Yorker blog post:
Twitter, Facebook, and the internet in general, removes these barriers and erases the
borders of communication. The "how" becomes the key part in the ability for people to
get their message out.... Just like this comment here that I write. My disagreement (and
possibly others) with this article, and my belief that Gladwell is misguided with how
social media changes the fabric of communication, along with the remote chance that
someone will read this and have a new perspective would not be possible if I would have
needed to resort to preaching this from my rooftop or collecting my friends and marching
down to the city hall in Gladwell's town. No longer is the message coming from the top
down, from the corporations and government entities down to the people. My voice is
now heard and all who read are welcome to agree with me, disagree with me, like me,
hate me or maybe even build on my ideas to create new ones. It doesn't matter - what
matters is that this platform has given me a voice where there wasn't one before. This is
what social media does and this is why Egypt, and the rest of the world, needs "Twitter".
The meanings expressed by these conflicting symbolic codes were often implicit and embedded
with references to historical events. The history of protests in the U.S. stretches back before the
turn of the 20th
century, yet these early demonstrations—such as those that brought about the
creation of labor unions—are not likely to come to mind for Americans in 2011.
It is not coincidental that Gladwell, in his New Yorker article, contrasts digital activists
with activists of 1960s-desegregation efforts in the American South; modern notions of protest in
America are closely linked to the Civil Rights Movement, which was a fight for freedom and
equality, two core ideals anchoring the American ethos. All American students learn about the
Civil Rights Movement and Martin Luther King, but they do not necessarily learn about the
Labor Movement and Samuel Gomperz, for instance. The Civil Rights Movement has been welldocumented
in popular American films—from Malcolm X starring Oscar-winner Denzel
Washington to Mississippi Burning, which bears the subhead: 1964: When America Was at War
with Itself.‖ American pop culture is flooded with images from 1960s protests, sit-ins, and
freedom rides. Protests are easily captured on film for newspapers to print or TV stations to
53
broadcast. They are active and emotional. As a result, protests—and other 1960s-style processes
of activism—have become imbued with meaning beyond what they are on the surface:
gatherings of people demanding change. These symbols represent attitudes, judgments, and
beliefs about activism. Protests become high-risk: you could be arrested or shot; they become
difficult or hard: you‘ve not only got to exert physical effort to protest, but you‘ve got to stand
up ideologically to others who oppose your views and look them in the face when you‘re doing
it; and protests are seen as supportive of social movement‘s long-term goals: they are one step in
a social change process that could take months or years. It might be assumed that if a person has
enough commitment to protest, than he or she will stick along for the long haul. Why? To some
degree, because this is how 1960s activism has been portrayed. However, such beliefs are simply
assumptions based on one‘s experience of cultural practices, as is the idea that if you‘re serious
about something, you make your demands in person. Questions of where activism takes place,
how it exists temporally, who takes part in it, and its communicative channels are similarly
imbued.
These elements are illustrated—and challenged—in the following exchange among
commenters to the BoingBoing blog, in which the following post sparks a conversation about
whether digital activists would have left their keyboards to take to the street if the Egyptian
government hadn‘t shut down the Internet during the January 2011 revolution:
Commenter 1 (anon)
I'm not sure I understand. Egypt turned off the Internet. Anything happening afterwards
did so without the benefit of Twitter. This seems to support Gladwell's contention that
Twitter can't make these things happen.
Commenter 2 (Tonky)
I love to hate Gladwell as much as the next guy, but his New Yorker article "Small
Change: Why the Revolution Won't Be Tweeted" was brilliant. He acknowledges the
54
influence of social media, but points out that people have been rising up without it since
the beginning of time.
Insofar as Egypt is concerned, I heard an NPR reporter speculate that the younger tech
savvy generation took the the streets precisely because Twitter and Facebook were shut
down in anticipation of unrest. (see above ANON #5 ). So in other words without a BBS
on which to collectively complain they went analog. Just read the article dude.
Commenter 3 (ogvor)
For the people saying 'well they just turned off the Internet so that proves Gladwell right'
are kinda ignoring the fact that a government was so afraid of what social media had
already done/would do to ferment revolution that they cut off the Internet.
Commenter 4 (Dave Faris)
a government was so afraid of what social media had already done/would do to ferment
revolution that they cut off the Internet --- According to the conversation about the
situation on tonight's NewsHour, the protests were much smaller pre-internet shutdown.
The numbers exploded after they shut it down
Commenter 5 (Steven Cook)
This -- what transpired on Tuesday and continued on Wednesday was essentially flashmob
protests. It was done through social media. It was done through Facebook and blogs
and Twitter, in which people were communicating with each other where to go, where
people were meeting up, and then suddenly...
Commenter 6 (Judy Woodruff)
And now that's been shut down, a lot of that.
Commenter 5 (Steven Cook)
And now that has been shut down. So -- but that was a much smaller crowd. Now you
have a wider and deeper section of Egyptian society out on the streets. There isn't real
need for coordination.
This exchange is among six American commenters, who are seeking to make sense of the
premises and rules for activism. None of the commenters has personal experience with the
situation in Egypt, and each is making judgments based on what he or she has learned through
news accounts. The central question is: What role, if any, did social media play in the Egyptian
55
protests and social revolution? In this, the premises of what happened and what is good or bad
are contested; additionally, commenters assess what they believe to be appropriate action under
the circumstances.
The first commenter concludes that because the Internet was shut down, it‘s clear that
social media played no role. To this, the second commenter adds that, actually, digital activists
joined in, but only after the Internet was shut off and they didn‘t have a BBS, or bulletin board
system, ―on which to collectively complain,‖ so they ―went analog‖ and in essence became ―real
activists,‖ as they took to the streets and joined the protests. In this instance, the poster equates
digital activist efforts with ―complaining,‖ which in the semantic framework lines up with the
dimensions of easy to do, low risk, and undermines long-term efforts of social movement
organizations.
Subsequent posters go back and forth between arguing that social media was of little
consequence and even detrimental to the Egyptian revolution, and claiming that, no, actually
social media played a major role, and in fact was the tool that helped protestors organize and
mobilize. The latter set of commenters‘ contentions falls into the semantic category of ―resilient‖
activism, in that they upset the dichotomies of easy/hard, low risk/high risk, and
undermines/supports. Digital activism becomes ―both/and,‖ in that it is both easy and hard, lowrisk
and high-risk, and undermines and supports.
Furthermore, commenters are divided as to when the digital activists became ―real
activists‖: when they left their houses to join on-the-streets protests or when they began
organizing the protests using social media tools; and how they demonstrated their activism:
through online organizing or by joining in physical solidarity on the streets of Egypt. Commenter
2 asserts that nothing resembling activism occurred until individuals left their screens and
56
keyboards behind to take to the streets; Commenter 5 resists this interpretation and asks: What
brought people together in the first place? In fact, with pervasive digital technologies, protestors
in all likelihood brought their keyboards/Internet- and text message-enabled mobile phones with
them.
Coded within this talk are the rules guiding ―real‖ activism. Normatively, activists work
as a collective, guided by a leader. They protest in the streets and risk bodily harm. They‘re
―committed‖ and engage in activities that demonstrate they‘re ―in it for the long haul,‖ such as
protests, marches, and face-to-face meetings in basements, meeting halls, and houses of worship.
They give time, money, and ―blood, sweat, and tears.‖
How do these normative rules function in the digital age? For some organizations, they
are perceived as being adopted wholesale and are only supplemented with social media.
Commenter ‗Norah‘ to the GigaOm blog, held up Lance Armstrong‘s Livestrong campaign to
improve the lives of people with cancer as an example of ―real activism.‖ She wrote:
Lance Armstong uses Twitter to publicize the Livestrong organization. But he
also has a hierarchical leadership team in place, and Livestrong‘s success depends
on people donating time and money and working their butts off (literally, when
we‘re talking about bike races) for a cause they care very deeply about. Here in
Toronto, Dave Meslin uses social media to keep people informed about electoral
change initiatives. But he still needs those people to show up to meetings, and to
sign up as volunteers and get involved in politics. Real change takes work and
sacrifice. Gladwell‘s piece is a needed reminder to activists not to get lazy.
The commenter‘s final sentiment that ―Gladwell‘s piece is a needed reminder to activists not to
get lazy,‖ is an important rule of American activism. Lazy people are not activists, and lazy
people don‘t act beyond posting tweets, Facebook status updates, and clicking for causes. How a
person uses knowledge is discounted if that person does not engage his or her body in protest or
other activist efforts. Typing doesn‘t count.
57
For others, social media is seen as a powerful force that has transformed the possibilities
of activism. Commenter Heidi Massey implicitly named philanthropy as a form of activism in
her response to the She‘s the First blog, and told a story to illustrate how modern activism
doesn‘t need to follow old norms. She wrote:
There are many of us who are enthusiastically embracing social media because we
understand just how powerful these new platforms truly are. Just this past August, Citizen
Effect helped coordinate nation-wide efforts to raise funds for fishermen in the gulf.
Cities across the United States held benefit events on August 25th and together raised
over $10,000. We held absolutely no face to face meetings and most of us met via twitter.
Those families in the Gulf who will benefit from that money certainly believe in the
power of social media.
