Willi Haas and Fridolin Krausmann
Rural Metabolism:
Material flows in an Austrian village
in 1830 and 2001
S O C I A L E C O L O G Y W O R K I N G P A P E R 1 5 5
February 2015ISSN 1726-3816
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Willi Haas and Fridolin Krausmann (2015):
Rural Metabolism: Material flows in an Austrian village in 1830 and 2001
Social Ecology Working Paper 153
Vienna, February 2015
ISSN 1726-3816
Institute of Social Ecology
IFF - Faculty for Interdisciplinary Studies (Klagenfurt, Graz, Vienna)
Alpen-Adria Universitaet
Schottenfeldgasse 29
A-1070 Vienna
www.aau.at/sec
workingpaper@aau.at
© 2015 by IFF – Social Ecology
3
Rural Metabolism:
Material flows in an Austrian village
in 1830 and 2001
Authors:
Willi Haas and Fridolin Krausmann
4
5
Table of content
Abstract ......................................................................................... 6	
  
1.	
   Introduction .............................................................................. 7	
  
2.	
   Methods and data....................................................................... 9	
  
2.1	
   System boundaries ................................................................ 9	
  
2.2	
   Specific methodological assumptions ...................................... 10	
  
2.3	
   Production vs. consumption................................................... 11	
  
2.4	
   Data collection 2001 ............................................................ 12	
  
2.5	
   Material flow data for 1830 ................................................... 13	
  
3.	
   Results ................................................................................... 14	
  
3.1	
   Socioeconomic characteristics................................................ 14	
  
3.1.1 Population ................................................................. 14	
  
3.1.2 Labor force................................................................ 14	
  
3.2	
   Material flows...................................................................... 15	
  
3.2.1 	
   Material flows in 1830 ................................................. 15	
  
3.2.2 	
   Material flows at village level in 2001 ............................ 16	
  
3.2.3 	
   Material flows at household level in 2001 ....................... 19	
  
4.	
   Discussion............................................................................... 22	
  
4.1	
   Long term changes in material flows ...................................... 22	
  
4.2	
   Theyern’s metabolism in the Austrian context.......................... 24	
  
4.3	
   Material flows by household types .......................................... 25	
  
4.4	
   Comparison with metabolic profiles in Asia and Latin America .... 28	
  
5.	
   Conclusions ............................................................................. 31	
  
References.................................................................................... 33	
  
