ESSENTIALS
♦ Use headings and an outline format if the message has several components.
+ Identify specifically what you want the reader(s) to do with the information in the message.
+■ E-mail usually has a shelf life, so identify a time frame for the reader's requested action.
Don't write anything in an e-mail that you would not want to see on the front page of the newspaper tomorrow morning. E-mail is stored indefinitely by third parties. Recipients can forward your messages to whomever,
Web Links: If you refer to Web pages, type out or paste in the entire URL. In that way, the reader can usually just click on the URL to visit the linked site automatically.
Use a Signature File: Identify who you are with your full name. You can add your affiliation and a contact phone number if you want your reader(s) to have it. A signature file is your virtual business card. A motto is OK if it's not too cute. Don't include long graphics made out of letters, which might entail the annoyance of printing an extra page. Remember that some "free" e-mail services cany advertising, and consider the trade-offs in the impression your message will accordingly make with its commercial endorsement of Yahoo or whatever. Answering Your E-mail: Readers expect a prompt response. Delay will annoy. If a delay is unavoidable, explain it and apologize. Use the Postpone Command: A message about an awkward, sensitive, or painful subject should be postponed overnight for valuable further thought and revision.
Managing Your E-mail: Try to deal with and clear your messages promptly each time you open your in-box by replying, saving, or deleting them. A Vacation Message: If you will be away from your e-mail and unable to answer it, leave a vacation message with an alternative means of contact or a date of earliest possible reply.
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If I have seen a little further it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants.
Isaac Newton In a Letter to Robert Hooke February 5, 1676
The generation of knowledge is a group activity. Scholars build on and respond to each other's data (concepts, insights, theories, statistics), which circulate from one scholar to another through conference papers, articles, and books. When you write your paper, you are engaging in this process. Even if you are not assigned to read beyond your textbook, you will probably want to learn more about the topic anyway, just to become more informed yourself. Obviously, you will write a better paper if you know more about the subject. Like Newton, you will see more by standing on the shoulders of others. At the very least you will want to get an overview of related concepts and theories from a general text or reference source, such as 21st Century Sociology: A Reference Handbook edited by Clifton D. Bryant and Dennis L. Peck (2007) and published by Sage Publications. Later in this book you will find detailed information about searching for and evaluating print and electronic sources in the chapter on how to write a research paper, where you are expected to build your argument from evidence that you find in the library or on the Internet (see Chapter 4). This chapter is a basic orientation on keeping track of what you learn from reading sources. It includes several sample assignments of an annotated bibliography entry. An annotated bibliography entry is a short writing assignment based on reading a source. It is an exercise in critical thinking and, like the proposal, is often assigned to get you started on a paper.
TAKING TWO KINDS OF NOTES
As C. Wright Mills explains in his appendix "On Intellectual Craftsmanship" in The Sociological Imagination ([1959] 2000), "You will have to acquire the habit of taking a large volume of notes from any worth-while book you read"
45
46 ESSENTIALS
(p. 199). Taking notes is a personal skill that varies somewhat from student to student. Specific techniques include any or all of the following: writing notes in word-processed files opened up for that specific purpose, writing in the margins of your own copy of the text or on the back of photocopied pages, attaching Post-it notes to specific passages in the text, or writing notes on separate note cards or sheets of paper. Regardless of where they are physically recorded, careful notes provide two benefits.
1. "A,Prod to Reflection." As Mills explains, "the mere taking of a note from a book is'^SerTTpTrod to reflection. At the same time, of course, the taking of a note is a great aid in comprehending what you are reading" (p. 199). The first kind of note, what Mills calls "a prod to reflection," can take the form of annotations: definitions, cross-references, examples, questions, or other ideas that are triggered in your mind as you read. Whether or not this noted information ends up in your paper is not the point with this kind of note. Taking this kind of note exercises your skills of critical reading. It makes you interact with the author, and thereby it helps you understand and learn what you are reading so that you are able to write about the subject.