Citizen Effect, a nongovernmental organization described as ―Match.com for the international
development world,‖ allows people to give directly—not to a cause they believe in, but to a
project they believe in. Dan Morrison, the organization‘s founder, said an, ―untapped market of
‗super activists,‘‖ inspired him to create this online platform for giving. ―They don‘t just want to
give, but want to take control of the giving process and mobilize their social networks,‖
Morrison said (2009). Citizen Effect is one of a growing number of online organizations that
facilitate fundraising for people who seek to tap their social networks to raise money for causes
close to their hearts—or in this case, to raise enough money to fund specific projects, such as the
construction of village wells for clean drinking water or relief for fishermen who lost income as
the result of an oil spill. This adds a tangible element of ‗I made something happen‘ to giving
that is unusual. There are so many needs in the world; donating money to a cause can often feel
like a discouraging drop in the bucket.
Morrison deemed the efforts of fundraiser-philanthropists like Massey ‗super activism,‘
but raising money to benefit the fishermen devastated by the Deepwater Horizon Gulf oil spill of
58
2010 was not high-risk nor necessarily hard. Neither did it fall into the categories of supportive
nor undermining of long-term activist efforts because it was a short-term campaign that did not
seek to bring about social change. This leads us to consider this thesis‘ second guiding research
question:
How are people in the U.S. making sense of the normative communicative processes
of traditional activism and those of new, emerging forms of online activism in relation
to one another?
Commenters‘ descriptions of activist efforts reflect their own experiences of activism,
including how they‘ve interacted with the concept in texts: spoken, printed, broadcast, and
otherwise. Commenter Massey referenced her own philanthropy as an example of, ―how
powerful these new platforms truly are.‖ Embedded in her comment was background
information about Citizen Effect, an organization founded by an individual who conceptualized a
certain type of philanthropist as ―super activist.‖
Gladwell‘s article supported normative codes of activism, as he held up historic
embodiments—protests and lunch counter sit-ins—as illustrations of what activism is and
contrasted it against modern embodiments—a Facebook and e-mail campaign to sign up people
to an organ donor registry or tweeting about the Iran election—as illustrations of what it isn‘t.
While many commenters, 45 percent, agreed with Gladwell (and with very few or no caveats),
many commenters—more than half, 55 percent—also struggled to reconcile their experiences
within the boundaries set by him, and commenters who identified themselves as activists or as
having participated in activist efforts pushed back the hardest against these semantic norms.
Commenter ‗jesseluna,‘ wrote in response to Stone‘s article in The Atlantic:
59
It's true that the four college students at the lunch counter were engaging in a highdanger
activity at the time. But that wasn't the case for ALL that were involved in the
Civil Rights movement. There were people who drove cars to support the Montgomery
Bus Boycott, there were people who mimeographed flyers to attend the March on
Washington and there were others who spread the word at family functions. Those
actions were all part of the movement and of massive change. Twitter allows for
organization, action, and information sharing. The protesters in Iran who posted YouTube
videos and secretly shared pictures and video links (via Twitter DMs) to ongoing news
were literally under the gun and in harm's way. Some tweeters were on the ground, others
did what they could and changed their avatars in solidarity.
A dialogue between ‗jesseluna‘ and another commenter, ‗Kendra Kellogg,‘ referenced a Twitter
campaign that they both took part in. Its purpose was to support U.S. health care reform and
honor the life of Eric De La Cruz, ―who passed away after not being able to receive a heart
transplant because of insurance red tape and pre-existing condition clauses.‖ Commenter
‗jesseluna‘ made a clear link between 1960s activism—albeit the kinds of activism that Gladwell
did not foreground in his article—and modern efforts to bring about change. Commenter ‗Kendra
Kellogg‘ added:
Jesse, you were there also there for Veronica's fight to save her brother life. We met on
Twitter through that process. I think that the circle of activists that came together for Eric
shows that "weak-ties" and "strong-ties" are not black and white. Close to a million
dollars was raised to save Eric's life on Twitter. The group moved forward to with
Veronica in the battle for healthcare reform, showing up with signs of support when she
spoke at rallies and protests. Social media is not as simple as Gladwell wants it to be.
Indeed, commenter ‗jesseluna‘ pointed to the complexities surrounding modern activism in
noting that posting YouTube videos and photographs placed digital activists ―literally under the
gun and in harm‘s way.‖ Americans enjoy freedom of speech, as protected by the Constitution.
But that is not the case everywhere, including in Egypt during the 2011 Democratic revolution.
Additionally, ‗jesseluna‘ pointed out that tweeters were ―on the ground‖ too, and gave credit to
supporters of the revolution who, ―changed their avatars in solidarity,‖ assuming that it was all
60
they could do, rather than all they were willing to do. In the 21st
century, activists can and often
do partake in both digital efforts and in-the-streets efforts. Gladwell, and others who support his
argument, chose to privilege one type of activism as vital and deem the other as unnecessary.
The either/or dichotomy was again challenged by commenter ‗Kendra Kellogg,‘ who
spoke to the idea of strong and weak ties. Based on her experience with the Twitter health care
campaign, she wrote, it was possible to develop strong ties with other digital activists, some of
whom came together at rallies and protests. While she never met commenter ‗jesseluna‘ in
person, she expressed in her post that that because of their common experience, they shared a
connection that couldn‘t be defined in such ―black-and-white‖ terms.
Commenter ‗Gideon Rosenblatt,‘ addressed this issue in a post to Ingram‘s GigaOm.com
blog from the perspective of how to better address the divide that exists between online and
offline activism:
I wonder if Gladwell had any idea what kind of storm he was going to create with his
piece, but I, for one, am very thankful. Why? Because this question of how online
activism effects real social change is long overdue.
I‘ve just left a job, where I spent the last ten years working on how to make various
technologies like Twitter, Facebook, email, etc. work for social change.
My conclusion: We need better bridges between the weak ties of the Internet and the
strong ties connected with face-to-face relationships. It‘s time to start looking concretely
at how we better connect these important kinds of relationships – the strategies, the
technologies and the organizational processes.
In this commenter‘s assessment, there is a need to better ―bridge‖ the digital and offline worlds
of activism. But how? He offers no suggestions even though the commenter had spent a decade
dedicating his career to using online tools to bring about social change. And perhaps it is this
conundrum that is at the heart of Gladwell‘s claim and Americans‘ confusion surrounding what
61
counts as activism in the digital age. People‘s experiences and knowledge of the world provide
them different perspectives of how activism has been and how it is now. In the digital era, these
two things often come into conflict, forcing individuals into a state of cognitive disequilibrium
and raising questions of conduct. If activism is a speech code or a type of ―social rhetoric,‖ that
governs practical knowledge about ―what to feel‖ and ―what to do,‖ how does one proceed when
norms are challenged? Does one assimilate digital activism into an old schema, such as is
suggested by one commenter‘s interpretation of the Livestrong campaign, or must one
accommodate and create a new schema, as activist Tibbetts of She‘s the First, advocates? The
results of this analysis suggest the latter.
In considering the question, ‗How is activism communicated and what meanings does it
take on in the digital universe?‘ the analysis of online comments revealed three semantic
dimensions of activism. The first equated activism with being high risk, hard to accomplish, and
supportive of long-term social movement goals. The second discursively downgraded digital
activist efforts to ―slacktivism,‖ or ―pseudo‖ activism. Unlike ―real activism,‖ ―slacktivist‖
efforts are low risk, easy to accomplish, and undermining of long-term social movement goals.
The third dimension broke the dichotomies and suggested a new schema for digital activism that
recognizes that it can be both high risk and low risk, hard and easy, supportive and undermining
of long-term social movement goals. More than half of commenters, 55 percent, supported the
view that activism in the digital era can be ―both/and,‖ signaling a move toward more flexible
and inclusive connotations. In the digital universe, activism is made sense of as something that
only happens ―on the ground‖ and ―offline,‖ but more so, it is recognized as an enactment of an
identity that supports advancing social causes, offline and online. Organizing a rally via social
media can be just as much an enactment of activism, as is attending the rally. Additionally, it
62
appears the definition of ―activism‖ is opening up to take on meanings previously given to other,
perhaps less involved, forms of public participation. For instance, several commenters named
philanthropy, which falls under the Pew Charitable Trust‘s definition for ―civic engagement,‖ as
a form of activism. One wrote:
What seems striking to me is his assertion that activism must somehow fit into his
window of what change must look like - that there can be no change without risk, and
that historically relevant activism must remain capable of threatening mortality.
It would seem he is saying that those for whom participation in activism causes mortal
risk are activists that are participating in an activism that is somehow more genuine or
valid. Those who donate ten cents to help rebuild Haiti are not activists at all, it would
seem, but rather just dupes who have continued their pattern of being duped into kneejerk
reactions that appear to cost little and therefore mean nothing.
Other commenters argued that posting photographs and YouTube videos in an effort to raise
awareness of social and humanitarian issues constituted activism. Commenter ‗medinahair‘
wrote in response to Gladwell‘s New Yorker blog post:
twitter, facebook and youtube, which threw back the curtain in the most explicit way
enabled the Tunisians and then the Egyptians to gather their courage and unite against the
regime regardless of the consequences
However, not all comments were so clear cut, indicating resistance to loosen normative
views of activism, and who can lay claim to the activist identity. Many commenters were willing
to acknowledge that digital activists‘ efforts serve a purpose, but they were unwilling to raise
those efforts to the level of ―real activism.‖ Commenter ‗MNMoon‘ wrote in response to
Gladwell‘s New Yorker blog post:
His conclusion is correct but the point is that by using social media, the world bears
witness. Imagine if twitter was around when the Nazis moved on the Warsaw Ghetto.
Gladwell correctly defines activism, but this commenter says he misses the point of social media:
It‘s a useful way to raise awareness of evils in the world and prompt people to action/activism.