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Abstract
This working paper presents material flow data for a small rural settlement for 1830
and 2001. By analyzing the material flows it can be shown that while in 1830
extraction had to satisfy consumption plus a small surplus for tithes or market sale in
2001 extraction went almost completely into exports leaving consumption to be
satisfied mainly by imports. This can be interpreted as a spatial decoupling of
production and consumption. At the same time the level of material input has been
increased by a factor 3. While the complete working population was engaged in
agricultural activities in 1830, the employment and income situation was very diverse
in 2001. Further disaggregating into household types reveals that the metabolic
profiles in 2001 vary considerably. A differentiation into production and consumption
at household level shows that variation can mostly be explained by the degree of
involvement in agricultural activities and by the farming type (mainly mixed farming
and perennial cropping). However, data provide insights that 1830 biomass flows are
still persistent in the metabolic flows of 2001 due to similar production practices and
property rights. This offers some hints where sustainability policies could achieve
substantial effects when supporting such persistent processes during recent
transitions in rural areas from biomass to fossil based societies in Eastern Europe,
Asia, Latin America and Africa.
Keywords:
Social metabolism, material flow accounting, sustainable consumption, rural systems,
agriculture.
7
1. Introduction
The impact of socio-economic activity on nature is a biophysical phenomenon
realized through the magnitude, concentration, dissipation and transformation of
material and energy flows (Daniels and Moore, 2001) or in other words, through
society’s metabolism. In turn, impacts may reduce nature's ability to provide raw
materials, to assimilate wastes and emissions and many other important ecosystem
functions. Consequently, the investigation of social or industrial metabolism and the
corresponding methodological framework of material and energy flow accounting
(MEFA) has gained attention during the last decades and meanwhile obtains a
prominent place in the field of industrial ecology. The spectrum of available MFA
studies is wide and ranges from the investigation of substance flows to overall socioeconomic
material use and from the company to the national and global scale. Most
of the existing work, however, focuses either on the national or global scale or on the
investigation of the metabolism of industrial and urban systems. In contrast, material
flows in local rural systems are rare. Only in recent years a number of local MFA
studies have been published, among them an MFA for a Thai village (Grünbühel et
al., 1999 and 2003), the Nicobar Islands (Singh, 2003; Singh and Haas 2012), a
Vietnamese village (Hobbes 2007), a village in the Bolivian Amazon (Ringhofer 2007)
and a watershed in Ethiopia (Andarge 2014). Recently also a manual for local studies
in social metabolism (Singh et al. 2010) and a comparison of local case studies was
published (Fischer-Kowalski et al. 2011a).
Several studies also have applied the approach to reconstruct biophysical exchange
processes between society and nature in historical rural systems. The focus on
urban-industrial systems in MFA studies is comprehensible – as urban and industrial
development drives much of the changes in social metabolism and the resulting
pressures and a better understanding of their metabolism is crucial for a transition to
a more sustainable social metabolism. However, also rural systems deserve
attention. On the one hand, more than 50% of the world population are considered
rural (Fischer-Kowalski et al. 2014, UNPD 2011) and rural systems both in the
countries of the global south and the industrialized countries are highly dynamic and
with their development also their metabolism changes.
While most local studies were performed in the global south, in this paper we focus
on material flows in a rural community in Austria. The village of Theyern in Lower
Austria inhabits 77 people in 21 households and agriculture is the most important
economic activity in the village. To investigate material flows in a small local system
we applied the framework of economy wide material flow accounting (FischerKowalski
et al. 2011b) which we adopted for its application at the local level. We
collected material flow data for individual households (used extraction, imports and
exports) for major material types (biomass, fossil energy carriers, metal ores and
industrial minerals, construction minerals) and calculated MFA indicators (DMI and
DMC). We discuss the patterns of material use across household types and compare
current with historic patterns from the early 19th
century. We investigate the material
use patterns in different household types and assess the significance of economic
activities for the metabolic profile of individual households. In order to gain insights in
the long term historical development of the metabolism of the rural community we
8
compare the results for the year 2001 with a reconstruction of material flows in
Theyern at the advent of the industrial revolution, some 170 years earlier. These data
are available from a previous study (Krausmann 2009).
In the methods section we briefly outline the methodological background of the
collection of MFA data and highlight a number of system boundary issues of
importance for the application of economy-wide MFA at the local level. This is
followed by a section, which presents the overall results for important material flow
indicators at the level of individual households and the village total for major material
groups. We distinguish between a production and a consumption subsystem, which
allows us to draw a more differentiated picture of material flows in rural households
and to highlight the significance of agriculture for rural metabolism. In the discussion
section we highlight the differences of metabolic profiles among household types,
consumption-production and through time. Finally we compare the results for
Theyern with those obtained from other local studies. We conclude with some
insights from studying Theyern 1830 and 2001 for ongoing rural transitions in the
global South and with remarks on the usefulness of methodological specificities
applied in this study.
9
2. Methods and data
In this paper we present data on material flows in a rural village in 1830 and 2001
and analyze household level MFA data for the year 2001. In general, we applied the
accounting principles and methods of economy wide material flow accounting to
collect data and calculate aggregate material flow indicators as they are outlined e.g.
in the guidelines applied by the European Statistical Office (Eurostat 2001 and 2009).
We quantify used domestic extraction, imports and exports. For the calculation of
material flow indicators DMC and DMI we distinguish three major material categories
(biomass, fossil fuels and minerals). Direct material input (DMI) is defined as the sum
of DE and Imports, domestic material consumption (DMC) is calculated as DMI
minus exports. However, the application of current standard methods available for
economy wide MFA is not straight forward and requires further considerations in
particular with respect to the important issue of system boundaries.
2.1 System boundaries
Material flow accounting is a balancing approach and in any form of balancing the
definition of appropriate system boundaries is an issue of crucial importance. For
MFA accounts two types of system boundaries have to be defined: a) the boundary
between the observed socio-economic system and its natural environment and b) the
boundary between the observed and all other socioeconomic systems (Eurostat
2009). With respect to a) the definition used in economy-wide MFA can be applied
straight forward for local studies. More difficult is setting an appropriate boundary
with respect to b), the boundaries between socio-economic systems, an issue also
debated in urban metabolism studies (Pincetl and Bunje 2009, Kennedy et al. 2010).
In general, it is agreed upon that material flow accounts should follow the residence
principle, that is, all material flows, which can be attributed to transactions of resident
units, should be accounted for. In practical terms, at the national scale, administrative
boundaries are often used as a proxy. This means that all extraction from the
national territory is counted for as DE and that import and export flows can be
assumed consistent with the system boundaries applied in trade statistics. In most
cases the infringements of the residence principle resulting from these pragmatic
assumptions are of minor significance and can be ignored. For some cases (e.g. fuel
consumption in cross boundary mobility) correction procedures have been suggested
(see e.g. Eurostat guidelines for material flow accounting (Eurostat 2009)).
For studies on a local scale differences between the various accounting approaches
are more significant. Therefore, in contrast to the national level, it needs a clear
decision what accounting principle is implemented. In our study, as a general rule,
we tried to be consistent with the residence principle and account for all used
extraction, imports and exports of materials that can be associated to local resident
units (individuals and economic entities such as farms). Thus, we consider all land
under legitimate control of the local population or local economic entities. Such an
approach assumes so called functional boundary (Singh et al. 2010). Compared to
the administrative boundary and the territorial principle this has significant
implications on what is accounted for as DE or import/export, in particular in the
context of agriculture.
To illustrate this lets assume the case of a farmer from village A who owns or leases
a plot of land in a neighboring village B from which s/he harvests crops. If the
10
administrative boundary (territorial principle) is applied the harvested crops have to
be accounted for as import into the investigated system. Despite the fact that the
relevant decisions about management of the land are made and the related material
flows are generated in village A, the flow is accounted for as extraction in system B.
Contrary, all materials that the farmer applies to produce and harvest that crop (e.g.
diesel, fertilizer, pesticides, etc.) have to be accounted for as exports from village A if
s/he takes it from her/his farm to the land in village B. This not only causes significant
practical problems of data generation (flows have to be separated in surveys) but
also contradicts the economic entity and reproductive unit of the farm operations.
Therefore, we apply a functional boundary and thus flows related to land under
legitimate control of a farmer of Theyern, whether the land is in or outside the
administrative boundaries of Theyern, are considered as material flows of Theyern.
Another example are transport activities and commuting across administrative
boundaries. A large fraction of the population may cross the boundaries of the local
system for work, shopping and consumption. A farmer of the local system A might
drive the car to the next city center, fills up the car with fuel, goes shopping in a
nearby mall, goes out for food and comes back. Applying the territorial principle
would mean that only what finally crosses the administrative boundary is accounted
for and everything that is consumed outside the boundary is excluded. Whereas
when applying the residence principle and functional boundaries, as we do in our
study, all related material flows like petrol, purchased goods and consumed meals
have to be accounted for as imports into system A as soon as it is bought by a
resident of village A irrespectively from the fact that consumption occurred outside
the administrative territory. In the case of an employee who drives to his/her job
outside the studied village the petrol for driving to and from work is at his/her private
expenses and therefore a flow of the studied system. In contrast, a business trip the
employee undertakes for her/his employer is not accounted for since it is part of the
employer’s business operations (given that the business is based elsewhere but not
in Theyern). The strict application of the residence principle further also implies, that
all material flows of a large company based in a rural system have to be accounted
for in the local MFA. So far, no standardized solutions exist for the application of MFA
at the local level and in practical terms often pragmatic solutions have to be made
which are based on the respective research focus and also data availability. It is,
therefore, crucial for the interpretation of results to make these case specific
solutions as transparent as possible
2.2 Specific methodological assumptions
• Resident units are regarded persons who had their principal residence in Theyern
in a specific year (1830 or 2001) for a minimum period of 6 months. The group of
students was a special case: Students commuting on a daily basis were
considered residents whereas students boarding outside of the village were not
included in the survey. The only economic resident units in Theyern were farms.
All farms and private homes located in Theyern were considered resident units.
The only communal building is from the fire brigade which was considered as
resident unit, however, flows are marginal.
• Territory and land use: All land that is used by a resident farm is accounted for as
part of the system independent if its location. Biomass harvest from these fields is
11
accounted for as extraction. Contrary, if plots of land within the administrative
boundaries of Theyern are used by farms from outside the village they are not
assigned to the territory of the village and flows associated to the use of these
plots are not accounted for (for actual information on land owned and used please
refer to figure 2).
• The material flows caused by activities of the system’s residents which occur
outside the administrative boundaries are considered in the MFA account. This
mostly refers to fuel use for traveling and food consumption outside the village.
The later were estimated by using information on Austrian average per capita
food consumption (Elmadfa, 2003).
• Fossil fuels: All fossil fuels that are purchased by a residing person or economic
entity (e.g. a farm) are accounted for as imports.
• Waste: Theyern is not equipped with a waste disposal site and all waste is