2. A Summary of Borrowed Information. In the second kind of note, according to Mills, "you try to grasp the structure of the writer's argument" (p. 199). This second kind of note is more objective. It is a systematic analysis of all or part of the author's argument. This summarizing kind of note outlines the author's main points and the interrelationships between the points and the evidence on which they are based. Your notes should summarize the main points or thesis, not just specific facts. That is, youjshould make note of the forest, not just the trees. In general, you should paraph7a^elhTlu^orTorig-inal words rather than quote them. You should quote only in a few special instances:
1. When the original is worded so elegantly, memorably, or powerfully that you do not want to change its effect.
2. When you just can't paraphrase it and do justice to the meaning, even though you have tried.
3. When the original is provocative or unusual, and you want to borrow the prestige of the original author to run defense for yourself, in case your reader disagrees with this point. The epigraphs we've used in this book illustrate the power of a distinguished author's exact words to enhance an argument.
4. When you want to do an extensive analysis on one small passage (an exegesis).
When you want to use the author's exact words, be sure to mark them as a quotation in your notes so that you will properly cite the source in your paper. You must also document paraphrases.
WORKING WITH SOtTRCES 47
SAMPLE ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Your instructor may assign one or more annotated bibliography entries at the beginning of your paper project. This assignment is intended to get you started. Writing your annotation will prod you into thinking about how you will answer your question, and it will help you begin to accumulate evidence. An annotated bibliography entry is a special kind of note taken on a source.
Some instructors give very simple instructions for the annotation: "Write several sentences describing one source from a library database or the Internet about your topic." Here, for example, is a student's informal annotation about a report from the National Community Investment Fund: "Talks about the direct benefits of Employer Assisted Housing programs and how they treat the problem rather directly and have more positive effects than just giving workers a place to live, such as how it makes it so they can afford to live closer to where they work, helping them to maintain a stable job."
Other annotated bibliography assignments are more formal. One common assignment requires you to analyze a source, looking for specific kinds of information about the source, and then to write a short paragraph that notes these specific kinds of information. These different kinds of information can include a complete identification of the publication, the authority and credentials of the author, the author's thesis, the author's evidence, the author's purpose in writing, and the author's audience.
EXAMPLE OF AN ANNOTATION FOR A PRINT SOURCE
Ocampo, Beverly Weidmer, Gene A. Shelley, and Lisa H. Jaycox. 2007. "Latino Teens Talk About Help Seeking and Heip Giving in Relation to Dating Violence." Violence Against Women 13(2);172-89.
Esteemed social scientists Ocampo, Shelley, and Jaycox analyze dating violence among Latino youth. They assert that teens subjected to dating violence may he more likely to seek help and support from friends than from medical professionals. Unfortunately, tire type of help and support that friends provide may lead to negative consequences. For example, friends may tend to blame the victim for the abuse and thereby result in the victim staying in the abusive relationship. Through survey and focus data on 1,655 Los Angeles teens, the researchers show that Latino youth are, indeed, more likely to confide in their friends rather than medical professionals. The authors argue that teens must be taught skills about how to help friends experiencing dating violence because it is likely that victims will continue to mistrust health care professionals.
48 ESSENTIALS
EXAMPLE OF AN ANNOTATION FOR A WEB DOCUMENT
Cohen, Charles I. 2004. "Statement of the U.S. Chamber of Commerce on 'Employee Free Choice Act-Union Certification'." U.S. Chamber of Commerce. Retrieved March 9, 2007 {http://www.uschamber.com/ issues/testimony/2004/040716empioyeefreechoiceact.htm).