This commenter‘s interpretation of activism nicely segues into the second guiding research
63
question: How are people in the U.S. making sense of the normative communicative processes of
traditional activism and those of new, emerging forms of online activism in relation to one
another? Commenters‘ descriptions of what counts as ―activism‖ and who earns the title of
―activist,‖ reveal how interpretations work as codes and thus bound the speech community along
lines that separate, stratify, and unify individuals within the community (Saville-Troike, 2003).
Commenters were separated by translations of activism that pitted ―real activism‖ against
―pseudo‖ activism or ―slacktivism.‖ These same commenters were unified by their normative
interpretations, which defined activism and activists as exclusive constructs. Not everyone can
do it, or as Gladwell wrote, activism is not for ―the faint of heart.‖ Similarly, those commenters
in the majority, who challenged traditional meanings of ―activism‖ and ―activist‖ were unified in
their interpretations, which defined the terms as emerging and inclusive; and, as a result, this
viewpoint separated the commenters from those who denied naming digital efforts as activism.
But commenters were not all at one end of the semantic spectrum or the other. They
existed along a civic engagement continuum, stratified by their codes. At one end of the
continuum were individuals giving money to Haiti earthquake victims and changing one‘s
Facebook avatar in solidarity with Democratic revolutionaries in Egypt; at the other end were
revolutionaries willing to give their lives for their cause. In-between, were individuals posting
consciousness-raising YouTube videos, people blogging about their causes, and people using
Kenya‘s Ushahidi, an online crowd-sourcing application that allows people to report and map
eyewitness reports of violence in Kenya via text message. While the Internet—and the
communicative processes it facilitates—clearly disrupt traditional conceptions of activism, this
definitional rupture (Schiappi, 2003) also appears to open up possibilities for individuals to adopt
activist identities where none existed before.
64
Interestingly, online commenters stuck with ―activism‖ as a way to name digital efforts,
even if they did so in a derisive way, such as by using the term ―slacktivism.‖ Instead of
differentiating acts such as ‗clicking‘ for a cause or giving money as being other or different
kinds of civic and social participation, commenters deemed them to be types of activism or not
activism at all. Also, there was very little recognition of people taking steps toward activism, i.e.,
where does it begin, and naming what those steps might be. For instance, philanthropy was
offered as a form of activism, rather than a less involved form of civic engagement. Also, how
and why a person becomes an activist largely was not addressed in commenters‘ posts, as if to
say that it‘s implicit and obvious: everyone knows how and why.
65
CHAPTER FOUR
ACTIVISM AS SOCIAL CAPITAL
In this chapter, I present my interpretation of the findings, and in doing so, consider what
normative challenges to the meanings of activism say about activists and other groups in society
and their evolving communicative processes. In particular, I will focus on how these differing
interpretations affect Americans‘ views on their potential to be activists, on - and offline, and
how these shifts in everyday talk offer implications for the larger state of civic engagement in
America.
***
Americans, as a whole, are civically disengaged, or so they have been roundly critiqued
for their lack of involvement and interest in politics and community. Putnam documented it in
Bowling Alone (2000) and since a national conversation about how to reengage Americans has
ensued, along with scores of national and local civic engagement initiatives and programs,
including at schools and universities, from Harvard University‘s Saguaro Seminar (which
Putnam leads) to the University of Colorado-Boulder‘s Institute for Ethical and Civic
Engagement
Much of the focus of the so-called civic engagement crisis in America, particularly
Putnam‘s work (1995, 2000), has been concerned with the disintegration of traditional social
networks and this trend‘s impact on the social health of communities. I look to Putnam because
he charts the nation‘s civic engagement crisis as beginning following the 1960s, a period of
heightened social movement and activist activity. He writes:
Did the movements of those years represent the cresting of a long wave of rising civic
involvement …. And did this cycle of protest then recede, leaving behind it only
professionalized and bureaucratized interest groups, still bearing the banners of social
movements but deployed now as a defensive light air force, not a massed infantry for
66
change? Is all that remains of the proud period of deepened citizenship now captured by
the camp bumper sticker—‗Nuke the gay whales for Jesus‘? Or instead did the sixties
produce a durable and more advanced repertoire of civic engagement, leaving as its
legacy many rich new forms of connectedness, a ‗movement society‘ in which ‗elite
challenging‘ behavior becomes perpetual, conventional, routinely deployed by advocates
of many different causes? In short did the sixties mark the birth of an era or merely the
climax of one? (2000, pp. 154-155).
In 2011, the social movements of the 1960s remain as a yardstick by which activism is
frequently measured. Putnam asks: Did the ‗60s ―mark the birth of an era or merely the climax
of one‖? The answer seemingly falls into the category of the latter, and given the normative
expectations for activism, why wouldn‘t it?
Real activism: High risk, hard to accomplish
Semantically, an American speech community of online commenters found activism to
take on meanings aligning ―real activism‖ with efforts that are high risk, hard to accomplish,
and supportive of long-term social movement goals. Given this definition, activism is an
exclusive endeavor for only the most capable and committed. This definition also effectively
dissuades individuals from engaging in activism. How much does a person have to care about a
cause to not only give of one‘s time and money, but also risk bodily harm? The desegregation of
the American South and today‘s Democratic revolutions in North Africa may call for this kind
of commitment, but does every cause?
Activist efforts of the 1960s have been fetishized in popular culture, placing the activist
on a pedestal that today is both revered and reviled. Loved are the iconic leaders of the civil
rights and farm workers‘ movements, Martin Luther King, Jr. and Cesar Chavez. Hated are
activists such as Earth Liberation Front environmentalists, who have been jailed for acts of
―economic sabotage,‖ such as firebombing SUV dealerships and arson in protest of urban
67
sprawl ("Eco-violence: The record," 2002). Yet all are activists and no one questions that
semantic status.
Alternatively, online commenters aligned digital efforts one of two ways: 1.) as easy,
low-risk, and undermining of social movements‘ long-term goals or 2.) both easy and hard, low
– and high-risk, and supportive and undermining of social movement goals. The first
interpretation, nicknamed ‗slacktivism,‘ is dismissed as feel-good, do-nothing fluff for the
masses. Joe and Jane Average can ‗click for causes‘ but such actions are simply gestures that
add zero to social movements‘ agendas, and, in fact, may be counterproductive in the long-term.
But 55 percent of online commenters applauded the efforts of the second interpretation of
digital activism: ‗resilient‘ activism, which was championed as ―hard to censor,‖ and a way to
not only raise consciousness of important issues but also give ―voice‖ to all people.
Digital activism: Low risk, easy to accomplish
Unlike 1960‘s activism, popular narratives of digital activism are less than 15 years old.
For Americans, leaders of digital efforts are hard to name, let alone envision. Instead of
bringing to mind an inspirational leader, an American might associate digital activism with
whom and what they know of digital media: Facebook CEO and founder Mark Zuckerberg.
Online commenters did just that. One wrote:
All that social media did was to help bring attention to a revolution that was already
occurring based upon the fact that the cost of living for most Egyptians had reached
unacceptable levels. The people of Egypt made this happen, not Mark Zuckerberg or tons
of pompous tweeters and facebookers.
Perhaps unsurprisingly, popular media depict Zuckerberg as a brilliant, yet self-serving tycoon.
He was the focus of a 2010 Oscar-winning film, The Social Network, in which greed—not
activism or advancing the public good in any way—was the film‘s guiding theme.
68
Often overlooked is the history of digital activism, perhaps because it is not widely
known. One of the first early examples of digital activism was the 1999 Battle in Seattle, which
brought anti-globalization protestors to demonstrate against a World Trade Organization fourday
meeting. Email was used to mobilize and coordinate efforts that brought more than 40,000
people to gather and engage in acts of civil disobedience—as well as vandalism and obstruction
of commerce, prompting police to storm the streets with pepper spray and rubber bullets. Antiglobalization
activists widely consider the anti-WTO protests to have been a success, as the
summit ended without agreement on an agenda for future trade talks. Without the WTO
demonstrations, activists said that the general public would not have learned about the many
destructive practices of pro-globalization corporations. Lori Wallach, director of Public
Citizen's Global Trade Watch, told the Seattle Post-Intelligencer, "The allegedly unstoppable
force of globalization just hit the immovable object called grass-roots democracy" (Paulson,
1999).
Has globalization since become a nonissue in the world? No, in fact, neo-liberal policies
that undergird globalization have become more widely embraced by world leaders in the years
since. However, anti-globalization activists continue their efforts—on – and offline—and the
fight persists, like so many other social movement campaigns. What‘s markedly different
between 2011 and 1999, however, is that, ―broad-based, populist political spectacles have
become the norm, thanks to an evolving sense of the way in which the Internet may be deployed
in a democratic and emancipatory manner by a growing planetary citizenry that is using the new
media to become informed, to inform others, and to construct new social and political relations‖
(Kahn and Kellner, 2004, pp. 87-88). The Internet is commonly used as both a force to educate
and mobilize across the globe.
69
Have activist efforts within the anti-globalization movement been limited to being
defined as ―digital activism‖ rather than ―real activism‖ because so much of their organizing and
consciousness-raising occurs online? No. Yet, fears persist that by endorsing the moniker of
―activism‖ to be used for actions that take place on a keyboard, such support will dilute not only
the term‘s full array of meanings, but also its rules for enactment. Ethan Zuckerman, senior
researcher at Harvard‘s Berkman Center for Internet and Society and cofounder of Global
Voices, an international community of blogger-activists, has said:
When activism is too easy, people understand that it doesn‘t require much effort and
therefore might not require much commitment. When someone joins the Facebook group
or joins Twitter, are there other things they can do that show commitment, that shows
seriousness, that show they‘re being thoughtful about this? Getting people to write about
your cause, get people to blog about your cause, getting people to do things in the real
world as well as online, whether it‘s making phone calls or sending letters or getting
people to show up in person. These are all currencies that might be more valuable than
online currencies (Francois, 2010).