collected and dumped at a municipal dump in a neighboring village.
Consequently, municipal waste flows are accounted for as exports.
2.3 Production vs. consumption
A specific feature of agricultural households is that they combine production and
consumption at the household level. In order to reproduce the distinct metabolic
patterns of production and consumption of rural households, we implemented a
subdivision of the household in a production and a consumption subsystem. We
quantified flows between the two subsystems (domestic use of extracted firewood,
food).
Figure 1: Scheme of material flows in a farm household divided in a production and
consumption subsystem.
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2.4 Data collection 2001
Material flow data for 2001 were collected via a household survey. This survey was
based on interviews with one or more members of each individual household and
representatives of the village administration. Of the 21 households only 19 were
considered resident households. Of these, three households were not included in the
survey (and consequently in the material flow account) because household members
were absent or unwilling to participate in the survey. Hence, our sample consists of
16 households with a total population of 63 (88% of the total resident population). For
these we collected data on used material extraction (predominantly agricultural
harvest from farmland and kitchen gardens), imports (e.g. fossil fuels, imported food,
all types of consumer goods, agricultural inputs, vehicles, machinery, construction
materials), exports (e.g. agricultural produce, sales of stock, collected municipal
waste) and material stocks (buildings, agricultural machinery, vehicles, household
appliances, workshop facilities, live stock, agricultural and other land). In addition to
MFA data basic demographic information (number of household members, age, sex,
education, occupation, time use) was collected. In addition, data from statistical
sources (regional data on agricultural yields and consumption surveys, food balance
sheets) has been used to cross check and complement the information gathered in
field work. In several cases annual flows have been extrapolated on the basis of
information provided on weekly or monthly purchases (e.g. consumer goods).
The largest flows are harvest from agriculture and forestry and agricultural inputs
(fertilizer, feed). These data are of high quality.
In order to arrive at a reasonable estimate of fossil fuel use for transportation and
agricultural traction we used information on vehicle and machinery stocks, annual
mileage or operating hours and specific factors of fuel use per service unit.
The estimation of material flows related to the accumulation of artifacts with a
lifespan longer than one year (buildings, vehicles and durable goods) deserves
special attention. Some of the flows related to building up or maintaining material
stocks are very large, but, depending on factors like the average lifespan, the size of
flows may vary extremely from one year to another: The material flows associated
with the construction of a new house are huge in the year of construction, but small
during decades of mere maintenance. At higher scales these annual fluctuations are
equaled out over a large sample size. At the local or household level, this is not the
case and the overall amount of materials used in a year when a new house is built or
a car is purchased maybe much larger than in years with no such activity. Two
approaches to account for these flows are possible: a) the actual flows occurring in
the specific year of observation can be recorded (snap shot approach) or b) the long
term annual averages of flows related to maintenance and building up of stocks can
be calculated (depreciation approach). In this study we were interested in average
annual flows rather than a picture of the particular year and we used approach b).
The mass of stocks of durable goods as recorded in the household survey was
depreciated to annual flows by the application of item specific lifespan and
depreciation rates based on Austrian fiscal regulations (5 years for electrical
appliances, furniture, cars and machinery and 20 years for buildings). Additionally,
material requirements for annual maintenance were estimated on the basis of
household data.
13
We depreciate building stocks over a comparatively short period of 20 years, i.e. only
construction activities during the last 20 years are considered with their relative
annual share. Most of the built infrastructure is much older, only 20% of the built up
area (by m2) has been built in the last 20 years, one individual storage facility with
low material requirement accounting for a third of all these recent constructions.
Extending the depreciation period might double or triple the DMC of construction
materials, but still the amount would be small compared to the Austrian average. The
reason for this is the relatively low share of infrastructure in a small village like
Theyern. Besides residential and farm buildings there are only the fire brigade and
the chapel. However, due to the infrequent purchasing by professionals and different
household members data for construction minerals have to be regarded as a rough
proxy and bear considerable uncertainty.
2.5 Material flow data for 1830
In order to gain insights on the long term temporal development of material flows in a
rural village we compare current metabolic patterns with MFA data for the early 19th
century. Material flows for 1830 have been estimated based on information gathered
and published in a series of research projects investigating the biophysical
characteristics of pre-industrial agriculture. These studies assessed land use and
material flows in the village of Theyern in 1830. Based on published data on land
use, biomass harvest and material balances we have reconstructed material flows in
a way which is consistent with the system boundaries and conceptual decisions
applied for 2001. These data allowed us to model agricultural harvest, biomass flows
within the agricultural production system, food and wood output and to estimate
surplus and exports. For a detailed discussion of sources and methods used to
estimate material and energy flows for Theyern see Krausmann 2004 and 2009. The
historic data are available for the aggregate village only but not for individual
households.
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3. Results
3.1 Socioeconomic characteristics
Theyern is a small rural settlement, located about 60 km west of Vienna between St.
Pölten, the provincial capital of Lower Austria and the city of Krems in the midst of
the rolling hills of the Lower Austrian agricultural landscape. Theyern is a compact
settlement situated in the centre of a small plateau. The village is surrounded by an
inner belt of cropland and fruit orchards and an outer belt of woodlands. Agriculture is
the only economic activity; there are no business operations, shopping facilities or
restaurants and very little public infrastructure: Theyern is equipped with a chapel
and the firehouse of the voluntary local fire brigade but it is not connected to any
public transport system. Water supply is based on a local well. The next settlement
with infrastructure is Nussdorf ob der Traisen at a distance of 5 km.
3.1.1 Population
In 2001 68 persons living in 19 households were considered permanent residents of
Theyern of which 88% have been included in our survey. Table 1 shows the age
structure of the population of Theyern. Compared to the Austrian average a higher
percentage in the age groups up to 19 and above 65 can be observed, whereas the
age group 20-64 is relatively smaller in Theyern.
Population Theyern Austria
number % %
By age
0-19 18 28,6 22,8
20-64 32 50,8 61,7
65- 13 20,6 15,5
By sex
m 31 49,2 48,4
w 32 50,8 51,6
Table 1: Population (annual average) 2001 by age groups and sex for Theyern and
Austria (source: Theyern: own survey; Austria: Statistics Austria, Populations
Statistics - 2001-2007: revised data. Compiled on 27 May 2009)
3.1.2 Labor force
Until the 70s the whole labor force of Theyern was involved in farming or household
reproduction activities. The downturn of the economic significance of agriculture in
Austria and the reduction of the number of farms has contributed to significant
changes in the local economy of Theyern. In 2001, the employment structure had
become more diverse. Of the economically active population only one third was
considered full time and another 18% part time farmers (Table 2). Following the
definition applied in EU statistics two thirds of the total population is economically
inactive, most of them are students or retired persons:
15
Numbers Percentage
Economic active population 22 34.9
Agriculture (full-time
farmer)
8 12.7
Part-time farmer 4 6.3
Other Sector (full-time) 10 15.9
Inactive population 41 65.1
Household chores 8 12.7
Student/child 18 28.6
Retired person 15 23.8
Total 63 100.0
Table 2: Economic active and inactive population1
in Theyern 2001
3.2 Material flows
3.2.1 Material flows in 1830
In 1830 agriculture was the only economic activity in Theyern and all of the 20
households (inhabited by a total population of 102) were engaged in agriculture.
Farm size varied considerably from 3 to 20 ha. According to our estimate domestic
extraction of biomass amounted to 5.7 t/cap/yr. Additionally, minor amounts of nonmetallic
minerals for construction and agricultural use (e.g. fertilizing minerals such
as marl) have also been used. Exact quantitative information of these flows is
lacking, but in 1830 the overall use of mineral materials in rural areas was very low
and based on a rough calculation we assume that it did not exceed a few hundred kg
per capita and year. Crops and crop by-products accounted for roughly 60% of total
DE, wood for 31% and the rest consisted of grapes and grazed biomass. Imports
included durable goods such as farming tools or salt but were of negligible
quantitative significance (less than 1% or 0.05 t/cap/yr). Market integration was still
very low in Theyern in 1830 and the largest share of the extracted biomass was used
within the farm. Most agricultural products, firewood and timber were consumed
within the household. At the aggregate level of the village the surplus above local
1
In accordance with the European Union Labor Force survey the following basic definitions and concepts were
used (http://circa.europa.eu/irc/dsis/employment/info/data/eu_lfs/index.htm) (in brackets minor changes are
mentioned): The economic active population comprises employed and unemployed persons. Employed persons
are persons aged 15 year and over who during the reference week performed work, even for just one hour a
week, for pay, profit or family gain or were not at work but had a job or business from which they were
temporarily absent because of, e.g., illness, holidays, industrial dispute and education and training. (Some
students and some retired persons were helping out with minor farming activities. In order not to mix these
persons with full time active persons instead of the one hour rule 5 hours were used as limit.)
Unemployed persons are persons aged 15-74 who were without work during the reference week, were currently
available for work and were either actively seeking work in the past four weeks or had already found a job to
start within the next three months. (According to interviews there were no unemployed persons in the village.)
Inactive persons are those who neither classified as employed nor as unemployed.
16
food demand amounted to roughly 0.2 t/cap/yr. We assume that this biomass was
sold on local markets respectively had to cover tithes and taxes. Timber and firewood
were not exported. Our data indicate, that the rural economy was almost entirely
based on biomass and that both exports and imports were extremely low compared
to domestic extraction. Altogether extraction and imports minus exports results in an
average DMC of about 5.5 t/cap/yr.
The internal flow from the production to the consumption subsystem amounted to 2.3
t/cap/yr (60% firewood and 40% food). That is, 40% of all extracted biomass was
converted into biomass products for domestic consumption while exports were
extremely small and amounted to only 2% of DE.
DMI
total
Export
DMCtotal
Production
Internal
flows
Consumption
DMI
prod
Import
DE
Export
DMI
cons
Import
Export
Theyern
1830
[t/cap/yr]
5.7 0.2 5.5 5.7 0 5.7 0.2 2.3 2.3 0 0
Table 3: Metabolic profile of Theyern in 1830; biomass flows in tonnes per capita and
year for the production and consumption system and the flow from the production to
the consumption system (internal flow). Flows of mineral materials were small and
extraction/import of building materials, fertilizer minerals and tools did not exceed one
or two hundred kg per capita and year.
3.2.2 Material flows at village level in 2001
In 2001 domestic extraction amounted to 12.0 t/cap. It consisted only of biomass, no
mineral resources were extracted in Theyern. Fruit harvest accounted for about 63%
of total extraction, crops, straw and grazed biomass made up some 20%, the
reminder (17%) was firewood extraction from local woodlands.
The land used for biomass extraction by residents of Theyern was about 76 hectares.
This is less than two thirds of the forest and agricultural land which is actually owned
by the local population (123 ha) (see Figure 2). More than a third of the land owned
was leased to farmers from outside the village (45 ha). Of the 22 ha of land owned or
leased by local farmers that is situated outside the administrative boundaries of
Theyern, 18 ha were used.
17
Figure 2: Land owned (or leased) and used by the population of Theyern in 2001
within the administrative boundary of Theyern and outside (land area in hectares). Of
the 123 ha owned 76 ha were used.
Extensively used forests account for the largest land use category of the total amount
of land used by the local population for biomass extraction (31% of 76 ha). Cropland,
vineyards and fruit orchards are intensively used and together make up almost 60%.
Pasture is due to the low number of livestock relatively small. While garden area is
also small (0,2 ha), it is quite intensively used (see Figure 3).
Figure 3: Land used for biomass extraction by Theyern’s farmers in 2001
18
Imports of the production system amounted to 1.5 t/cap/y and were dominated by
fossil fuels to run farm machinery (provision of mechanical labor), feed for livestock
and fertilizer. The import of live animals, mineral materials for construction and