In his presentation to the Senate subcommittee on labor, Charles I. Cohen, a Senior Partner of Morgan, Lewis & Bockius LLP, argued on behalf of the United States Chamber of Commerce that the Employee Free Choice Act is flawed because it grants too much power to labor unions. Cohen compares the provisions of the bill to the legislation that it is amending (the National Labor Relations Act [NLRA]) to show that many of the changes are unlawful. His purpose is to persuade the Senate to reconsider the bill and perhaps refine it so that the changes are not as dramatic. Cohen's audience is the senate subcommittee on labor, which is in charge of researching the bill.
AVOIDING PLAGIARISM: WHEN AND WHAT TO CITE
Because research is a collective effort, academic conventions have developed to keep track of whose ideas are being borrowed, or used and reused, so that accuracy can be checked and credit for this valuable information given to the proper authors. You, too, as an apprentice scholar are engaging in this research process when you write a paper; and you, too, are expected to follow these conventions for identifying what you borrow from others. By acknowledging your sources in proper citations and references, you avoid plagiarism.
Plagiarism is an academic offense. It is theft of intellectual property, of someone else's ideas and words. It is cheating that presents another writer's words or ideas as if they were your own. Plagiarism is taken very seriously in colleges and universities and can be grounds for expulsion. Professional scholars are similarly bound to avoid plagiarism, by such guidelines as those in the American Sociological Association's Code of Ethics.
Instructors can usually detect intentional plagiarism. Their years of study have made them familiar with the articles, books, and textbooks in their fields. When a student copies this writing into a paper, instructors recognize the sound and shape of the prose. Bven if they can't immediately tell what page it comes from, they know it is not the student's original work. Also, plagiarized papers usually do not resemble the student's authentic writing style, which the instructor has read before, for instance, on midterm exarninations. Moreover, special software has now been developed to catch dishonest copying of online sources. Your instructor may ask you to submit an electronic version of your paper to a plagiarism-detecting service on campus, such as
WORKING WITH SOURCES 49
Turnitin.com, which will automatically match up parts of your paper against comparable texts in countless databases on the Internet.
You can avoid unintentional plagiarism by making careful notes that respect the integrity of the sources you use and by identifying exactly where you got these borrowed words or ideas that you later use in your paper. The rule goes this way: you don't need to cite common knowledge, but you must acknowledge any author's private intellectual property—any presentation of information that is uniquely the author's. You must cite such borrowing whether you quote it directly or paraph rase it.
When you cite borrowed information, beware of jwojprjDjbJerns: (^borrowing toomuch oftib^OTianalJto it which is plagiarism, aiiiU^3Sto'rtillg the source and thereby paraphrasing it inaccurately. Folio wing" are TxMrpteToiTriSeT'wo kinds of problematic citations from a source.
The original source:
The relationship between socioeconomic status and health has long intrigued social scientists. However, since its inception this research tradition has been plagued by questions of causal directionality. Namely, individuals may be sick because they are poor; alternatively, it may be their ill health itself that plunges them into poverty (e.g., through job loss due to illness).
Conley, Dalton and Neil G. Bennett. 2000. "Is Biology Destiny? Birth Weight and Life Chances." American Sociological Review 65(3):458-67.
1. Too much of the original source:
The relationship between socioeconomic status and health has interested social scientists for a long time. Conley and Bennett (2000), the authors of "Is Biology Destiny? Birth Weight and Life Chances," state that ". . . since its inception this research tradition has been plagued by questions of causal directionality. Namely, individuals may be sick because they are poor; alternatively, it may be their il! health itself that plunges them into poverty (e.g., through job loss due to illness)" (p. 458).
In the first sentence of this paragraph, too many words from the source are used without quotation marks even though the second sentence is a quotation. This is therefore an example of plagiarism.
2. An inaccurate distortion of the original source:
According to Conley and Bennett (2000), there is a causal relationship between sociological status and health: the higher an individual's socioeconomic status, the better their health (p. 458).
This statement misrepresents the source's position.