While digital activism can be tied to events ranging from the Battle in Seattle to the
political revolts in Moldova and Iran in 2009, and later in Egypt and Tunisia in 2011, it continues
to be greatly differentiated from activism‘s historic communication processes. One reason may
stem from digital activism‘s link to online ―cause‖ campaigns that ask Facebook friends to
change their avatars to cartoon characters, or to celebrities that ―sell their digital lives‖ to benefit
a charity. What counts as ―digital activism‖ represents a broad range of activities, while what
counts as traditional activism represents a narrow range of activities. The old methods are tried
and true, and the new methods are often held in suspicion because they represent what is largely
unknown—and what is known (Zuckerberg, friending, liking, and retweeting) doesn‘t fit into the
cognitive schema of historic activism.
70
‘Resilient’ activism
New meanings of activism are represented in accounts of digital activism, both ‗resilient‘
and ‗slacktivist.‘ Many commenters were quick to slam so-called ‗slacktivists,‘ but they did so
without considering how one could progress from clicking for a cause one day, to pledging
money another day, to volunteering for an event benefitting that cause on yet another day.
Instead, ―easy‖ activism was equated with laziness and with holding the potential to dilute and
even undermine social movement goals.
I return to the definition of civic engagement by the Pew Charitable Trusts (2006)
provided in Chapter One:
Individual and collective actions designed to identify and address issues of public
concern. Civic Engagement can take many forms, from individual volunteerism to
organizational involvement to electoral participation. It can include efforts to directly
address an issue, work with others in a community to solve a problem or interact with the
institutions of representative democracy.
This definition does not directly address ―activism,‖ yet based on online commenters‘ sensemaking
of activism, I argue that activism exists along a continuum. This continuum is
represented in the above description of civic engagement‘s ―forms,‖ from volunteerism to
organizational involvement to electoral participation, among other things. Putnam asked whether
1960‘s activism left a legacy of,
many rich new forms of connectedness, a ‗movement society‘ in which ‗elite
challenging‘ behavior becomes perpetual, conventional, routinely deployed by advocates
of many different causes? (2000, p. 154-155)
Or did the era only leave behind, ―professionalized and bureaucratized interest groups‖? I look to
what exists between those two extreme choices. Putnam theorized that joining social and civic
groups is the gateway to civic engagement, as it helps build important ties that serve as a vital
71
social safety net for people. This idea is situated in social capital theory, which says that
networks of acquaintances and friends have value, ―just as a screwdriver (physical capital) or a
college education (human capital) can increase productivity (both individual and collective).‖
Similarly, social contacts can ―affect the productivity of individuals and groups‖ (Putnam, 2000,
p. 19). Why? Putnam wrote that norms of ―reciprocity and trustworthiness‖ are built into
relationships, or, in other words, people return acts of kindness and trust. As part of this, two
subsets of social capital exist: bonding and bridging capital, which correspond to the strong and
weak social ties so prominent in Gladwell‘s New Yorker article. Bonding capital ―reinforces
exclusive identities and homogenous groups,‖ such as belonging to exclusive clubs, while
bridging capital networks ―are outward looking and encompass people across diverse social
cleavages‖ (Putnam, 2000, p. 22). Gladwell associated ‗real activism‘ with strong ties;
‗slacktivism‘ with weak ties. ‗Resilient‘ activism is described as not being that clearly defined.
In Chapter Three, I quoted commenter, ‗Kendra Kellogg,‘ who referenced a Twitter
campaign in support of U.S. health care reform and to honor the life of Eric De La Cruz, ―who
passed away after not being able to receive a heart transplant because of insurance red tape and
pre-existing condition clauses.‖ The commenter described the relationships she formed with
other online activists:
Jesse, you were there also there for Veronica's fight to save her brother life. We met on
Twitter through that process. I think that the circle of activists that came together for Eric
shows that "weak-ties" and "strong-ties" are not black and white. Close to a million
dollars was raised to save Eric's life on Twitter. The group moved forward to with
Veronica in the battle for healthcare reform, showing up with signs of support when she
spoke at rallies and protests. Social media is not as simple as Gladwell wants it to be.
72
Activism as relational social capital: Strong and weak ties
Activism as a set of communicative practices has historically been closely tied to
interpersonal relationships. Activist activities aren‘t typically thought of as solitary, but as
activities of solidarity with others, with whom one has friendships or interests in common. As it
is portrayed historically, activism is about being a part of something special—with others, in
shared experiences. In ―Small Change,‖ Gladwell described the relationship among the four
black freshmen from North Carolina A&T College, David Richmond, Franklin McCain, Ezell
Blair and Joseph McNeil, who ―sat-in‖ at the Greensboro, N.C. lunch counter:
McNeil was a roommate of Blair‘s in A.&T.‘s Scott Hall dormitory. Richmond roomed
with McCain one floor up, and Blair, Richmond, and McCain had all gone to Dudley
High School. The four would smuggle beer into the door and talk late into the night in
Blair and McNeil‘s room. They would all have remembered the murder of Emmett Till in
1955, the Montgomery bus boycott that same year, and the showdown in Little Rock in
1957. It was McNeil who brought up the idea of the sit-in at Woolworth‘s. They‘d
discussed it for nearly a month. Then McNeil came into the dorm room and asked the
others if they were ready. There was a pause, and McCain said, in a way that works only
with people who talk late into the night with one another, ―are you guys chicken or not?‖
Ezell Blair worked up the courage the next day to ask for a cup of coffee because he was
flanked by his roommate and two good friends from high school.
Such interpersonal ties—strong ties versus weak—are credited with bringing people together to
face adversity and bring about social change that could not be possible otherwise. Gladwell
further illustrates this point by telling another story, this time about an instance of when social
media helped solve a seemingly impossible problem: a Silicon Valley entrepreneur developed
acute myelogenous leukemia and needed a bone-marrow transplant, but was unable to find a
match among friends and family. Her business partner sent a chain email explaining the situation
to more than 400 personal contacts. He asked them to sign-up for the bone-marrow registry
database. Those contacts then forwarded it on to their contacts, who then posted it to their
Facebook pages and created YouTube videos to help the woman in need. More than 25,000 new
73
people signed-up for the donor registry, and the woman found a match. Gladwell wrote that
signing up for the registry was easy: all you needed was a cheek swab and to possibly spend two
hours or so in a doctor‘s office. If you‘re a match, he wrote:
donating a bone marrow isn‘t a trivial matter. But it doesn‘t involve financial or personal
risk; it doesn‘t mean spending a summer being chased by armed men in pickup trucks. It
doesn‘t require that you confront socially entrenched norms and practices. In fact, it‘s the
kind of commitment that will bring only social acknowledgement and praise. The
evangelists of social media don‘t understand this distinction; they seem to believe that a
Facebook friend is the same thing as a real friend and that signing up for a donor registry
in Silicon Valley today is activism in the same sense as sitting at a segregated lunch
counter in Greensboro in 1960.
Angus Johnson, a historian of student activism and founder of StudentActivism.net, wrote of
Gladwell‘s example of the national bone marrow registry:
Gladwell cites this as an example of an effort that go people to sing up ‗by not asking too
much of them,‘ and on one level, that‘s correct. It takes minimal effort to click over to a
website and type in your address, and not much more to swab your cheek and return the
kit they send you. It‘s easy – but most people still don‘t bother. Most people need a goad.
And if that‘s all this had been, a goad to get people to do something easy and important, it
would have been great. It was quite a bit more than that, though, because actually
donating bone narrow isn’t easy. It involves a doctor drilling a hole into your pelvis. It‘s
usually done under general anesthetic. The pain can persist for several weeks. And in a
not-insignificant number cases, serious complications can result. Yes, of course, it‘s easy
– or at least easy-ish – to get someone to fill out a web form, and yes, of course, online
communities do an excellent job encouraging that kind of low-cost ―activism.‖ But as
every true activist knows, that first contact with a like-minded soul is the beginning of the
process, not the end.
Johnson calls becoming an activist a ―process.‖ A person doesn‘t magically transform from
ordinary person to activist the minute he or she joins a protest on the street. Activism, according
to Johnson‘s definition, exists along a spectrum of public participation. ‗Resilient‘ activism, as
digital activism was defined by a majority of online commenters, is part of this spectrum or
continuum: It gives voice to people in a myriad of ways, which can lead to outcomes, such as
was experienced by the Silicon Valley entrepreneur, who needed a bone marrow transplant.
74
Gladwell and supporters of his argument refuse to acknowledge that there can be many shades of
activism, requiring different kinds of relationships and levels of involvement.
Why do such semantic tensions exist? Because activism is taking on new meanings that
encourage other, and, perhaps, lesser levels of social and civic engagement that recognize the
individual as well as the collective‘s contributions, and the pragmatic goals of activism as well as
the dramatic, big-change goals. Every day, more is being learned about how the communicative
processes enabled by the Internet are changing how we make sense of and, ultimately, live the
world. One thing, however, is undisputed: Digital forums such as Facebook and Twitter expose
people to an array of issues—including those involving politics and social causes—that
individuals may not have otherwise considered. Is it ―real activism‖ when somebody clicks to
show support for a cause or enter these social and civic conversations, but does nothing else?
Perhaps not—at least not yet. Meanings are constantly being reconsidered and revised in the
everyday talk of people, whose discourses of activism shape normative meanings.