farming tools and machinery was small and accounted for only 10% of the production
system’s DMI. The consumption system of the village imported 1.9 t/cap/y. Biomass
for human nutrition accounted for more than 40% of imports. 37% were fossil fuels
for motor vehicles (22%) and for space heating (15%). Minerals for construction and
repair of residential buildings as well as durable goods (furniture, vehicles and
household appliances) accounted for the reminder. Together, imports of the
production and consumption subsystem amounted to 3.4 t/cap adding with DE to a
total DMI of 12.0 t/cap/y. The exports from the production subsystem amounted to
8.2 t/cap/y and consisted mainly of agricultural products (cereal grain, livestock,
fruits, juices and wine). Exports of the consumption subsystem were small (0.04
t/cap/y) and consisted of household waste only. The aggregated DMC in Theyern
amounted to 6.8 t per capita in 2001. The internal flow from the production to the
consumption system added up to roughly 2 t/cap/y. It consisted mostly of fuel wood;
fruits and vegetables from kitchen gardens were of minor importance in the total
DMC of the village. However, our data suggest, that measured in weight local
agricultural produce contributed roughly one quarter to local food demand: The local
demand for eggs, milk, fruit juices, fruits, and alcoholic beverages (wine) was largely
met from local production.
DMI
DE
Biomass
FossilFuels
Minerals
Import
Biomass
FossilFuels
Minerals
Export
Biomasse
FossilFuels
Minerals
DMC
Biomasse
FossilFuels
Minerals
Theyern
2001
15.4 12.0 12.0 0 0 3.4 1.4 1.4 0.6 8.4 8.4 0 0 7.0 5.0 1.4 0.6
DMI ... Direct Material Input DMC … Domestic Material Consumption
DE ..... Domestic Extraction
Table 4: Theyern's Material Flows in 2001 in tonnes per capita and year
19
3.2.3 Material flows at household level in 2001
The analysis of material flows at the household level reveals huge differences
between individual households. Among the 16 households in our sample DE ranges
between 0 and 40 t/cap/y, imports between 1.3 and 11 t/cap/y, exports between 0
and 23 t/cap/y and internal flows from the production to the consumption subsystem
between 0 and 20 t/cap/y. In order to allow for a systematic discussion of these
differences we have grouped households according to their socioeconomic activities
(Duchin, 1998, p68), distinguishing between (A) farming households, (B) households
with part-time farming and (C) households with no farming activity at all (see Table
1).
Household type Sub-category Sample
A Farming households A.1 Mixed farming 1
A.2 Perennial cropping (fruit production) 2
B Part-time farming
households
6
C Non farm households C.1 Employment outside the village 4
C.2 Income from pension fund 3
Table 5: Typology of households in Theyern 2001
Full time farming households (Type A households) have been subdivided according
to farming type: Mixed farming (combination of crop production and livestock) (A.1)
and perennial cropping (specialized in fruit production) (A.2) (cf. Arnold, 1997, p118).
Part time farming households are subsumed in Type B households. This type
includes all households with farming activities that do not suffice to sustain the
household, and additional income is gained by other economic activities by one or
more family members. Although most of these households do not depend on farming
economically, farming is still significant in terms of their economic expenditure,
infrastructure and time use.
Households with no farming activity are subsumed under Type C households and
subdivided by their main source of income: Type C.1 denotes all households in which
one or more persons are engaged in an economic activity other than farming. Type
C.2 includes households where income is generated by an inactive person receiving
income from a pension fund. It has to be noted, however, that a subdivision of a
sample of 16 households into five household types results in very small sub samples
for individual household types. Although this restricts any generalization of our
findings, the observed differences are significant and allow for interesting insights
into patterns of rural metabolism.
20
DMI
total
Export
DMCtotal
Production
Internal
flows
Consumption
DMI
prod
Import
DE
Export
DMI
cons
Import
Export
A.1 Mixed
farming
52.6 17.1 35.6 52.3 11.3 41.0 17.0 7.1 7.5 0.4 0.1
A.2 Perennial
farming
31.7 23.4 8.3 30.0 1.9 28.1 23.4 1.5 3.2 1.7 0.0
B Part-time
farming
9.9 4.5 5.5 8.1 0.7 7.4 4.4 2.4 4.2 1.8 0.0
C.1
Employment
outside village
5.2 0.0 5.1 2.7 1.6 1.1 0.0 0.9 3.4 2.5 0.0
C.2 Income
from pension
fund
4.8 0.0 4.8 2.9 0.0 2.9 0.0 2.6 4.5 1.9 0.0
Average
Theyern 2001
15.4 8.4 6.8 13.6 1.5 12.0 8.3 2.0 3.9 1.9 0.0
Average
Austria 2001
22.9 5.0 17,9
Table 6: Metabolic profiles of the various household types represented in Theyern
2001 (in tonnes per capita and year)
"Farming households" (A) showed by far the highest material input: The DMI of the
“mixed farming” household amounted to 52.6 t/cap/y and that of “perennial cropping”
to 31.7 t/cap/y. In the “mixed farming” type the internal flows from the production to
the consumption subsystem were considerable (7.1 t/cap/y) indicating a significant
self-supply of food and firewood. In contrast, the “perennial cropping” households are
characterized by small internal flows. “Perennial cropping” required a DMI of 1.4
tonnes per tonne of export, whereas “mixed farming” demanded 3 tonnes DMI for 1
tonne of export. The imports of the "mixed farming households" (A.1) are dominated
by biomass (52% of imports are feedstuff and livestock) and fossil fuels (38% consist
of mostly diesel fuel for farm machinery). DE consists mainly of agricultural harvest
(90%) and firewood (10% or 4 t/cap/y). Exports are made up mainly of agricultural
products (mostly corn).
Households of the "perennial cropping" (A.2) type are characterized by relatively low
imports (3.6 t/cap/y). Fossil fuels account for two-thirds of imports, the rest consists
of fruits purchased for further processing and nutrition. Fruit accounts for the larger
part of DE (95%). Firewood extraction is of significantly less importance in these
households (1.1 t/cap/y) than in Type A.1.
In all cases, farming activity in Type B households ("part-time farming") is based on
wine and fruit cultivation (perennial cropping). All MFA parameters (DE, imports and
21
exports) are significantly lower than in Type A households. Extraction of firewood
contributes about 30% to DE, and fruit amounts to roughly two-thirds of DE. Fossil
fuel consumption for transport is higher than the equivalent rate for “perennial
cropping” households. For generating an export of one tonne they need a DMI of 2
tonnes.
"Farming households" of Type A can be referred to as “producer households”: They
are based on the extraction of biomass for exports, and most of their imports are
used as resources for sustaining high levels of agricultural production.
The category "other households" (C.1 and C.2) is “consumer households”: Domestic
Extraction (from kitchen gardens or forest plots) is comparatively low (1-2.9 t/cap).
Imports consist of consumer goods dominated by food and fuel for heating and
transport and exports of household waste, which is collected and dumped in a landfill
by the disposal service. One main difference between the households of Type C.1
(employment outside the village) and Type C.2 (income from pension fund) is the
higher level of firewood extraction for wood-fired heating systems in Type C.2
households, which results in a higher level of DE in these households. The other
major difference lies in a higher fossil fuel consumption level in Type C.1 households,
caused by the greater intensity of passenger transport (higher per capita car
mileage).
22
4. Discussion
4.1 Long term changes in material flows
A comparison of material flows in Theyern in 1830 and 2001 reveals major changes
with respect to the per capita level and the structure of material flows. Despite the
considerable decrease in farming activity, per capita material extraction more than
doubled. Imports surged from less than 0.1 to 3.4 t/cap/yr and exports from less than
0.2 to 8.4 t/cap/yr (see Figure 4). Consequently DMC grew only modestly from 5.5 to
7.0 t/cap/yr. Also the composition of material flows changed: Interestingly, DMC of
biomass did not change much. Despite major changes in the structure of the
agricultural production system and local energy supply it declined only slightly from
5.5 to 5.0 t/cap/yr. Additionally, however, almost 2 tonnes of mineral resources were
used in Theyern per capita and year at the turn of the 21st century, fossil fuels for
households and use in agriculture accounting for most of it. The use of construction
minerals, which we have estimated to be around 0.6 t/cap/yr is probably significantly
underestimated. Additionally, the MFA does not account for the immaterial electricity
consumption. Thus, in 2001 Theyern consumed final energy equivalent to 0.3 tonnes
per capita of oil (conversion losses are not considered) without being reflected in the
material flows.
23
Figure 4: Comparison of material flow indicators for Theyern 1830 and 2001 (in
tonnes per capita and year)
24
The modernization of agricultural production resulted in significant changes in
biomass flows. The doubling of biomass extraction was associated with an increase
in extraction per unit of area by factor 2 and even more so by an increase in
extraction per capita of agricultural labor force: In 1830 roughly 67 persons engaged
in agriculture and produced 580 tonnes of biomass. 170 years later 12 persons
extracted 680 tonnes of biomass. This means that labour productivity in agriculture
increased from 1.2 tonnes/cap/yr in 1830 to 63 tonnes/cap/yr in 2001 – that is by a
factor of 50. In terms of material flows this increase was related to higher quantities
of imports such as seeds, fertilizer, mechanical equipment and fossil fuels.
Theyern shifted from a subsistence production system with very low imports and low
exports and a high internal turnover of biomass towards a throughput system where
consumption is pre-dominantly satisfied by imports and a large share of the
extraction is exported. Although the internal flow from the production to the
consumption subsystem declined, the rate of self-sufficiency is still surprisingly high:
Local produce (food and fuel wood) account for roughly 40% of local biomass DMC.
This indicates a high significance of the local resource base in rural areas even in
modern industrial societies.
4.2 Theyern’s metabolism in the Austrian context
DMI
DE
Biomass
Fossil
Fuels
Minerals
Import
Biomass
Fossil
Fuels
Minerals
Export
Biomasse
Fossil
Fuels
Minerals
DMC
Biomass
Fossil
Fuels
Minerals
Theyern 15,4 12,0 12,0 0 0 3,4 1,4 1,4 0,6 8,4 8,4 0 0 7,1 5,0 1,4 0,6
Austria 22,9 14,6 4,4 0,5 9,7 8,3 2,3 3,3 2,8
5.0
2,1 0,6 2,2 17,9 4,6 3,1 10,2
Table 7: Metabolic profile including three material categories of Theyern in
comparison with Austria in tonnes per capita and year (both 2001) (source: Petrovic
2009)
Table 7 compares the structure of socioeconomic metabolisms in Theyern with that
in Austria in 2001. It reveals that the per capita level of Theyern’s material use (DMC)
is small and amounts only to one third of the Austrian average. The smaller part of
this difference is due to a lower level of material extraction in Theyern but the lions
share comes from radically different trade patterns: While material imports in Theyern
are much smaller than Austrian imports, exports are 50% higher than the Austrian
value. Hence, Theyern is providing resources for a higher scale system. With respect
to different materials the following picture emerges: The consumption of fossil fuels
and above all mineral material is much lower than that of Austria. While our values
for DMC of construction minerals maybe underestimated due to methodological
reasons (see methods section), even a doubling or tripling of this flow would not
drastically change the overall picture. The main reason is Theyern’s comparatively
low relative share in material intensive transport and industrial infrastructure and that
consequently the per capita stock of built infrastructure and the amount of mineral
25
materials required for building and maintaining these stocks is much lower than at the
national level.
The lower level of fossil fuel consumption is among others due to a lack of energy
intensive industrial activities, the high share of wood fuel in household energy supply
and the fact that the upstream fuel requirement for imported electricity and other
energy intensive products (e.g. fertilizers) are not accounted for in import flows.
Our data indicate the significance of the production function of rural agricultural
villages such as Theyern within the national economy. Agricultural villages have a
comparatively high DMC of biomass as well as of fossil fuels and they export large
amounts of agricultural produce and wood to urban-industrial centers. Interestingly,
per capita extraction and consumption of biomass in Theyern is not so different from
the Austrian average, despite the relative importance of the agricultural sector in
Theyern. This is a consequence of the comparably low significance of livestock
production in Theyern’s agriculture (0.4 livestock units per ha). Agricultural systems
with an emphasis on livestock production show a high internal DMI while the mass of
exported products is low. In contrast, the upstream biomass flows associated with
crop products are much lower and a high share of the extracted biomass can be
exported. Consequently apparent consumption of biomass is much lower in crop
production systems compared to livestock production systems.
4.3 Material flows by household types
Our data show, that differences in the metabolic profile across rural households are
large, both with respect to the size of per capita flows and the material composition
(see Figure 5). Even though household level data, and in particular data on final
consumption are based on rather crude estimation procedures and have to be
interpreted in their details with care some general patterns can be identified: While
average DMC in Theyern amounts to 7 t/cap/yr it varies by a factor of ten between
individual households. And also extraction, imports and exports vary by one order of
magnitude.
26
Figure 5: Per capita material flows for the different household types in Theyern 2001:
Mixed farms, perennial cropping, part time farms, employment outside village and
pension in comparison to the average for Theyern (in tonnes per capita)
Theyern	
  average	
  2001	
  