50 ESSENTIALS
Here is a good way to cite borrowed information from this source:
Although researchers are interested in the relationship between socioeconomic status and health, Conley and Bennett (2000) point out that it is difficult to determine whether low socioeconomic status leads to poor health or poor health leads to low socioeconomic status (p. 458}.
Do not worry that your paper will be unoriginal if you include many citations. Precise and full citation is one of the features that instructors look for when assigning quality grades; it shows that you have done some real work. If you are in doubt, always cite your sources. Err on the side of overdoing it.
Students often have difficulty determining whether an idea is common knowledge (which doesn't need to be cited) or an author's unique insight (which needs to be cited). The term "anomie," for instance, was coined by Dürkheim. Does that mean that if you write the word "anomie" in a paper about the contemporary urban underclass, you are borrowing Durkheim's idea and word and must therefore cite him? No, not necessarily. You might want to mention Dürkheim to invoke his authority, but the term doesn't belong exclusively to Dürkheim any more. Over the years "anomie" has become part of every sociologist's working vocabulary; the concept is common knowledge and therefore doesn't need to be cited. However, let's say that you read a book or article about the urban underclass in which the author makes an important point using the concept of anomie. If you borrow that author's point for your own paper, then you must cite him or her (but not Dürkheim) as your source. Remember, too, that you must cite your sources when you borrow anything unique to those authors: their words when you quote exactly and their ideas when you paraphrase.
IDENTIFYING YOUR BORROWED WORDS OR IDEAS
Every time you weave a borrowed idea into your paper you have two alternatives, depending on how you recorded this information originally. First, you can quote or paraphrase the borrowing. Second, you can rely on a parenthetical citation alone to identify the source of the borrowing, or you can name the source in the text of your paper.
Quoting a source directly means extracting a word, phrase, sentence, or passage and inserting it into your own paper. Quoted information should be enclosed within double quotation marks or, if lengthy, indented as a block quote. Quote only when the original words are especially powerful, clear, memorable, or authoritative. Otherwise, paraphrase.
WORKING WITH SOURCES 51
There are two minor changes you may make in a quotation, neither of which changes its meaning. These legitimate changes are illustrated in our own quotation from C. Wright Mills's The Sociological Imagination {[1959] 2000):
Every individual lives, from one generation to the next, in some society;. .. he [or she] lives out a biography, and ... he lives it out with some historical sequence. By the fact of Ms living he contributes, however minutely, to the shaping of his society and its history; even as he is made by society and by its historical push and shove. (P. 6)
First, notice that we omit some of Mills's sentence, again without changing the meaning, and we indicate this omission by a punctuation mark called an "ellipsis," three spaced dots. If the ellipsis points came at the end of the sentence, they would be preceded by a period—hence, four dots. Second, we are uneasy about Mills's use of "he" to refer to all humankind and want to make the language inclusive, so we add our own words "[or she]," inserting them within square brackets into Mills's quotation.
Another possible addition within square brackets is the Latin word sic, meaning "so," which you can use when you want to quote original words that contain an error.
Paraphrasing means condensing the author's meaning and translating a passage^ntcTyour own words. This is a perfectly acceptable practice and, in fact, an important skill to develop. Paraphrasing forces you to think through and actively understand what you have read. But if you use another's idea when writing, you must give that person credit with a citation, even if you are presenting the idea in your own words.
There are good and bad ways to paraphrase. Here is an original passage from Emile Durkheim's Suicide (1951), followed by examples of good and bad paraphrasing:
The term "suicide" is applied to all cases of death resulting directly or indirectly from a positive or negative act of the victim himself, which he knows will produce this result. . . . This definition excludes from our study everything related to the suicide of animals. Our knowledge of animal intelligence does not really allow us to attribute to them an understanding anticipatory
of their death nor, especially, of the means to accomplish it----If some dogs
refuse to take food on losing their masters, it is because the sadness into which they are thrown has automatically caused lack of hunger; death has resulted, but without having been foreseen. ... So the special characteristics of suicide as defined by us are lacking. (Pp. 44-45)
Following are two examples of bad paraphrasing. In the first, the writer has shifted words around in the sentences and replaced individual words by plugging in synonyms. The writer has not genuinely condensed or translated the author's meaning into her or his own words; this problem is usually compounded by a failure to cite the source (in this case, Dürkheim):
52 ESSENTIALS
When some pets stop eating because their owners have left, this is caused by the unhappiness into which they have fallen, which necessarily makes them lose their appetite: the final end that ensues, however, was not anticipated. Therefore, the unique features of suicide as described by our definition are missing.