Currently, Americans are grappling with new uses of the words ―activism‖ and ―activist‖
and in doing so, they consider symbols representing these terms, what meanings they hold, the
premises they‘re based upon, and rules for action they hold. In this process of sense-making
comes an inevitable questioning of oneself‘s potential to be an activist or engage in activism. If
it‘s ―easy,‖ and ―low-risk‖ why not show support for a cause you believe in? Costs, as resource
mobilization theories argue, are a deterrent to activism. If an effort must be ―hard‖ and ―high
risk,‖ that constrains an individual‘s ability and/or willingness to participate. I contend that when
the definitions of activism are opened up to other possibilities, so are the opportunities for
participation, and that these normative challenges shed light on how activist groups adapted to a
digital world, as, in the course of doing so, a large number of them leveraged the term ―activism‖
75
rather than other less sexy terms—such as ‗civic engagement‘ or ‗public participation‘—to
attract supporters and serve their particular interests.
Today’s digital activists
It‘s perhaps not surprising that if you open an Internet browser and type in the phrase,
―How to become an online activist‖ more than 3.3 million results are returned. Swap in the
more popular term ‗digital activist‘ and 23 million come back. Organizations from Greenpeace
to American Majority solicit individuals to ―get involved‖ and assist in online campaigns,
ultimately with the hope begin their involvement online with eventually help in other capacities.
American Majority, a ―grassroots political training organization for conservative candidates and
activists engaging at the state level,‖ tells potential online activists on its Web site,
While there‘s nothing like face-to-face interaction with voters, sometimes not everyone
can be reached. Supplementary reinforcements that help spread the word about a
candidate or cause, such as online activism, have become increasingly important in
today‘s fast-paced, digital world.
Online activism is ―increasingly important‖ people are told, but not as important as face-to-face
efforts, or in other words: If online is all you can commit to, that‘s fine, but not ideal.
Rootwork.org community organizer Ivan Boothe wrote, ―The methods and tactics of online
activists—be they individuals or international nonprofits with hundreds of staff—are drawn on
social change movements and community organizing strategies that have been tried,
experimented with, failed, tweaked, and tried again, long before the Internet was invented‖
(2010).
Yet, digital activism is realized in a number of ways that were not possible—or even
conceived of—before the widespread use of the Internet. Additionally, the communicative
processes of online activism are ever-changing and aren‘t necessarily less effective than
76
traditional processes, according to new research. DigiActive.org, a volunteer-run organization
that helps grassroots activists everywhere use the Internet and mobile phones to increase their
reach, lists 18 digital activist ―tools,‖ with corresponding case studies. Among them are social
networking sites such as Twitter, which victims of the 7.0-magnitude Haiti earthquake in
January 2010 used to instantly spread information, including video and photos, of the
devastation and ultimately connect those in need of help with the right people and
organizations; similarly, organizations such as the Red Cross employed text messaging as a
means to quickly raise money for needy Haitians.
In countries, such as Cuba, where the Internet isn‘t widely available—or is outlawed all
together—flash drives have been used to share politically sensitive information from computer
to computer. In a story about flash-drive activism, the New York Times reported in March 2008:
Last month, students at a prestigious computer science university videotaped an ugly
confrontation they had with Ricardo Alarcón, the president of the National Assembly….
The video spread like wildfire through Havana, passed from person to person, and
seriously damaged Mr. Alarcón‘s reputation in some circles.
Something similar happened in late January when officials tried to impose a tax on the
tips and wages of employees of foreign companies. Workers erupted in jeers and shouts
when told about the new tax, a moment caught on a cellphone camera and passed along
by memory sticks.
―It passes from flash drive to flash drive,‖ said Ariel, 33, a computer programmer….
―This is going to get out of the government‘s hands because the technology is moving so
rapidly.‖ (McKinley, 2008)
More commonly, activists use social networking sites to build online communities, which can be
mobilized to participate in online and offline activities from fundraising to protesting; they blog
and create videos to raise awareness of campaigns and causes; and they circulate electronic
petitions and mass emails. These activities are not unlike sending direct-mail calls to action,
posting fliers, creating phone trees, collecting petition signatures on the street, and writing letters
77
to the editors of print newspapers and magazines. The effectiveness and value of these methods
are often questioned, and due to the newness of many of these techniques, it has been difficult to
truly know which work toward advancing causes‘ missions and which don‘t. As a result, it has
been easy for critics to discursively downgrade digital activist efforts, nicknaming them,
―slacktivism,‖ ―clicktivism,‖ ―armchair activism,‖ and ―keyboard activism,‖ calling their
worthiness into question.
Definitional rupture
How words are defined is a political endeavor and a reflection of the social construction
of reality. Schiappa coined ―how we talk about particular definitions‖ as ―definitive discourse‖
(2003, p. xi). Such talk defines terms, he said, ―whether in an explicit discourse about a
definition, discourse that argues from a particular definition or discourse that stipulates a view
of reality via an argument by definition‖ (p. xi). While for the most part, words are defined by
their dictionary or lexical definitions, ―definitional rupture‖ can occur when a standard
definition is rejected by a large number of language users; this can happen when ―the dictionary
is outdated‖ or the dictionary ―doesn‘t know how people are using the word now‖ (Schiappi,
2003, p. 10). The communication processes being deployed to advance activist causes are
evolving so rapidly, it is nearly impossible to keep up to date on what counts as activism in the
digital era.
Activist organizations are most culpable for creating this ―definitional rupture.‖ They‘re
creating Web pages titled ―Become a Digital Activist‖ – not ―Become an Engaged Citizen‖—to
recruit people to spread the word about their causes. They‘re using flash drives to spread
messages from computer to computer. They‘re uploading videos to YouTube to document
human rights abuses around the world, spotlight tensions between the Burmese military and
78
ethnic minorities, and raise awareness of persistent American social issues, such as
homelessness (Raghavan, 2009). They‘re blogging, tweeting, and updating their Facebook
statuses to inform and enlighten others about issues they care about—as well as to engage them
in conversations about these issues. They send clicktivist email petitions and form letters.
They‘re creating Facebook pages, where people gather virtually to share information and
organize revolutions (Ghonim, 2011).
However, even if activists were the ones who started stretching the meanings of activism,
now they‘re not the only ones shaping the word‘s evolving definitions. Individuals—with or
without activist connections—are creating their own campaigns and contributing in their own
ways. They‘re asking Facebook friends to change their avatars to cartoon characters to highlight
the problem of child abuse; celebrities are ―selling their digital lives‖ to benefit the AIDS/HIV
charity Keep a Child Alive; they‘re clicking to ―sign‖ email petitions and forms (and doing
nothing else) and they‘re responding to other digital calls to action, including showing up at
flash mobs, rallies, and protests.
What does it all mean? Ultimately, activist groups‘ and others‘ digital efforts are
cultivating a new kind of activist identity that gives license to ordinary people to ―click for
causes‖ and, perhaps, even progress further along the civic engagement continuum in their
shows of support. Some Americans will continue to dismiss so-called ―slacktivist‖ activities as
lazy, easy, low-risk and undermining. This demarcates activism as something exclusive, only
for those who are not, as Gladwell wrote, ―faint of heart.‖ But others, such as Tibbetts of She‘s
the First, will continue to contest such clear-cut generalizing and promote that people who are
willing to give a little, ought to do so, opening up activism‘s meanings to be more inclusive and
flexible. Tibbetts‘ comment, ―Rather than talk about what people ‗should‘ do, we choose to hit
79
the ground running with those who WILL do something,‖ spoke to Shirky‘s endorsement of
social networks‘ ability to aggregate and Garrett‘s (2006) theory of microcontributions. Shirky
wrote, ―instead of convincing people who care a little to do more, you can convince people who
care a little to do a little‖ (2008, p. 181). Indeed.
New research on digital activism
With digital activism in its infancy, the debate over whether it carries the same civic
weight and meanings as offline activism rages on. Even those who advocate digital activism
remain reluctant to fully back its value, seemingly for fear of losing traditions, tried-and-true
methods—and perhaps most of all, the ―committed‖ activists of bygone eras and today, who are
often characterized as selfless givers of time, money, and connections in contrast to the selfish
clicktivists and slacktivists of the Internet.
Mary Joyce, founder of DigiActive.org and the Meta-Activism Project, seemingly would
be a digital activism cheerleader. She worked behind the scenes of the successful 2008 Obama
presidential campaign as new media operations manager, and has been a digital activism
consultant for the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, as well as for the Berkman Center for
Internet & Society at Harvard University, where she was a master‘s student at its Kennedy
School of Government. However, she carefully qualified the meaning of ―success‖ in digital
activism, in an interview published online at ReadWriteWeb.com:
In almost all of the famous cases of digital activism ‗success‘—the post-election
mobilizations in Iran and Moldova in 2009 or the 2008 general strike in Egypt— while
activists did successfully mobilize using social media, they did not achieve their
campaign goal, be it to overturn an allegedly fraudulent election result or the wide range
of social and political reforms demanded by strike organizers. (MacManus, 2010)
80
While the means of activism are most discussed and contested, the desired ends are often left
largely open to interpretation and assumption. Joyce spoke of Iranian and Moldovian digital
activists‘ campaign goals, such as to overturn an election result or realize ―social and political
reforms.‖ She deemed them unsuccessful because in the short-term, the goals have yet to be
realized. One must ask: Were these the only goals of activists? Additionally, in the semantic
framework of activism norms, activism is defined as a long-term supportive endeavor that can
span decades and even generations. Why must public intellectuals set the bar higher for digital
activists‘ efforts?