27
Figure 6: Domestic material input of different household types differentiated by the
production and consumption subsystem (in tonnes per capita)
Our analysis shows, that these variations are related to how household income is
generated and in particular to the significance that agricultural production plays.
Different lifestyles also play a role, but to a lesser extent. Figure 6 shows, that
differences in DMI of the production subsystem varies between 2.7 and 52.3 t/cap
and year (factor of 20), while that of the consumption subsystem between 3.2 and 7.5
t/cap/yr (factor 2). Rural households that are engaged in agriculture are producing
households. They extract large amounts of biomass and supply distant regions with
food, fiber or fuel. To produce this biomass, significant amounts of inputs (fuel,
fertilizer) are required and finally, depending on the type of farming operation, only a
varying share of the extracted biomass is exported. For livestock production, the ratio
of inputs to product exports can exceed a factor ten, while it is smaller for crop
production. Both factors contribute to the high apparent material consumption that
can be observed for agricultural households. These relations are reflected in the
higher DMI and DMC of mixed farming operations as compared to those with an
emphasis on perennial cropping. With reduction in number of family farms and
increasing size of the farms remaining in operation the differences are bound to
increase.
It is self-evident that due to agriculture there is a relatively high share of biomass
visible in the metabolic profile of the households’ production system. But agriculture
is also appreciable in the households’ consumption system by a comparatively high
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
mixed
farming
perennial
cropping
part time
farming
employment
outside
village
Income from
pension fund
tonnes/capita
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 0
mi x ed fa r min g p e re n n ia l c ro p p in g p a rt t ime fa r min g e mp lo y me n t o u ts id e v i lla g e I nc o me fr om p e n si o n f un d
production
consumption
production
consumption
Domestic material input (DMI) for production and consumption
of household types
28
share of biomass self-sufficiency: Around 40% of the household consumption of food
and wood is supplied from own production. And even rural households that have
ceased agricultural production have a relatively high extraction of biomass. Even
those households have access to woodlands and produce their own fuel and a
significant share of the food supply is grown in kitchen gardens.
The mixed farming households cover a large share of their biomass demand
(firewood for heating and nutrition) from their own farming operation, while imports for
private consumption are comparatively low (0,7 t/cap). The more specialized farming
households of type A2 use less of their smaller variety of agricultural produce for
domestic consumption. Internal flows are lower and imports are higher. Part-time
farming households preserve a high degree of self-supply, however, the level of
imports is more or less the same as that of perennial cropping households.
Households with employments outside the village use gardening and extensive fruit
orchards for topping up their diet with domestic products. A few households still use
farming facilities for their hobbies (wine yards and horses). In average the internal
flow is the lowest while the imports are the highest. However, a certain degree of
self-sufficiency can be recognized for all households. Thus, the results show that
agriculture and the local resource base have a very persistent influence on the
metabolism of rural households.
Another quite interesting insight is, that none of the household types has a metabolic
profile that is close to the average. The household type that is closest to the average
is “part-time farming” and this type will likely be phasing out according to statements
of the interviewed persons in the near future. The same applies to mixed farming,
where the farmers stated that they will stop farming soon due to their age and since
their children already have highly qualified non-farming jobs and no interest of taking
over the farm. Thus, the differentiated data base of more homogeneous household
types provides some potential for projecting material flows of the village into the
future. Assuming the phasing out of part-time2
and mixed farming3
, flows will be
significantly reduced: DMI approximately by 40%, the exports by 30% and DMC by
40%.
4.4 Comparison with metabolic profiles in Asia and Latin America
Finally, we compare rural Theyern with remote villages in Asia and Latin America.
SangSaeng (Thailand) represents a village in a transition into a fossil-fuel-based
agriculture. Campo Bello (Bolivia) and Nalang (Laos) are characterized by non-fossilfuel-based
(subsistence) agriculture.
2
To become “employment outside the village”
3
in this case the to become type (income from pension fund”
29
Figure 7: Metabolic profile in tonnes per capita and year of Theyern compared with
those of SangSaeng (Thailand), Nalang (Laos) and Campo Bello (Bolivia) (Source:
own data, Singh et al. 2010 and Fischer-Kowalski et al. 2011a)
Theyern 2001 has the highest DE, highest exports, highest DMC, and second
highest imports after SangSaeng, which also is characterized by a fossil-fuel-based
agriculture. The high DE is a result of higher yields per area unit, which in turn is
enabled by means of artificial fertilizers and high-yielding cultivar as well as by a high
degree of mechanization. Consequently, these factors cause higher imports than
subsistence agricultures. Theyern 18304
, a solar energy based subsistence
agriculture, has half the DE of Theyern 2001, but more than double of the DE of
Nalang and Campo Bello; other subsistence agricultures. This is related to the large
size of the livestock system compared to other cases. A large livestock system leads
to high grazing quantities, reflected in a high extraction rate of biomass. Due to the
low conversion efficiency of livestock (from fodder to human nutrition), the higher DE
does not increase the surplus significantly. This means there is little left for export
and consequently, due to the calculational logic, DMC has to be high together with
DE. Nalang and Campo Bello have both higher exports and imports than Theyern
1830. One reason for this might be that Theyern 1830 was part of a wider agricultural
society where transport capacities were restricting imports and exports. Nalang and
Campo Bello are already part of economies where the national transport system
4
The interpretation of Theyern 1830 needs some caution, since the estimates are done on recorded
agricultural harvests. In these records, for example, neither the extraction nor the exports of wood has
been accounted for. Especially export could change significantly, if wood was sold. However, there is
no evidence for this.
30
commonly uses fossil fuels, thus reducing transport limitations compared to
agricultural societies.
Now we can discuss the empirical results of the metabolic profiles of the above listed
rural villages against the backdrop of the theory of socio-metabolic regimes (FischerKowalski
et al. 2011a). The theory assumes that metabolic rates (per capita DMI and
DMC) increase during the transition from passive use of solar energy in the metabolic
regime of hunter & gatherers to an agrarian regime, which relies mainly on an
“active” utilization by colonizing terrestrial ecosystems. Metabolic rates increase even
further in the next transition, the transition into an industrialized regime, which relies
on utilizing fossil fuels; stocks of historical solar fluxes accumulated over millions
of years. Thus, the results of the comparison of Theyern 2001 and 1830 with the
three cases from Asia and Latin America as discussed above can be seen as a
confirmation of the theoretical assumptions. (For further insights on SangSaeng,
Nalang and Campo Bello please see Fischer-Kowalski et al. 2011a).
31
5. Conclusions
The transition we have observed for Theyern during the last 170 years is similar to
that which we can observe nowadays in rural areas in many countries of the global
South or even southeastern European countries. Subsistence farming retreats and
farming is increasingly industrialized, the number of farms declines. As a
consequence rural regions depopulate or rural population begins to commute to
urban industrial centers for work. From a sustainability point of view this transition
entails a tremendous increase in environmental pressures. What can we learn from a
metabolic analysis of a rural village like Theyern for these ongoing processes in less
developed regions?
It is interesting to see that despite the diversification in different household types the
agricultural past has left its traces on the metabolic profile of all households.
Therefore, the use of firewood and gardening activities are still visible in Theyern’s
household profiles. Since both activities can be regarded beneficial from a
sustainability perspective a concerted promotion of such practices could contribute to
reduce environmental pressures and support rural livelihoods in transition
economies:
In Theyern all households – as a heritage from their agricultural past – own forestplots
in the woodlands surrounding the village. According to Austrian law5
they are
responsible for adequate forest management, e.g. annual thinning of the forest.
Despite this annual work investment (and the resulting flow of wood biomass), some