In the second example, the writer has changed the order but kept the words the same. Again the writer has not condensed the passage or translated it into her or his own words; and, again, this problem is usually compounded by a failure to cite the source:
Lost masters cause their sad dogs, refusing food, to lack hunger. The dogs die, not foreseeing this result. What is lacking is our special characterization of suicide as we define it.
A good paraphrase boils down the original idea and puts it in your own words. Here is a good paraphrase:
Example
According to Durkheim (1951:44-45), animals, such as abandoned dogs who starve themselves, do not commit suicide because they do not understand the connection between death and the means of causing death.
Remember that even good paraphrasing requires citing the source of the borrowed idea being presented.
CITATIONS IN THE TEXT
Let's say that you are writing a paper on some aspect of suicide and that you want to use this insight from Durkheim. You have a choice of four legitimate ways of weaving it in. Study these four examples:
♦ Animals do not commit suicide (Durkheim 1951:44-45).
♦ Suicide necessarily involves knowledge of the consequences. "This definition excludes . . . everything related to the suicide of animals" (Durkheim 1951:44).
♦ According to Durkheim (1951:44-45) animals do not commit suicide, because committing suicide involves understanding the consequences.
> Durkheim (1951) argues that suicide involves knowledge of the consequences. In his words, "This definition excludes. . . everything related to the suicide of animals" (p. 44).
Note that the first two examples rely entirely on the citation within parentheses to identify the borrowed idea. The last two examples put some of that parenthetical information in the text of the paper itself, in what is called "a
WORKING WITH SOURCES 53
running air^owko^ment" (it "runs" in the paper, and it "acknowledges" the source).
When you paraphrase, all the information (name, date, and page number) goes inside one parenthesis at the end of the paraphrased idea, unless you name the author in a running acknowledgment, in which case the date and page number go inside one parenthesis immediately after you name the author.
When you quote, all the information (name, date, and page number) goes inside one parenthesis at the end of the quoted idea, unless you name the author in a running acknowledgment, in which case the date goes inside one parenthesis after the author's name and the page number goes inside another parenthesis at the end of the quotation.
When you use a running acknowledgment, don't always rely on "states,"
as in "Durkheim states that____" ("Feels" is even worse.) Instead, experiment
with some of these verbs and other similar examples: "argues," "contends," "maintains," "claims," "reports," "charges," "concludes." You can also use various phrases for a running acknowledgment; for example, "according to Durkheim" or (for a quotation) "in Durkheim's words."
How do you choose among these four citation options? Consider the reader. How important is it for the reader to know immediately, in an emphatic way, where the idea comes from? Is it the idea itself (as in the first two examples above) or is it the source (as in the last two examples above) that is most important?
FORMAT
The following format guidelines from the American Sociological Association (ASA), as published in the ASA Style Guide (2007), describe how you should cite borrowed information in your paper, whether paraphrased or quoted. (Your instructor may want you to use some other standardized format, such as the published guidelines of the American Psychological Association [APA] or of the Modem Language Association [MLA].)
In the ASA format, authors' names used in the text are followed by the publication date in parentheses. The page number follows the date; or in the case of a direct quotation, follows the quotation.
Example
Goffman (1981:180) disputes the notion that mentally ill patients are hospitalized primarily for treatment. Instead, he believes that they are institutionalized so that they can be controlled.