Joyce‘s voice join a chorus of those who, while embracing and studying how the Internet
and pervasive digital technologies can be used to effect social change, also caution against only
participating in civic life by way of the Internet. They say it is not ―real activism‖ to support
causes in this manner alone. This semantic norm, as demonstrated in the talk of online
commenters, however, is facing increasing challenges. Until recently, there was little research to
combat such claims.
Shulman (2009) was among the first to embark on a large scale review of a so-called
clicktivism technique, the mass-email campaign, and ultimately critiqued it, arguing that such
―low-quality‖ online mobilizations were less effective than other more traditional efforts and
crowded out well-thought-out public comments to the detriment of the Democratic process. Such
campaigns typically involve circulating a form letter via email, which advocate a certain position
or cause. The recipient can choose to ―sign‖ with a click, and the letter is forwarded to the email
of the appropriate legislator. These form letters can be personalized, but most often recipients
simply click and move on, lowering the costs of participation, as the recipient need not spend
much time or effort learning more about the cause or penning his or her own letter. Karpf (2010)
81
has since challenged Shulman‘s claim using a new quantitative dataset—his Membership
Communications Project, which consists of six months of email activity from 70 prominent
advocacy groups.
Based on his research, Karpf argues that mass emails are little different than photocopied
and faxed petitions and postcards of analog activism of the past. Additionally, he places the
email campaigns in context of a social movement‘s constellation of strategies: it is but one of
many, and leaves little room for predictions that such forms of activism cultivate apathy.
In direct opposition to claim that digital activism breeds apathy is a Pew Research Center
report (Rainie, Smith, and Purcell, 2011) that links Internet use and civic engagement. Its results
show 75 percent of all American adults—and a larger proportion of Internet users, 80 percent,
versus 56 percent of non-Internet users—are active in some kind of voluntary group or
organization. Social media users, as a group, are even more likely to be joiners, with 82 percent
of social network users and 85 percent of Twitter users, citing their participation in groups.
Another study by the University of California‘s Humanities Research Institute (Kahne, Lee, &
Feezell, 2011) found a strong link between Internet use and social and civic engagement. The
study involved 2,500 high school students, tracking 400 of them over 3.5 years, and found that
youth involved in online communities were more likely to volunteer, do charity work, and get
involved in community issues. ―Both in the U.S. and abroad, so much civic and political life is
online. We‘ve got to pay attention to new media when we think about civic learning,‖ said Mills
College professor Joe Kahne, the primary author of the study, in a press release from the
MacArthur Foundation, which funded the research. ―Research demonstrates that many youth are
disengaged from traditional forms of civic and political life but are very engaged with new
82
media. Our study findings strongly suggest that there are ways to build on their engagement with
digital media to foster engagement in civic life,‖ Kahne said.
Also challenging semantic norms are the communicative processes of activism, which
continue to reflect changes brought about by the Internet. This thesis asks:
How does online activism and its related communication processes disrupt normative
meanings of activism?
Fast, cheap, and widely available communication channels have changed the nature of
‗collective action‘ so that it is no longer primarily situated in organized groups, but also can be
characterized as ‗aggregated action,‘ or expressions of support as demonstrated by disconnected
aggregates representative of individual viewpoints. A rapidly changing mediascape allows
individuals to communicate their messages with little or no filter, meaning that mainstream
media is no longer necessary for spreading social movement and social movement organization
messages or lending legitimacy to causes. Social movements have always been ―out-groups,‖
working outside of institutions. The Internet, however, offers sanctuary for all voices, through
social networks, organizational websites, alternative news outlets, and blogs. Additionally, the
Internet facilitates interaction and feedback that traditional media have not been able to until the
1990s.
Traditional theory posits that social movements and social movement organizations must
have leaders and these leaders emerge naturally, as they are best at articulating a movement‘s
cause. Gladwell quoted Aldon D. Morris, the author of ―The Origins of the Civil Rights
Movement,‖ (1984), who described how African American churches were at the center of the
Civil Rights Movement. Ministers, Morris said, assigned groups and standing committees, and
held individuals accountable for their duties. Hierarchy, like that which exists in the military,
83
was said to keep a social movement‘s momentum in check. Leaders planned and orchestrated
actions, with a larger goal of systemic change in mind. They provided vision, lifted morale, and
persuaded people to stick with the cause.
Yet neither strong ties, nor hierarchy are so cut and dried in the life of social movements.
A commenter to Helfenbein‘s Huffington Post blog, referred to a recent Wired magazine blog
post, in which the writer Jonah Lehrer looked to the work of sociologist Mark Granovetter
(1973) on weak ties. The commenter quoted from the blog:
While Gladwell argues that the flat hierarchies of online networks are a detriment to
effective activism — he cites the leaderless P.L.O. as an example — Granovetter points
out that leaders of social movements often depend on weak ties to maintain loyalty. He
notes that organizations dominated by strong ties tend to produce fragmentation and
cliquishness, which quickly leads to the breakdown of trust.
This suggests that part of the reason Martin Luther King was able to inspire such
discipline among a relatively large group of followers was that he cultivated a large
number of weak ties. As a result, people felt like they trusted him, even though they
barely knew him. (2010)
In Persuasion and Social Movements (Stewart, Smith, and Denton, 2007), the authors wrote that
leadership is ―more structured than a naked power relationship and less structured than an
authority relationship associated with an organizational position;‖ The leader, ―at best controls
an organized core of the movement (frequently mistaken for the movement itself) but exerts
relatively little influence over a relatively larger number of sympathizers in its periphery‖ (pgs.
114-115).
In the digital era, networked individualism (Barry Wellman, et al., 2006) asserts that
hierarchies of home, work, and elsewhere have been flattened to allow for the opinions and small
contributions of many to accumulate. Social media allows loosely structured groups to operate
without managerial direction and profit motive in order to mobilize and organize themselves,
84
blurring private and public boundaries and leveraging their own and others‘ private information.
This recent flattening of hierarchies represents a significant change because no longer are
movement leaders chosen for their public speaking and organizational skills. Often they are
chosen as a result of their personal networks and technological skills, and they share their
leadership responsibilities with many others. Instead of there being one prominent ―face‖ of a
movement, such as a Martin Luther King, Jr., for civil rights, or Gloria Steinem for feminism,
movements are represented by several prominent figures, who may change day to day, rather
than generation to generation.
Historical social movements have focused on making sweeping systemic changes, while
contemporary American social movements have become more pragmatic. Tarrow (2005) argues
that the Internet allows for middle-man skipping ―brokerages,‖ cutting out the need for
organizations to connect and manage likeminded individuals. In the 21st century, connections are
often made to people, not places—and mobilization, not organization, has become the name of
the game. As a result, social movements have begun focusing more on practical
accomplishments, such as the ability to mobilize resources and influence policy and elections,
much to the chagrin of Gladwell, among others. Often, these are not high-risk propositions, nor
do they typically call for large-scale structural or systemic change. But that doesn‘t mean they
aren‘t part of a larger plan of smaller, more pragmatic actions to bring those kinds of ―big‖
changes about.
Social movement theory has long focused on the problem of freeriding, yet in today‘s
Internet era, (with few exceptions) there is little reason for individuals to stand on the sidelines of
many American social causes, given the cost of participation is low, if non-existent. There are
places and roles for ―true believers,‖ who put their reputations and livelihoods on the line by
85
marching and protesting for the causes they believe in. But how many people are willing to
participate at that level?
Given evolving communication processes and the ever-expanding possibilities for social
movement participation, one is pressed to ask: Must ―real activism‖ carry meanings such as
high-risk, difficult, and always supportive of long-term social movement goals, as Gladwell and
others suggest, to preserve the historic moral weight and rules for acting that come with the
term? Or is it also desirable for activism‘s meanings to further shift into the semantic realm of
―resilient‖ activism, which is interpreted as flexible and inclusive of many types of action?
The answer, based on this study of online commenters, supports a desire for activism to
be more semantically inclusive. A majority of commenters took the view that if a person is
willing to give of themselves—financially, intellectually, physically, or otherwise—it should be
acknowledged as a kind of legitimate activism.
Limitations
Given its limited scope, this study of online commenters provides only a snapshot of how
Americans are making sense of activism in the digital era. While Malcolm Gladwell is a New
York Times best-selling author and well-known cultural commentator, his original article, ―Small
Change,‖ likely reached a limited audience of well-educated, mostly liberal Americans. As a
result, the audience for the resulting online conversation about activism that followed the
article‘s publication was similarly limited to those who 1.) read the article 2.) read articles and
blog posts written in response to the article. That said, the online comments provide evidence
that some Americans are interested in engaging in a discussion about appropriate modes of civic
conduct and activism, which demonstrates a value for these kinds of activities, if not a desire to
engage in them.
86
The Internet and related pervasive technologies used for digital activism are new within
the last 15 years. Digital media continue to evolve and offer individuals new ways to connect and
engage with others across time and space. Because of this, communication researchers continue
to grapple with how to best study online communication. Katriel and Philipsen, in their 1981
metadiscourse analysis of ―communication,‖ spent a year observing the lives of several people to
conduct their study. The lives of two women served as case studies and primary texts for the
study; the researchers observed them and interviewed them. Katriel and Philipsen also reviewed
diaries kept by the women. A more in-depth study of the meanings of ―activism‖ and ―activist‖
might also involve such research techniques, but adapted to account for online talk, which is
significantly different than face-to-face conversations.
In the digital world, it is common for individuals to post only one comment. Online
―conversations‖ among commenters involve an interplay of texts, and it is not always clear to
whom a commenter is responding. Long pauses and gaps occur between comments, which may
hold meaning or not. A person must make sense of other commenters‘ words without the help of
tone of voice, prosody, pauses, and other conversational markers. However, emoticons,
capitalizations, and other written forms of expressing tone and meaning can aid interpretation.