households have shifted from traditional wood fuelled to oil-fuelled heating systems
in the 80s. According to statements of the interviewed persons, some of them might
return to technically advanced wood firing systems soon. Other households have
leapfrogged this development and installed efficient wood fired heating systems
(sometimes in combination with solar panels) during the last ten years. Thus, they
can rely on own renewable fire wood sources with no net carbon emissions and very
short transport distances.
Gardening activities for self-supplying high quality food is another example. People
appreciate both home made “biological” high quality products without chemical inputs
and physical exercise in the kitchen-garden. They dispose over all necessary
resources: the land (the traditional back garden), the plants (even fruit orchards) and
the knowledge (e.g. appreciated family recipes for jam, preserved or pickled
vegetables, juices and syrup). Altogether at village level about a quarter of the food
supply measured in mass units (mostly vegetables and fruits) is provided from homeproduction
with almost no transportation requirements. Obviously, with appropriate
incentives, this has a high potential to make food supply more sustainable.
Another area where leapfrogging the business as usual developments could
contribute to a reduction of environmental pressures is the modernization of farming
practices. In the case of Theyern it can be seen that the industrialization of the
traditional subsistence farming pattern (e.g. animal production in mixed farming)
results in very high metabolic rates (mixed farming: DMC of 36 tonnes per capita)
5
see Forstgesetz 1975, Fassung vom 9.10.2014, §1
32
and has a relatively low outcome (exports 17 tonnes per capita)6
. In contrast,
perennial cropping is a practice that fits perfectly to existing knowledge as well as
available technologies (juice presses and distilleries), the given local natural
conditions (e.g. micro climate, soil quality, morphology) and local markets (close
urban delivery markets). This production type has a DMC of 8 tonnes per capita and
exports 23 tonnes per capita. Based on this observation a we conclude that careful
planning in the phase of agricultural industrialization might have some potential to
reduce environmental pressures; especially if such planning can draw on
experiences made in other regions with similar transition processes. A planning with
the aim to find the locally appropriate socio-economic farming portfolio might avoid
cul-de-sac developments that lead into unsustainable system dynamics. However,
such strategies need to carefully consider a diverse range of both positive and
adverse effects (e.g. on the one hand reduced self-supply in perennial cropping
households might entail food imports related to environmental damages elsewhere,
on the other hand perennial cropping needs far less input like fertilizers).
As far as the methodology is concerned the brake down into household types and a
production as well as a consumption part of households provides valuable insights
concerning the sustainability of rural households. The material implications of
different lifestyles and the shift in socio-economic activities can be discussed
separately and in their interplay.
Since rural transitions at the global scale will play a major role in determining future
environmental pressures more investigations into rural transitions and how this
changes consumption and production as well as the composition of household types
would be quite useful for identifying crucial policy domains and measures to keep
future environmental pressures at bay.
6
In 2001 the livestock system was relatively small (0.4 livestock units/ha). More livestock would even
increase the DMC.
33
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Singh, S.J., Ringhofer, L., Haas, W., Krausmann, F., Lauk, C. & Fischer-Kowalski, M. (2010).
Local Studies Manual: A researcher’s guide for investigating the social metabolism of
rural systems. Social Ecology Working Paper, 120. Vienna: IFF Social Ecology, 1-69.
1726-3808.http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/socec/downloads/WD120_Web.pdf
United Nation, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Populataion Depatment (UNPD)
(2011): Population of Urban and Rural Areas and Percentage Urban.
http://esa.un.org/unup/CD-ROM/Urban-Rural-Population.htm (accessed October 13,
2014)
Weisz, H., Krausmann, F., Amann, C., Eisenmenger, N., Erb, K., Hubacek, K., FischerKowalski,
M. (2006) The phxsical economy of the European Union: Cross-Country
comparison and determinants of material consumption, ecological economics 58,
p676-698
World Commission on Environment and Development (1987): Our Common Future, The
Brundtland-Report. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Wiswede, G. (2000), p23-72, Konsumsoziologie - eine vergessene Disziplin. In: Rosenkranz,
D., Schneider F. (Ed): Konsum, Opladen
WORKING PAPERS SOCIAL ECOLOGY
36
Band 1
Umweltbelastungen in Österreich als Folge menschlichen
Handelns. Forschungsbericht gem. m. dem Österreichischen
Ökologie-Institut. Fischer-Kowalski, M., Hg.
(1987)
Band 2
Environmental Policy as an Interplay of Pro¬fessionals
and Movements - the Case of Austria. Paper to the ISA
Conference on Environmental Constraints and Opportunities
in the Social Organisation of Space, Udine 1989.
Fischer-Kowalski, M. (1989)
Band 3
Umwelt &Öffentlichkeit. Dokumentation der gleichnamigen
Tagung, veranstaltet vom IFF und dem Österreichischen
Ökologie-Institut in Wien, (1990)
Band 4
Umweltpolitik auf Gemeindeebene. Politikbezogene
Weiterbildung für Umweltgemeinderäte. Lackner, C.
(1990)
Band 5
Verursacher von Umweltbelastungen. Grundsätz¬liche
Überlegungen zu einem mit der VGR ver¬knüpfbaren
Emittenteninformationssystem. Fischer-Kowalski, M.,
Kisser, M., Payer, H., Steurer A. (1990)
Band 6
Umweltbildung in Österreich, Teil I: Volkshoch¬schulen.
Fischer-Kowalski, M., Fröhlich, U.; Harau¬er, R., Vyma¬zal
R. (1990)
Band 7
Amtliche Umweltberichterstattung in Österreich. FischerKowalski,
M., Lackner, C., Steurer, A. (1990)
Band 8
Verursacherbezogene Umweltinformationen. Bau¬steine
für ein Satellitensystem zur österr. VGR. Dokumentation
des gleichnamigen Workshop, veranstaltet vom IFF und
dem Österreichischen Ökologie-Institut, Wien (1991)
Band 9
A Model for the Linkage between Economy and Environment.
Paper to the Special IARIW Conference on
Environmental Accounting, Baden 1991. Dell'Mour, R.,
Fleissner, P. , Hofkirchner, W.,; Steurer A. (1991)
Band 10
Verursacherbezogene Umweltindikatoren Kurzfas¬sung.
Forschungsbericht gem. mit dem
Österreichi¬schen Öko-logie-Institut. Fischer-Kowalski,
M., Haberl, H., Payer, H.; Steurer, A., Zangerl-Weisz, H.
(1991)
Band 11
Gezielte Eingriffe in Lebensprozesse. Vorschlag für
verursacherbezogene Umweltindikatoren. Forschungsbericht
gem. m. dem Österreichischen
Öko¬logie-Institut. Haberl, H. (1991)
Band 12
Gentechnik als gezielter Eingriff in Lebensprozesse.
Vorüberlegungen für verursacherbezogene Umweltindikato¬ren.
Forschungsbericht gem. m. dem Österr. Ökologie-Insti¬tut.
Wenzl, P.; Zangerl-Weisz, H. (1991)
Band 13
Transportintensität und Emissionen. Beschreibung österr.
Wirtschaftssektoren mittels Input-Output-Modellierung.
Forschungsbericht gem. m. dem Österr. Ökologie-Institut.
Dell'Mour, R.; Fleissner, P.; Hofkirchner, W.;
Steurer, A. (1991)
Band 14
Indikatoren für die Materialintensität der österreichischen
Wirtschaft. Forschungsbericht gem. m. dem
Österreichischen Ökologie-Institut. Payer, H. unter Mitarbeit
von K. Turetschek (1991)
Band 15
Die Emissionen der österreichischen Wirtschaft. Systematik
und Ermittelbarkeit. Forschungsbericht gem. m.
dem Österr. Ökologie-Institut. Payer, H.; Zangerl-Weisz, H.
unter Mitarbeit von R.Fellinger (1991)
Band 16
Umwelt als Thema der allgemeinen und politischen Erwachsenenbildung
in Österreich. Fischer-Kowalski M.,
Fröhlich, U.; Harauer, R.; Vymazal, R. (1991)
Band 17
Causer related environmental indicators - A
con¬tribution to the environmental satellite-system of
the Austrian SNA. Paper for the Special IARIW
Con¬ference on Envi-ronmental Accounting, Baden
1991. Fischer-Kowalski, M., Haberl, H., Payer, H., Steurer, A.
(1991)
Band 18
Emissions and Purposive Interventions into Life Processes
- Indicators for the Austrian Environ¬mental Accounting
System. Paper to the ÖGBPT Workshop on
Ecologic Bioprocessing, Graz 1991. Fischer-Kowalski M.,
Haberl, H., Wenzl, P., Zangerl-Weisz, H. (1991)
Band 19
Defensivkosten zugunsten des Waldes in Öster¬reich.
Forschungsbericht gem. m. dem Österreichi¬schen Institut
für Wirtschaftsforschung. Fischer-Ko¬walski et al.
(1991)
Band 20*
Basisdaten für ein Input/Output-Modell zur Kopp¬lung
ökonomischer Daten mit Emissionsdaten für den Bereich
des Straßenverkehrs. Steurer, A. (1991)
Band 22
A Paradise for Paradigms - Outlining an Informa¬tion
System on Physical Exchanges between the Economy
and Nature. Fischer-Kowalski, M., Haberl, H., Payer, H.
(1992)
Band 23
Purposive Interventions into Life-Processes - An Attempt
to Describe the Structural Dimensions of the ManAnimal-Relationship.
Paper to the Internat. Conference
on "Science and the Human-Animal-Relationship", Amsterdam
1992. Fischer-Kowalski, M., Haberl, H. (1992)
Band 24
Purposive Interventions into Life Processes: A
Neg¬lected "Environmental" Dimension of the SocietyNature
Rela-tionship. Paper to the 1. Europ. Confe¬rence
of Sociology, Vienna 1992. Fischer-Kowalski, M., Haberl, H.
(1992)
WORKING PAPERS SOCIAL ECOLOGY
37
Band 25
Informationsgrundlagen struktureller Ökologisierung.
Beitrag zur Tagung "Strategien der Kreislaufwirt¬schaft:
Ganzheitl. Umweltschutz/Integrated Environ¬mental Protection",
Graz 1992. Steurer, A., Fischer-Kowalski, M.
(1992)
Band 26
Stoffstrombilanz Österreich 1988. Steurer, A. (1992)
Band 28
Naturschutzaufwendungen in Österreich. Gut¬achten für
den WWF Österreich. Payer, H. (1992)
Band 29
Indikatoren der Nachhaltigkeit für die Volkswirtschaftliche
Gesamtrechnung - angewandt auf die Region.
Payer, H. (1992). In: KudlMudl SonderNr.
1992:Tagungsbericht über das Dorfsymposium "Zu¬kunft der
Region - Region der Zukunft?"
Band 31
Leerzeichen. Neuere Texte zur Anthropologie. Macho, T.
(1993)
Band 32
Metabolism and Colonisation. Modes of Production and
the Physical Exchange between Societies and Nature.
Fischer-Kowalski, M., Haberl, H. (1993)
Band 33
Theoretische Überlegungen zur ökologischen Bedeutung
der menschlichen Aneignung von Nettoprimärproduktion.
Haberl, H. (1993)
Band 34
Stoffstrombilanz Österreich 1970-1990 - Inputseite. Steurer,
A. (1994)
Band 35
Der Gesamtenergieinput des Sozio-ökonomischen Systems
in Österreich 1960-1991. Zur Erweiterung des Begriffes
"Energieverbrauch". Haberl, H. (1994)
Band 36
Ökologie und Sozialpolitik. Fischer-Kowalski, M. (1994)
Band 37
Stoffströme der Chemieproduktion 1970-1990. Payer, H.,
unter Mitarbeit von Zangerl-Weisz, H. und Fellinger, R.
(1994)
Band 38
Wasser und Wirtschaftswachstum. Untersuchung von
Abhängigkeiten und Entkoppelungen, Wasserbilanz
Österreich 1991. Hüttler, W., Payer, H. unter Mitarbeit von
H. Schandl (1994)
Band 39
Politische Jahreszeiten. 12 Beiträge zur politischen
Wende 1989 in Ostmitteleuropa. Macho, T. (1994)
Band 40
On the Cultural Evolution of Social Metabolism with
Nature. Sustainability Problems Quantified. FischerKowalski,
M., Haberl, H. (1994)
Band 41
Weiterbildungslehrgänge für das Berufsfeld ökologischer
Beratung. Erhebung u. Einschätzung der
An¬gebote in Österreich sowie von ausgewählten
Bei¬spielen in Deutschland, der Schweiz, Frankreich,
England und europaweiten Lehrgängen. Rauch, F. (1994)
Band 42
Soziale Anforderungen an eine nachhaltige Entwicklung.
Fischer-Kowalski, M., Madlener, R., Payer, H., Pfeffer, T.,
Schandl, H. (1995)
Band 43
Menschliche Eingriffe in den natürlichen Energiefluß von
Ökosystemen. Sozio-ökonomische Aneignung von
Nettoprimär-produktion in den Bezirken Österreichs.
Haberl, H. (1995)
Band 44
Materialfluß Österreich 1990. Hüttler, W., Payer, H.;
Schandl, H. (1996)
Band 45
National Material Flow Analysis for Austria 1992. Society’s
Metabolism and Sustainable Development. Hüttler, W.
Payer, H., Schandl, H. (1997)
Band 46
Society’s Metabolism. On the Development of Concepts
and Methodology of Material Flow Analysis. A Review of
the Literature. Fischer-Kowalski, M. (1997)
Band 47
Materialbilanz Chemie-Methodik sektoraler Materialbilanzen.
Schandl, H., Weisz, H. Wien (1997)
Band 48
Physical Flows and Moral Positions. An Essay in
Memory of Wildavsky. A. Thompson, M. (1997)
Band 49
Stoffwechsel in einem indischen Dorf. Fallstudie Merkar.
Mehta, L., Winiwarter, V. (1997)
Band 50+
Materialfluß Österreich- die materielle Basis der Österreichischen
Gesellschaft im Zeitraum 1960-1995. Schandl,
H. (1998)
Band 51+
Bodenfruchtbarkeit und Schädlinge im Kontext von
Agrargesellschaften. Dirlinger, H., Fliegenschnee, M.,
Krausmann, F., Liska, G., Schmid, M. A. (1997)
Band 52+
Der Naturbegriff und das Gesellschaft-Natur-Verhältnis in
der frühen Soziologie. Lutz, J. Wien (1998)
Band 53+
NEMO: Entwicklungsprogramm für ein Nationales Emissionsmonitoring.
Bruckner, W., Fischer-Kowalski, M., Jorde,
T. (1998)
Band 54+
Was ist Umweltgeschichte? Winiwarter, V. (1998)
Mit + gekennzeichnete Bände sind unter
http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/socec/inhalt/1818.htm
Im PDF-Format und in Farbe downloadbar.
WORKING PAPERS SOCIAL ECOLOGY
38
Band 55+
Agrarische Produktion als Interaktion von Natur und
Gesellschaft: Fallstudie SangSaeng. Grünbühel, C. M.,
Schandl, H., Winiwarter, V. (1999)
Band 57+
Colonizing Landscapes: Human Appropriation of Net
Primary Production and its Influence on Standing Crop
and Biomass Turnover in Austria. Haberl, H., Erb, K.H.,
Krausmann, F., Loibl, W., Schulz, N. B., Weisz, H. (1999)
Band 58+
Die Beeinflussung des oberirdischen Standing Crop und
Turnover in Österreich durch die menschliche Gesellschaft.
Erb, K. H. (1999)
Band 59+
Das Leitbild "Nachhaltige Stadt". Astleithner, F. (1999)
Band 60+
Materialflüsse im Krankenhaus, Entwicklung einer InputOutput
Methodik. Weisz, B. U. (2001)
Band 61+
Metabolismus der Privathaushalte am Beispiel Österreichs.
Hutter, D. (2001)
Band 62+
Der ökologische Fußabdruck des österreichischen Außenhandels.
Erb, K.H., Krausmann, F., Schulz, N. B. (2002)
Band 63+
Material Flow Accounting in Amazonia: A Tool for Sustainable
Development. Amann, C., Bruckner, W., FischerKowalski,
M., Grünbühel, C. M. (2002)
Band 64+
Energieflüsse im österreichischen Landwirtschaftssektor
1950-1995, Eine humanökologische Untersuchung. Darge,
E. (2002)
Band 65+
Biomasseeinsatz und Landnutzung Österreich 1995-
2020. Haberl, H.; Krausmann, F.; Erb, K.H.;Schulz, N. B.;
Adensam, H. (2002)
Band 66+
Der Einfluss des Menschen auf die Artenvielfalt. Gesellschaftliche
Aneignung von Nettoprimärproduktion als
Pressure-Indikator für den Verlust von Biodiversität.
Haberl, H., Fischer-Kowalski, M., Schulz, N. B., Plutzar, C.,
Erb, K.H., Krausmann, F., Loibl, W., Weisz, H.; Sauberer, N.,
Pollheimer, M. (2002)
Band 67+
Materialflussrechnung London. Bongardt, B. (2002)
Band 68+
Gesellschaftliche Stickstoffflüsse des österreichischen
Landwirtschaftssektors 1950-1995, Eine humanökologische
Untersuchung. Gaube, V. (2002)
Band 69+
The transformation of society's natural relations: from
the agrarian to the industrial system. Research strategy
for an empirically informed approach towards a European
Environmental History. Fischer-Kowalski, M.,
Krausmann, F., Schandl, H. (2003)
Band 70+
Long Term Industrial Transformation: A Comparative
Study on the Development of Social Metabolism and
Land Use in Austria and the United Kingdom 1830-2000.
Krausmann, F., Schandl, H., Schulz, N. B. (2003)
Band 72+
Land Use and Socio-economic Metabolism in Preindustrial
Agricultural Systems: Four Nineteenth-century
Austrain Villages in Comparison. Krausmann, F. (2008)
Band 73+
Handbook of Physical Accounting Measuring biophysical
dimensions of socio-economic activities MFA –
EFA – HANPP. Schandl, H., Grünbühel, C. M., Haberl, H.,
Weisz, H. (2004)
Band 74+
Materialflüsse in den USA, Saudi Arabien und der
Schweiz. Eisenmenger, N.; Kratochvil, R.; Krausmann, F.;
Baart, I.; Colard, A.; Ehgartner, Ch.; Eichinger, M.; Hempel,
G.; Lehrner, A.; Müllauer, R.; Nourbakhch-Sabet, R.; Paler,
M.; Patsch, B.; Rieder, F.; Schembera, E.; Schieder, W.;
Schmiedl, C.; Schwarzlmüller, E.; Stadler, W.; Wirl, C.; Zandl,
S.; Zika, M. (2005)
Band 75+
Towards a model predicting freight transport from material
flows. Fischer-Kowalski, M. (2004)
Band 76+
The physical economy of the European Union: Crosscountry
comparison and determinants of material consumption.
Weisz, H., Krausmann, F., Amann, Ch., Eisenmenger,
N., Erb, K.H., Hubacek, K., Fischer-Kowalski, M.
(2005)
Band 77+
Arbeitszeit und Nachhaltige Entwicklung in Europa:
Ausgleich von Produktivitätsgewinn in Zeit statt Geld?
Proinger, J. (2005)
Band 78+
Sozial-Ökologische Charakteristika von Agrarsystemen.
Ein globaler Überblick und Vergleich. Lauk, C. (2005)
Band 79+
Verbrauchsorientierte Abrechnung von Wasser als Water-Demand-Management-Strategie.
Eine Analyse anhand
eines Vergleichs zwischen Wien und Barcelona. Machold,
P. (2005)
Band 80+
Ecology, Rituals and System-Dynamics. An attempt to
model the Socio-Ecological System of Trinket Island.
Wildenberg, M. (2005)
Band 81+
Southeast Asia in Transition. Socio-economic transitions,
environmental impact and sustainable development.
Fischer-Kowalski, M., Schandl, H., Grünbühel, C.,
Haas, W., Erb, K-H., Weisz, H., Haberl, H. (2004)
Band 83+
HANPP-relevante Charakteristika von Wanderfeldbau
und anderen Langbrachesystemen. Lauk, C. (2006)
Band 84+
Management unternehmerischer Nachhaltigkeit mit Hilfe
der Sustainability Balanced Scorecard. Zeitlhofer, M.
(2006)
Band 85+
Nicht-nachhaltige Trends in Österreich: Maßnahmenvorschläge
zum Ressourceneinsatz.	
  Haberl, H., Jasch, C.,
Adensam, H., Gaube, V. (2006)
Band 87+
Accounting for raw material equivalents of traded goods.
A comparison of input-output approaches in physical,
monetary, and mixed units.	
  Weisz, H. (2006)
WORKING PAPERS SOCIAL ECOLOGY
39
Band 88+
Vom Materialfluss zum Gütertransport. Eine Analyse
anhand der EU15 – Länder (1970-2000).
Rainer, G. (2006)
Band 89+
Nutzen der MFA für das Treibhausgas-Monitoring im
Rahmen eines Full Carbon Accounting-Ansatzes; Feasibilitystudie;
Endbericht zum Projekt BMLFUWUW.1.4.18/0046-V/10/2005.
Erb, K.-H., Kastner, T., Zandl,
S., Weisz, H., Haberl, H., Jonas, M., (2006)
Band 90+
Local Material Flow Analysis in Social Context in Tat
Hamelt, Northern Mountain Region, Vietnam. Hobbes, M.;
Kleijn, R. (2006)
Band 91+
Auswirkungen des thailändischen logging ban auf die
Wälder von Laos. Hirsch, H. (2006)
Band 92+
Human appropriation of net primary produktion (HANPP)
in the Philippines 1910-2003: a socio-ecological analysis.
Kastner, T. (2007)
Band 93+
Landnutzung und landwirtschaftliche Entscheidungsstrukturen.
Partizipative Entwicklung von Szenarien für
das Traisental mit Hilfe eines agentenbasierten Modells.
Adensam, H., V. Gaube, H. Haberl, J. Lutz, H. Reisinger, J.
Breinesberger, A. Colard, B. Aigner, R. Maier, Punz, W.
(2007)
Band 94+
The Work of Konstantin G. Gofman and
colleagues: An early example of Material Flow Analysis