Example
Goffman (1981) claims that the goal of hospitalization "is not to cure the patient but to contain him in a niche in free society where he can be tolerated" (p. 180).
54
ESSENTIALS
WORKING WITH SOURCES
55
If you don't name the author in the text of your paper, enclose the last name, year, and, if appropriate, page number(s) within parentheses at the end of the borrowed thought:
Example
The treatment of the mentally ill in this country can give the impression that the goal of hospitalization "is not to cure the patient but to contain him in a niche in free society where he can be tolerated" (Goffman 1981.-180).
When you write a textual analysis (see Chapter 5), you might vise only one source—the book or essay that you are analyzing. In this case, you need to give the publication date only once—the first time the author's name is mentioned.
Example (first mention of author in textual analysis)
Dürkheim (1951) claims that suicide is not only an individual event but also a social phenomenon.
Example (after second mention of author in textual analysis)
Dürkheim describes the role of social factors in suicide.
Note that the page number of quotations, or of specific claims or evidence, should be indicated even after the first mention of the author.
Example
Dürkheim (p. 44) defines suicide in a way that leaves ail animal deaths out of his study.
Full publication information on the text you use for your analysis should be included in your list of References (discussed later in this chapter).
At times you may want to cite several authors who discuss a single idea. Then you will have a series of citations that should all be enclosed within parentheses. The way you should order them depends on which style system you are using. Some systems prefer date order; others prefer alphabetical order. Still others list authors in order of their contributions. According to the ASA Style Guide (2007), authors should be listed in alphabetical order by first author.
Example
Family researchers have discovered that within the first year of divorce, mothers and children undergo as much as a 30 percent decrease in family income, whereas men experience up to a 10 percent increase (Bianchi, Subaiya, and Kahn 1999; Kulik 2005; Manting and Bouman 2006).
For dual authorship, give both last names. For more than two authors, give all last names the first time you refer to the source; in subsequent citations to that source, use the first author followed by "et al." (But include all the authors' names in the References at the end of the paper.) For sources with four or more authors, use the first author followed by "et al." throughout.
Example
Employment opportunities that offer !ow salaries, provide no benefits (such as health insurance or pensions), have little to no job stability, and are not protected by unions or labor laws are considered of dubious benefit to workers (Ferber and Waldfogel 1996; Kalleberg et al. 1997; Mischel, Bernstein, and Schmitt 1999).
For authors with more than one publication in the same year, designate each work by adding an "a," "b," and so on to the year of publication, in the order mentioned in your paper.
Example
Individuals' subjective estimates of their life expectancy influence their morale (Mirowsky 1999a).
The impact of economic hardship on subjective life expectancy is moderated by the recency of the hardship (Mirowsky 1999b).
If the quotation is longer than five lines, present it in block-quotation form. Indent all lines five spaces from the left margin (leave the right margin as it is 1 throughout the text) and single-space. Quotation marks are unnecessary,
I since the indented left margin tells your reader that the material is quoted.
I The quotation from Dürkheim, discussed earlier in this chapter under "Iden-
tifying Your Borrowed Words or Ideas," is an example of a long quotation, i In rare cases, you may also use the block-quotation format when you
i want to emphasize especially important or interesting quoted material.
NOTES
j In some disciplines, sources are cited in footnotes (which appear at the bot-
I. torn of the paper's pages) or endnotes (which are grouped together at the end
' of the paper). In sociology, however, source citations are incorporated into
[ the text. Notes, if there are any, follow the text and relay information that
I may be of interest to the reader but is not directly relevant to the paper's the-
; sis. Avoid using notes as a way out of organizing your paper by making them
a "dump" for materials you are not sure how to integrate. Add notes sparingly, only to express a tangential comment that you feel you must make.