You might ask: Why study online talk if it is so hard to decipher? Conversations are
taking place online in a way that they aren‘t offline. People who comment do so in order to
engage in debate with individuals they may or may not know. Commenters are actively seeking
out other people‘s thoughts and feelings on topics, most likely in an attempt to refine or validate
their own thoughts and feelings. Does that mean all research on online talk needs to take place in
the digital world? I do not believe so. A more in-depth study certainly could involve interviews
87
with commenters and other face-to-face techniques to more fully investigate the semantic
dimensions and cultural connotations of ―activism‖ and ―activist.‖
Conclusion
In America and beyond, people are online: nearly a third of the world‘s population has an
Internet connection. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton (2011) noted in a speech on Internet
freedom that ―increasingly, we are turning to the Internet to conduct important aspects of our
lives. The Internet has become the public space of the 21st
century—the world‘s town square,
classroom, marketplace, coffeehouse, and nightclub. We all shape and are shaped by what
happens there, all 2 billion of us, and counting.‖
The Internet offers gathering places where people—representative of a wide spectrum of
ages, ethnicities, and socioeconomic statuses —discuss what matters to them. These online
―third places‖ allow individuals to reach likeminded others (as well as those with differing
viewpoints) in ways never before possible. The Internet‘s communicative powers account for
why this medium and its associated tools have been credited for revolutions in Iran, Moldova,
Egypt and Tunisia, as well as here on U.S. soil. Would the Tea Party exist in 2011 if Twitter
hadn‘t facilitated a lightning-fast, widespread backlash against the Obama administration‘s
$787 billion economic stimulus package in 2009? Would the 2011 labor protests in Wisconsin
have persisted without the aid of online campaigns and new media tools that mobilized
supporters and kept them updated on the latest developments?
Without a doubt, the Internet is a revolutionary force in the world of activism and social
movements. This study of online commenters‘ metatalk adds to the conversation insights as to
how public discourse is defining and reshaping the norms and values surrounding activist
efforts in the 21st
century.
88
While Putnam (1995, 2000, 2008) charted a decline in national civic engagement, this
study suggests that Americans are not only interested in talking about what it means to be
civically engaged, but they‘re also reconceptualizing what it means in the digital era. Public
intellectuals such as Gladwell seek to guide and shape the national conversation on what
activism is and isn‘t, but thanks to the Internet, the talk of ordinary people may carry just as
much—if not more—weight in how social change is made sense of and brought about. The
Internet‘s online forums give license to people to weigh in on issues of political importance,
including how terms and identities ought to be defined. Polletta wrote that ―talk helps people
consider the possibilities open for social change,‖ (2002, p. 1) and that point is salient when
considering the outcomes of this study.
A majority of online commenters rejected the notion that activism is always high risk
and hard to accomplish. This normative framework constructs an activist identity that is
exclusive and limited to the few people committed enough to risk jail and/or bodily harm for a
cause. Putnam asked in Bowling Alone if 1960s activism left a legacy of, ―many rich new forms
of connectedness, a ‗movement society‘ in which ‗elite challenging‘ behavior becomes
perpetual, conventional, routinely deployed by advocates of many different causes?‖ (2000, p.
154-155). Instead, perhaps, portrayals of 1960s activists constructed a legacy identity of
activism unattainable for most Americans. Few people imagine they are as capable a leader as
Martin Luther King, Jr., or as courageous as the four young men who staged the Woolworth‘s
lunch-counter sit-in. Not everyone wants to engage in ―challenging behavior,‖ as Putnam
described activism. But should that preclude individuals from entering the realm of civic
engagement from another point along the spectrum? A majority of online commenters
conceptualized digital activism as more flexible and inclusive, a reflection of what people were
89
willing to give, rather than what they should give. This both conforms with and conflicts with
theories of resource mobilization, which link lower costs to higher rates of participation.
Commenters recognized that costs aren‘t the only motivation to work toward a public good:
Many people want to give what they can. Commenter and healthcare activist ‗jesseluna‘ wrote:
The protesters in Iran who posted YouTube videos and secretly shared pictures and video
links (via Twitter DMs) to ongoing news were literally under the gun and in harm's way.
Some tweeters were on the ground, others did what they could and changed their avatars
in solidarity.
Interestingly, grassroots activists seemingly are at least partly to blame for the activism‘s
definitional rupture. As they recruit ordinary people to ―Become Digital Activists,‖ traditional
activists assist in the reshaping of activism‘s cultural connotations, despite caveats that insist
that true activism cannot occur only online. Activists chose to use the word ―activist‖ rather than
―engaged citizen‖ or other, more nuanced terms to recruit supporters.
The rise of the Internet and its accompanying pervasive digital technologies are changing
many of activism‘s accepted processes and ―truths,‖ perhaps most of all, who might consider
themselves to an activist. Reingold‘s smart mobs (2002) allow diverse people with overlapping
interests to join alliances, whether fleeting or sustained. Former Microsoft sociologist Marc
Smith said, ―more people pooling resources in new ways‘ is the history of civilization in …
seven words‖ (Reingold, 2002, p. 31). This study of online commenters‘ talk about activism
illustrates that, indeed, people see the value in aggregating resources and that there‘s nothing
wrong with people who ―care a little‖ only doing ―a little‖ (Shirky, 2008, p. 181). In fact, the
majority of online commenters cared little about differentiating between levels of activism, or
civic engagement, for that matter. While 45 percent of commenters were adamant that activism
fit historic normative criteria, most commenters saw no point in strict semantic boundaries.
90
Fundraising, mobilizing volunteers, raising awareness of causes, as well as posting YouTube
videos, photos and video links were all named as legitimate ―activism‖ rather than shades of the
less sexy ―public participation‖ or ―civic engagement.‖
Seemingly, civic engagement and activism bleed together in the digital era, beginning
with steps toward public participation, such as re-tweeting of articles of political interest and
sharing politically relevant YouTube videos, acts which Marichal (2010) coined as
microactivism. ―These acts reflect micro-level intentions and are not necessarily geared towards
mobilization like more traditional forms of digital activism,‖ he wrote (p. 1).
Ethnographers of communication ask: How are words used as vehicles to segregate and
divide people into social categories? In this study, it appears the category of activism was made
larger, encouraging individuals to enter the civic engagement continuum via their keyboards,
perhaps first by engaging in political discussions, clicking for causes, and texting donations. In
the digital era, time will tell whether such discourses and attitudes lead to greater civic
engagement and thus support Twitter co-founder Biz Stone‘s contention that, ―Lowering the
barrier to activism doesn‘t weaken humanity, it brings us together and it makes us stronger‖
(2010).
91
References
Anduiza, E., Cantijoch, M., & Gallego, A. (2009). Political participation and the Internet.
Information, Communication & Society, 12(6), 860-878.
Bernstein, B. (1972). Class, codes and control, Volume 1: Theoretical studies toward a sociology
of language. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Bimber, B., Flanagin, A. J., & Stohl, C. (2006). Reconceptualizing collective action in the
contemporary media environment. Communication Theory, 15(4), 365-388.
Boothe, I. (2010, March 19, 2011). What online activism can learn from community organizing.
Carbaugh, D. (2005). Cultures in Conversation. New York City: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Clinton, H. (2011). Secretary Clinton's speech on Internet freedom at George Washington
University. (Feb. 15, 2011). Retrieved from
http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2011/02/15/secretary_clintons_speech_on_inter
net_freedom_108920.html
CNN. (2003). Cities jammed in worldwide protest of war in Iraq. CNN U.S., (Feb. 15, 2003).
Retrieved from http://articles.cnn.com/2003-02-15/us/sprj.irq.protests.main_1_anti-war-
rallies-anti-war-movement-police-use-pepper-spray?_s=PM:US
Cohen, J. L. (1985). Strategy or Identity: New Theoretical Paradigms and Contemporary Social
Movements. Social Research, 52(4), 663-716.
Desk, Y. S. (2011). Quick facts: Wisconsin protests -- a timeline. YOU.S. Desk. Retrieved from
http://www.presstv.ir/usdetail/171074.html
Douglas, M. (1971). Do dogs laugh? A cross-cultural approach to body symbolism. Journal of
Psychosomatic Research(15), 387-390.
Eco-violence: The record. (2002). Retrieved from http://www.splcenter.org/get-
informed/intelligence-report/browse-all-issues/2002/fall/from-push-to-shove/eco-
violence-the-rec
Fisher, D., & Boekkooi, M. (2010). Mobilizing Friends and Strangers. Information,
Communication & Society, 13(2), 193-208.
Francois, C. (Producer). (2010, March 20, 2011) Ethan Zuckerman's advice on online activism.
Video retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UF1ysJMCZQ8
Frau-Meigs, D. (2002). La démocratie entre représentation et participation @
internet.gov L’Internet en politique: des Etats-Unis à l’Europe. Strasbourg: Presses
Universitaires de Strasbourg.
Freebryon.org. (2010, March 6, 2011). FreeBryon. from
http://freebyron.org/index.php/Main_Page
Gallagher, D. F. (2009, July 9, 2009). A blog's story gets a tweek in 'Julie & Julia' New York
Times.
Gamson, J. (1989). Silence, death, and the invisible enemy: AIDS activism and social movement
newness. Social Problems, 36(4), 351-367.
Gamson, W., Fireman, B., & Rytina, S. (1982). Encounters with Unjust Authority. Homewood,
Ill.: Dorsey Press.