from the Soviet Union. Fischer-Kowalski, M.; Wien (2007)
Band 95+
Partizipative Modellbildung, Akteurs- und Ökosystemanalyse
in Agrarintensivregionen; Schlußbericht des
deutsch-österreichischen Verbundprojektes. Newig, J.,
Gaube, V., Berkhoff, K., Kaldrack, K., Kastens, B., Lutz, J.,
Schlußmeier B., Adensam, H., Haberl, H., Pahl-Wostl, C.,
Colard, A., Aigner, B., Maier, R., Punz, W.; Wien (2007)
Band 96+
Rekonstruktion der Arbeitszeit in der Landwirtschaft im
19. Jahrhundert am Beispiel von Theyern in Niederösterreich.
Schaschl, E.; Wien (2007)
Band 98+
Local Material Flow Analysis in Social Context at the
forest fringe in the Sierra Madre, the Philippines. Hobbes,
M., Kleijn, R. (Hrsg); Wien (2007)
Band 99+
Human Appropriation of Net Primary Production
(HANPP) in Spain, 1955-2003: A socio-ecological
analysis. Schwarzlmüller, E.; Wien (2008)
Band 100+
Scaling issues in long-term socio-ecological biodiversity
research: A review of European cases. Dirn-böck,
T., Bezák, P., Dullinger S., Haberl, H., Lotze-Campen, H.,
Mirtl, M., Peterseil, J., Redpath, S., Singh, S., Travis, J.,
Wijdeven, S.M.J.; Wien (2008)
Band 101+
Human Appropriation of Net Primary Production
(HANPP) in the United Kingdom, 1800-2000: A socioecological
analysis. Musel, A.; Wien (2008)
Band 102 +
Wie kann Wissenschaft gesellschaftliche Verände-rung
bewirken? Eine Hommage an Alvin Gouldner, und ein
Versuch, mit seinen Mitteln heutige Klima-politik zu
verstehen. Fischer-Kowalski, M.; Wien (2008)
Band 103+
Sozialökologische Dimensionen der österreichischen
Ernährung – Eine Szenarienanalyse. Lackner, M.;
Wien (2008)
Band 104+
Fundamentals of Complex Evolving Systems: A Primer.
Weis, E.; Wien (2008)
Band 105+
Umweltpolitische Prozesse aus diskurstheoretischer
Perspektive: Eine Analyse des Südtiroler Feinstaubproblems
von der Problemkonstruktion bis zur Umsetzung
von Regulierungsmaßnahmen. Paler, M.; Wien (2008)
Band 106+
Ein integriertes Modell für Reichraming. Partizipative
Entwicklung von Szenarien für die Gemeinde Reichraming
(Eisenwurzen) mit Hilfe eines agentenbasierten
Landnutzungsmodells. Gaube, V., Kaiser, C., Widenberg,
M., Adensam, H., Fleissner, P., Kobler, J., Lutz, J.,
Smetschka, B., Wolf, A., Richter, A., Haberl, H.; Wien (2008)
Band 107+
Der soziale Metabolismus lokaler Produktionssysteme:
Reichraming in der oberösterreichischen Eisenwurzen
1830-2000. Gingrich, S., Krausmann, F.; Wien (2008)
Band 108+
Akteursanalyse zum besseren Verständnis der Entwicklungsoptionen
von Bioenergie in Reichraming. Eine
sozialökologische Studie. Vrzak, E.; Wien (2008)
Band 109+
Direktvermarktung in Reichraming aus sozialökologischer
Perspektive. Zeitlhofer, M.; Wien (2008)
Band 110+
CO2-Bilanz der Tomatenproduktion: Analyse acht verschiedener
Produktionssysteme in Österreich, Spanien
und Italien. Theurl, M.; Wien (2008)
Band 111+
Die Rolle von Arbeitszeit und Einkommen bei ReboundEffekten
in Dematerialisierungs- und Dekarbonisierungsstrategien.
Eine Literaturstudie. Bruckner, M.; Wien (2008)
Band 112+
Von Kommunikation zu materiellen Effekten Ansatzpunkte
für eine sozial-ökologische Lesart von
Luhmanns Theorie Sozialer Systeme. Rieder, F.; Wien
(2008)
Band 114+
Across a Moving Threshold: energy, carbon and the
efficiency of meeting global human development needs.
Steinberger, J. K., Roberts, .J.T.; Wien (2008)
WORKING PAPERS SOCIAL ECOLOGY
40
Band 115
Towards a low carbon society: Setting targets for a reduction
of global resource use. Krausmann, F., FischerKowalski,
M., Steinberger, J.K., Ayres, R.U.; Wien (2010)
Band 116+
Eating the Planet: Feeding and fuelling the world sustainably,
fairly and humanely - a scoping study. Erb, K-H.,
Haberl, H., Krausmann, F., Lauk, C., Plutzar, C., Steinberger,
J.K., Müller, C., Bondeau, A., Waha, K., Pollack, G.; Wien
(2009)
Band 117+
Gesellschaftliche Naturverhältnisse: Energiequellen und
die globale Transformation des gesellschaftlichen Stoffwechsels.
Krausmann, F., Fischer-Kowalski, M.; Wien
(2010)
Band 118+
Zurück zur Fläche? Eine Untersuchung der biophysischen
Ökonomie Brasiliens zwischen 1970 und 2005.
Mayer, A.; Wien (2010)
Band 119+
Das nachhaltige Krankenhaus: Erprobungsphase. Weisz,
U., Haas, W., Pelikan, J.M., Schmied, H., Himpelmann, M.,
Purzner, K., Hartl, S., David, H.; Wien (2009)
Band 120+
LOCAL STUDIES MANUAL
A researcher’s guide for investigating the
social metabolism of local rural systems. Singh, S.J.,
Ringhofer, L., Haas, W., Krausmann, F., Fischer-Kowalski,
M.; Wien (2010)
Band 121+
Sociometabolic regimes in indigenous communities and
the crucial role of working time: A comparison of case
studies. Fischer-Kowalski, M., Singh, S.J., Ringhofer, L.,
Grünbühel C.M., Lauk, C., Remesch., A.; Wien (2010)
Band 122+
Klimapolitik im Bereich Gebäude und Raumwärme.
Entwicklung, Problemfelder und Instrumente der Länder
Österreich, Deutschland und Schweiz. Jöbstl, R.; Wien
(2012)
Band 123+
Trends and Developments of the Use of Natural Resources
in the European Union. Krausmann, F., FischerKowalski,
M., Steinberger, J.K., Schaffartzik, A.,
Eisenmenger, N, Weisz, U.; Wien (2011)
Band 125+
Raw Material Equivalents (RME)
of Austria’s Trade. Schaffartzik, A., Eisenmenger, N.,
Krausmann, F., Weisz, H.; Wien (2013)
Band 126+
Masterstudium "Sozial- und Humanökologie":
Selbstevaluation 2005-2010. Schmid, M., Mayer A.,
Miechtner, G.; Wien (2010)
Band 127 +
Bericht des Zentrums für Evaluation und Forschungsberatung
(ZEF). Das Masterstudium „Sozial- und Humanökologie“.
Mayring, P., Fenzl, T.; Wien (2010)
Band 128+
Die langfristigen Trends der Material- und Energieflüsse
in den USA in den Jahren 1850 bis 2005. Gierlinger, S.;
Wien (2010)
Band 129+
Die Verzehrungssteuer 1829 – 1913 als Grundlage einer
umwelthistorischen Untersuchung des Metabolismus
der Stadt Wien. Hauer, F.; Wien (2010)
Band 130+
Human Appropriation of Net Primary Production in South
Africa, 1961- 2006. A socio-ecological analysis.
Niedertscheider, M.; Wien (2011)
Band 131+
The socio-metabolic transition.
Long term historical trends and patterns in global material
and energy use. Krausmann, F. (Editor); Wien (2011)
Band 132+
„Urlaub am Bauernhof“ oder „Bauernhof ohne Urlaub“?
Eine sozial-ökologische Untersuchung der geschlechtsspezifischen
Arbeitsteilung und Zeitverwendung auf
landwirtschaftlichen Betrieben in der Gemeinde Andelsbuch,
Bregenzerwald.
Winder, M.; Wien (2011)
Band 133+
Spatial and Socio-economic Drivers of Direct and Indirect
Household Energy Consumption in Australia.
Wiedenhofer, D.; Wien (2011)
Band 134+
Die Wiener Verzehrungssteuer. Auswertung nach
einzelnen Steuerposten (1830 – 1913). Hauer, F.,
Gierlinger, S., Nagele, C., Albrecht, J., Uschmann, T.,
Martsch, M.; Wien (2012)
Band 135+
Zeit für Veränderung? Über die geschlechtsspezifische
Arbeitsteilung und Zeitverwendung in landwirtschaftlichen
Betrieben und deren Auswirkungen auf Landnutzungsveränderungen
in der Region „Westlicher Wienerwald“.
Eine sozial-ökologische Untersuchung.
Madner, V.; Wien (2013)
Band 136+
The Impact of Industrial Grain Fed Livestock Production
on Food Security: an extended literature review.
Erb, K-H., Mayer, A., Kastner, T., Sallet, K-E., Haberl, H.;
Wien (2012)
Band 137+
Human appropriation of net primary production in Africa:
Patterns, trajectories, processes and policy implications.
Fetzel, T., Niedertscheider, M., Erb, K-H., Gaube, V.,
Gingrich, S., Haberl, H., Krausmann, F., Lauk, C., Plutzar, C.;
Wien (2012)
Band 138+
VERSCHMUTZT – VERBAUT – VERGESSEN: Eine Umweltgeschichte
des Wienflusses von 1780 bis 1910.
Pollack, G.; Wien (2013)
Band 139+
Der Fleischverbrauch in Österreich von 1950-
2010.Trends und Drivers als Zusammenspiel von Angebot
und Nachfrage. Willerstorfer, T.; Wien (2013)
Band 141+
Wie das ERP (European Recovery Program) die
Entwicklung des alpinen, ländlichen Raumes in
Vorarlberg prägte. Groß, R.; Wien (2013)
Band 142+
Exploring local opportunities and barriers for a
sustainability transition on a Greek island. Petridis, P.,
Hickisch, R., Klimek, M., Fischer, R., Fuchs, N., Kostakiotis,
G., Wendland, M., Zipperer, M., Fischer-Kowalski, M.; Wien
(2013)
Band 143+
Climate Change Mitigation in Latin America: A Mapping
of Current Policies, Plans and Programs. Ringhofer, L.,
Singh, S.J., Smetschka, B.; Wien (2013)
WORKING PAPERS SOCIAL ECOLOGY
41
Band 144+
Arbeitszeit und Energieverbrauch: Grundsatzfragen
diskutiert an der historischen Entwicklung in Österreich.
Weisz, U., Possanner, N..; Wien (2013)
Band 145+
Barrieren und Chancen für die Realisierung nachhaltiger
Mobilität. Eine Analyse der Zeitabhängigkeit von Mobilitätsmustern
am Beispiel von Krems/Donau. Gross, A.;
Wien (2013)
Band 147+
The rise of the semi-periphery:
A physical perspective on the global division of labour.
Material flow analysis of global trade flows (1970-2005).
Loy, C.; Wien (2013)
Band 148+
Historische Energietransitionen im Ländervergleich.
Energienutzung, Bevölkerung, Wirtschaftliche
Entwicklung. Pallua, I.; Wien (2013)
Band 149+
Socio-Ecological Impacts of Land Grabbing for Nature
Conservation on a Pastoral Community: A HANPP-based
Case Study in Ololosokwan Village, Northern Tanzania.
Bartels, L. E.; Wien (2014)
Band 150+
Teilweise waren Frauen auch Traktorist.
Geschlechtliche Arbeitsteilung in landwirtschaftlichen
Betrieben Ostdeutschlands heute – Unterschiede in der
biologischen und konventionellen Bewirtschaftung.
Fehlinger, J.; Wien (2014)
Band 151+
Economy-wide Material Flow Accounting
Introduction and guide. Krausmann, F., Weisz, H., Schütz,
H., Haas, W., Schaffartzik, A.; Wien (2014)
Band 152+
Large scale societal transitions in the past.
The Role of Social Revolutions and the 1970s Synd