56
ESSENTIALS
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES
The text of your paper is followed by a list of the source materials you used in writing it. Some instructors prefer that you list ail materials you consulted in developing your paper, whether or not they are directly incorporated into your paper; in this case the list is entitled "Bibliography," Others prefer you to follow the format of most sociology journals, listing only those materials actually cited in your paper; in this case, the list is entitled "References." Check with your instructor to see which type of listing is preferred, but remember that in both cases you must list your sources for all borrowed ideas, whether they are directly quoted or paraphrased.
Listing sources you found online {as we tell you how to do in Part 2) presents special problems, because electronic databases are often updated frequently, making it impossible to locate your exact source later on. The ASA Style Guide (2007:76-80) provides several examples of the correct format for different kinds of online sources.
When you are compiling your Bibliography or References section, list all sources alphabetically by the author's last name. Under each author's name, list works according to the year of publication, beginning with the earliest date. Do not separate the list into sections for "articles," "books," or other sources; a single list is sufficient. In the examples that follow, note the order of the information and how it is punctuated, underlined (or italicized, which is equivalent to underlining), and abbreviated. When formatting this section, place the heading at the left-hand margin, type it in all capital letters, and triple-space between the heading and the first source listed.
When the source you have cited has more than one author, all authors' full names should be included, in the same order in which they appear on the book's title page or after the title of the article. Alphabetize under the first author's name. The first author should be listed last name first, and the other author(s) should be listed first name first.
If no author is named for a source, then list the information in alphabetical order according to the organization responsible for pubnshing it.
Examples of Sources with No Named Authors
Los Angeles Times. 2007. "Black Activists Search for a Constituency." February 13, p. Bl.
U.S. Department of Justice's Task Force on Intellectual Property. 2006. Progress Report of the Department of Justice's Task Force on Intellectual Property. Washington, DC: Department of Justice.
Use the following examples of various kinds of source materials as models for capitalization, spacing, indentation, and punctuation. For additional models, check the format of citations and reference entries in any issue of American Sociological Review. Here are some general tips.
1. Is the work a book whose entire main text is written or edited by the same author or authors? If so, note that in this format titles of books are underlined (or italicized) in the References or Bibliography list. If a book was first
WORKING WITH SOURCES
57
published many years ago, include the original publication date in brackets before the more recent date. For more than one book published in the same year by the author(s), identify each work by adding "a," "b," and so on to the year of publication.
Examples of Listings for Books
Dürkheim, EmiSe. [1897] 1997. Suicide. Translated by John A. Spaulding and
George Simpson. Glencoe, IL: Free Press. Elias, Norbert. [1939] 1978a. The Civilizing Process. Vol. I, A History of Maimers. Translated by Edmund Jephcott. New York: Urizen.
-, 1978b. What Is Sociology? Translated by Stephen Mennelland Grace
Morrissey. New York: Columbia University Press.
2006. Early Writings. Translated by Edmund Jephcott. Dublin: University
College Dublin Press. Fetchenhauer, Detlef, Andreas Flache, Abraham P. Buunk, and Siegwart
Lindenberg, eds. 2006. Solidarity and Prosodal Behavior: An Integration of
Sociological and Psychological Perspectives. New York: Springer. Seidler, Victor J. 2006. Transforming Masculinities: Men, Cultures, Bodies, Power, Sex
and Love. New York: Routlcdge. Vohs, Kathleen D. and Eli J. Finkel, eds, 2006. Self and Relationships: Connecting In-
trapersonal and Interpersonal Processes. New York: Guilford Press.
2. Is the work an article published in a journal! Give the volume number and the issue number of the journal in which the article appears, followed by a colon and page numbers to help your readers locate the article.
Examples of Listings for Journal Articles
Rosenfield, Sarah, Julie Phillips, and Helene White. 2006. "Gender, Race, and the Self in Mental Health and Crime." Social Problems 53(2):161-85.
Cheng, Simon and Brian Powell. 2007. "Under and Beyond Constraints: Resource Allocation to Young Children from Biracial Families." American Journal of Sociology 112(4): 1044-94.