Gamson, W. A. (1975). The Strategy of Social Protest. Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey Press.
Ganesh, S., & Stohl, C. (2010). Qualifying Engagement: A Study of Information and
Communication Technology and the Global Social Justice Movement in Aotearoa New
Zealand. Communication Monographs, 77(1), 51-74.
92
Garrett, R. K. (2006). Protest in an Information Society: a Review of Literature on Social
Movements and New ICTs Information, Communication & Society, 9(2), 202-224.
Geertz, C. (1973). Thick description: Toward an interpretive theory of culture. In C. Gertze
(Ed.), The interpretation of cultures (pp. 3-30). New York City: Basic Books.
Ghonim, W. (2011). Inside the Eygptian Revolution. New York City: TED Talks.
Gladwell, M. (2010). Small Change: Why the Revolution Will Not Be Tweeted. The New
Yorker, (Oct. 4, 2010),
Granovetter, M. S. (1973). The strength of weak ties. The American Journal of Sociology, 78(6),
1360-1380.
Hampton, K., & Wellman, B. (2003). Neighboring in Netville: How the Internet Supports
Community and Social Capital in a Wired Suburb. City & Community, 2(1), 277-311.
Hymes, D. (1964). Toward ethnographies of communication. American Anthropologist, 66(6), 1-
34.
Hymes, D. H. (1962). The ethnography of speaking. Washington, D.C.: Anthropology Society of
Washington.
Inglehart, R. (1977). The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles Among
Western Publics. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Jenkins, J. C. (1981). Sociopolitical Movements. In S. L. Long (Ed.), Handbook of Political
Behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 4-154). New York City: Plenum Publishers.
Jenkins, J. C. (1982). The Transformation of a Constituency into a Movement In J. Freeman
(Ed.), The Social Movements of the 1960s and 1970s (pp. 397). Freeman, NY: Longmans.
Jenkins, J. C. (1983). Resource Mobilization Theory and the Study of Social Movements. Annual
review of Sociology, 9, 527-553.
Kahn, R., & Kellner, D. (2004). New media and internet activism: From the 'Battle of Seattle' to
blogging. New Media & Society, 6(1), 87-95.
Kahne, J., Lee, N.-J., & Feezell, J. T. (2011). The civic and political significance of online
participatory cultures among youth transitioning to adulthood. Irvine, CA: University of
California Humanities Research Institute.
Karpf, D. (2010). Online political mobilization from the advocacy group's perspective: Looking
beyond clicktivism. Policy and Internet, 2(4).
Katriel, T., & Philipsen, G. (1981). "What we need is communication": Communication" as a
cultural category in some American speech. Communication Monographs(48), 301-317.
Kerwin, A. M. (2010). How to Get the Social-Media Generation Behind Your Cause. Advertising
Age, (June 28, 2010). Retrieved from http://adage.com/digital/article?article_id=144686
Ladd, E. C., & Hadley, C. D. (1978). Transformations of the American Party System: Political
Coalitions from the New Deal to the 1970s. New York City: Norton.
Lawson, R. (2010, March 24, 2011). The 'Shit My Dad Says' pilot script lives up to its name.
Lehrer, J. (2010, Sept. 29, 2010). Weak ties, Twitter and revolution Wired.
MacManus, R. (2010). Digital activism: An interview with Mary Joyce. ReadWriteWeb.com,
(March 8, 2010),
Marichal, J. (2010). Political Facebook Groups: Micro-Activism and the Digital Front Stage.
Retrieved from http://thesocietypages.org/thickculture/2010/10/11/facebook-does-not-
promote-activism-so-what/
Marwell, G., & Ames, R. E. (1979). Experiments on the Provision of Public Goods. I. Resources,
Interest, Group Size, and the Free-Rider Problem. American Journal of Sociology, 84,
1335-1360.
93
Marwell, G., & Ames, R. E. (1980). Experiments on the Provision of Public Goods. II. Provision
Points, Stakes, Experience, and the Free-Rider Problem. The American Journal of
Sociology, 85(4), 926-937.
McCarthy, J. D., & Zald, M. N. (1973). The Trend of Social Movements in America:
Professionalization and Resource Moblization. Morristown, N.J.: General Learning
Press.
McKinley, J. C. (2008). Cyber-rebels in Cuba defy state's limits. The New York Times.
Melucci, A. (1989). Nomads of the Present: Social Movements and Individual Needs in
Contemporary Society. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Moerman, M. (1988). Talking culture. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennslyvania Press.
Moor, P. J. (2007). Conforming to the flaming norm in the online commenting situation.
Retrieved from http://purl.utwente.nl/essays/58838
Morrison, D. (2009). New Media Academic Summit. Washington, D.C.
NPR. (2008). 'Stuff White People Like' hits a nerve. Washington, D.C.: NPR
Oberschall, A. (1973). Social Conflict and Social Movements. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice
Hall.
Olson, M. J. (1968). The Logic of Collective Action. New York City: Schocken Books.
Paulson, M. (1999, Dec. 4, 1999). WTO summit ends in failure. The Post-Intelligencer.
Payne, C. (1995). I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi
Freedom Struggle. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Philipsen, G. (1987). The prospect of cultural communication. In L. Kincaid (Ed.),
Communication theory: Eastern and Western (pp. 245-254): Academic Press.
Philipsen, G. (1989). Speaking as a communal resource in four cultures. International and
Intercultural Communication Annual, 79-92.
Philipsen, G. (1992). Speaking culturally: Explorations in social communication. Albany, NY:
State University of New York at Albany Press.
Philipsen, G. (1997). A theory of speech codes. In G. Philipsen & T. A. Albrecht (Eds.),
Developing communication theories (pp. 119-156). Albany, N.Y.: State University of
New York Press.
Polletta, F. (2002). Freedom Is an Endless Meeting. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Putnam, R. D. (1993). Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton,
N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Putnam, R. D. (1995). Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital. Journal of
Democracy(January ), 65-78.
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling Alone. New York City: Simon & Schuster.
Putnam, R. D. (2008). The rebirth of American civic life. Boston Globe, (March 2, 2008).
Retrieved from
http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2008/03/02/the_rebirth_of_american_civic_l
ife/?rss_id=Boston+Globe+--+Today%27s+paper+A+to+Z
Raghavan, R. (2009). Digital activism on Google. Google Blog. Retrieved from
http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2009/07/digital-activism-on-youtube.html
Rainie, L., Smith, A., & Purcell, K. (2011). Social side of the Internet. Pew Research Center:
Pew Internet & American Life Project, (Jan. 18, 2011). Retrieved from
http://pewresearch.org/pubs/1861/impact-internet-social-media-facebook-twitter-group-
activities-participation
Reingold, H. (2002). Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Basic Books.
94
Saville-Troike, M. (2003). The ethnography of communication: An introduction (Third ed.).
Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Schiappi, E. (2003). Defining reality: Definitions and the politics of meaning. Carbondale, IL:
Southern Illinois University.
Schwartz, M., & Paul, S. (1992). Resource Mobilization versus the Mobilization of People. In A.
D. Morris & C. McClurg Mueller (Eds.), Frontiers in Social Movement Theory. New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Scott, R. L., & Smith, D. K. (1969). The Rhetoric of Confrontation. Quarterly Journal of Speech,
LV(February 1969), 1-8.
Scruton, R. (1979). The significance of common culture. Philosophy(54), 51-70.
Shirky, C. (2008). Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations.
New York City: Penguin Press.
Shulman, S. W. (2009). The case against mass e-mails: Perverse incentives and low quality
public participation in the U.S. federal rulemaking. Policy and Internet, 1(1).
Simons, H. W. (1970). Requirements, Problems, and Strategies: A Theory of Persuasion for
Social Movements. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 56(1), 1-11.
Snow, D. A., Zurcher, L. A., & Ekland-Olson, S. (1980). Social Networks and Social
Movements: A Microstructural Approach to Differential Recruitment. American
Sociological Review, 45(5), 787-801.
Stewart, C. J., Smith, C. A., & Denton, R. E. (2007). Persuasion and Social Movements. Long
Grove, Il: Waveland Press.
Stolberg, S. G. (2010). Colleges Are Producing New Style of AIDS Activist New York Times,
(Nov. 30, 2010). Retrieved from
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/01/us/politics/01aids.html?_r=2
Stone, B. (2010). Exclusive: Biz Stone on Twitter and activism. TheAtlantic.com, (Oct. 19,
2010). Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2010/10/exclusive-
biz-stone-on-twitter-and-activism/64772/
Sunstein, C. (2003). Why Societies Need Dissent. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
Tarrow, S. (2006). The Profession: Confessions of a Recovering Structuralist. European
Political Science, 5, 7-20.
Tilly, C. (1978). From Mobilization to Revolution. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.
Tracy, K. (2002). Everyday Talk. New York: Guilford Press.
Ward, S., Losoli, W., & Gibson, R. K. (2003). Virtually Participating: A Survey of Online Party
Members. Information Polity, 7(4), 199-215.
Wellman, B., Boase, J., & Chen, W. (2002). The Networked Nature of Community On and Off
the Internet. IT and Society, 1(1), 151-165.
Wellman, B., Quan-Haase, A., Boase, J., Chen, W., Hampton, K. N., Diaz, I., et al. (2006). The
Social Affordances of the Internet for Networked Individualism. Journal of ComputerMediated
Communication, 8(3).
Wolcott, H. F. (1999). Ethnography: A way of seeing. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira.
Yankelovich, D. (1974). The New Morality. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Yankelovich, D. (1981). New Rules. New York: Random House.
95