3. Is the work found in an edited collection of articles or in an anthology? If
you are referring to a specific article in the collection, the citation goes under the name of the author of the article and includes the name of the anthology and the editor(s) within the reference.
Examples of Listings for Collections
Preissle, Judith. 2007. "Feminist Research Ethics." Pp. 515-32 in The Handbook of Feminist Research, edited by Sharlene Nagy Hesse-Biber. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Krause, Neal. 2006. "Social Relationships in Late Life." Pp. 182-98 in Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences. Vol. 6, edited by Robert H. Binstock and Linda K. George. San Diego: Academic Press.
4. Has the information been communicated during a class lecture?
Example of Listing for Lecture Notes
Lopez, David. 2007. Class lecture. July 21.
58 ESSENTIALS
5. Does the information come from an online source? Examples of Listings for Online Sources
Mansnerus, Laura. 2006. "Small Cities Hit Hard in Crime Report." New York Times,
June 15, 2006. Retrieved June 1 5, 2006 (http://www.nytimcs.com/2006/06/
15/nyregion/15crime.html?_r= 1 &oref=slogin). Moreno-Riafio, Gerson, Mark Caleb Smith, and Thomas Mach. 2006. "Religiosity,
Secularism, and Social Health. A Research Note." Journal of Religion and Society 8.
Retrieved June 15, 2006 (http://moses.creighton.edu/JRS/2006/2006-l.htm]). U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2002. "Questions and Answers for Census 2000 Data
on Race." PuMic Information Office. Retrieved June 4, 2006 (http://www.
census.gov/Press-Release/www/2001/raceqandas.html).
6. Does any information in your paper come from machine-readable data files (MRDFs)? If so, you must also identify the source of this kind of survey data. Note in the following example that you must describe it as an MRDF, arid identify its producer and distributor, author, date, title, and place of origin, as well as the organization responsible for it. The codebook accompanying a data file often contains an example of a bibliographical reference for it. Look for this example on the back of the codebook's title page.
Example of Listing for Machine-Readable Data Files (MRDFs)
American Institute of Public Opinion. 1976. Gallup Public Opinion Poll#965
[MRDF]. Princeton, NJ: American Institute of Public Opinion [producer]. New Haven, CT.: Roper Public Opinion Research Center, Yale University [distributor].
BIBLIOGRAPHIC SOFTWARE
Some writers prefer to use bibliographic software to simplify keeping track of sources, formatting them in papers, and preparing bibliographies. Packages such as Endnote and ProCite are available at college bookstores or through software vendors, while those such as RefWorks are subscribed to by some institutions, usually through their libraries. These packages enable you to create your own dataset of books and articles, which you can enter by hand or download titles from online sources, including many college or university library online catalogs. Often the same books or articles are used in different papers for different courses, so you can gradually build up a useful list, meaning that you don't have to start from scratch on each paper. When you are writing the paper itself, you can enter a code for a book or article, typically the author's last name and year of publication. For example, your paper might include a direct quotation from Hochschild's The Second Shift: "Even for the most exceptional women, the contradictions between work and family are very real" with the citation "(Hochschild 1990:263)." Often the format for entering sources is a slight variation of this. The bibliographic software interfaces with the word-processing software to read the citations from your paper and make the bibliography. When the paper is completed.
I WORKtNG WITH SOURCES 59
-f-
! the software can construct your bibliography according to whatever format
you select, alphabetize it, and place it at the end of your paper. If you have the appropriate information for each source, there is little worry about how • to handle different kinds of sources, such as anthologies, unpublished disser-
| tations, or Web sites. It does the hardest work for you. Such software does
1 require an investment of time to learn, especially at the beginning. But if
: you learn the basics and add books and articles as you go along, then the te-
v|" dious work of creating bibliographies, when you are often pressed for time
at the end, is greatly relieved.
i