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Journal of Consumer Culture
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DOI: 10.1177/1469540505049843
2005 5: 23Journal of Consumer Culture
Colin Campbell
society
The Craft Consumer : Culture, craft and consumption in a postmodern
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23
ARTICLE
The Craft Consumer
Culture, craft and consumption in a postmodern society
COLIN CAMPBELL
University of York
Abstract. This article proposes that social scientists should explicitly recognize the
existence of consumers who engage in ‘craft consumption’ and, hence, of an
additional image of the consumer to set alongside those of ‘the dupe’,‘the rational
hero’ and the ‘postmodern identity-seeker’. The term ‘craft’ is used to refer to
consumption activity in which the ‘product’ concerned is essentially both ‘made and
designed by the same person’ and to which the consumer typically brings skill,
knowledge, judgement and passion while being motivated by a desire for
self-expression. Such genuine craft consumption is then distinguished from such
closely associated practices as ‘personalization’ and ‘customization’ and identified as
typically encountered in such fields as interior decorating, gardening, cooking and the
selection of clothing ‘outfits’. Finally, after noting that craft consumers are more likely
to be people with both wealth and cultural capital, Kopytoff’s suggestion that
progressive commodification might prompt a ‘decommodifying reaction’ is taken as a
starting point for some speculations concerning the reasons for the recent rise of craft
consumption.
Key words
creativity ● customization ● decommodification ● personalization ● self-expression
INTRODUCTION
Two images of the consumer have long dominated the social science
literature on consumption. The one, central to economic theory, is that of
the consumer as an active,calculating and rational actor,someone who carefully
allocates scarce resources to the purchase of goods and services in such
Journal of Consumer Culture
Copyright © 2005 SAGE Publications
(London, Thousand Oaks, CA and New Delhi)
Vol 5(1): 23–42 1469-5405 [DOI: 10.1177/1469540505049843]
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a manner as to maximize the utility obtained. The other, most often
encountered in the writings of critics of ‘the mass society’, is that of the
passive, manipulated and exploited subject of market forces, someone who,
as a consequence, is largely ‘constrained’ to consume in the way that they
do. Don Slater has referred to these two images as ‘the hero’ and ‘the dupe’
(Slater, 1997a: 33). However, over recent decades, a third image has come
to the fore, largely as a consequence of the impact of postmodern philosophy
upon social thought.This represents the consumer as neither a rational
actor, nor as a helpless dupe, but rather as a self-conscious manipulator of
the symbolic meanings that are attached to products, someone who selects
goods with the specific intention of using them to create or maintain a
given impression, identity or lifestyle (Featherstone, 1991). Dominant
though these three images have been, they do not exhaust the manner in
which the consumer is represented in contemporary social science, nor
do they (either singly or in combination) appear to correspond all that
closely to the picture of consumer behaviour that research reveals.1 For,
increasingly, evidence has been mounting to suggest that a fourth image
may be a better guide to an understanding of consumption practice in
contemporary society, an image that could perhaps go by the name of ‘the
craft consumer’.
This model could be said to resemble that of Slater’s hero rather than
the dupe, since it rejects any suggestion that the contemporary consumer
is simply the helpless puppet of external forces. On the other hand, it does
not foreground rational self-interested conduct, nor does it presume, as is
the case with the postmodern model, that the consumer has an overwhelming
concern with image, lifestyle or identity. Rather, the assumption
here is that individuals consume principally out of a desire to engage in
creative acts of self-expression. Thus, although this model embodies the
presumption that consumers actively respond to commodities and services,
consciously employing these as a means to achieving their own ends, there
is no assumption that they are trying to create, or even necessarily to
maintain, a sense of identity.2 Rather, it is claimed that these consumers
already have a clear and stable sense of identity; indeed, that it is this that
gives rise to their distinctive mode of consuming.
SOCIAL THOUGHT AND THE CONCEPT OF CRAFT
The traditional (that is to say, the 19th- and early 20th-century) view of
craft’s relationship with culture is probably best expressed in the writings
of such social critics as Karl Marx and Thorstein Veblen. For these thinkers,
the form of labour that was undertaken by the craftsman or craftswoman
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was the most quintessential of all human activity. It was seen as ennobling,
humanizing and, hence, the ideal means through which individuals could
express their humanity. Thus it followed that the replacing of craft production
with factory-organized machine production, a process that constituted
the essence of the industrial revolution, was seen by these same thinkers as
necessarily a dehumanizing process and one that led, in Marxian terminology,to
the state of alienation. As a consequence of the widespread adoption
of this worldview, craft activity became the very symbol of the premodern
age, with the consequence that to argue for the virtues of this mode of
production was tantamount to opposing modernity itself. Consequently,
present-day advocates of craftwork have tended to be labelled romantics,
uneasy with the modern world and either yearning for a return to an earlier
preindustrial age or nurturing unrealistic dreams of future postindustrial
utopias. Now it is clear that this particular way of viewing craft activity is
still current in society today, such that the assumption of a basic dichotomy
between craft and machine (or mass) production still underpins much
contemporary thought. The artist craftsman (or craftswoman) is still set
against a division of labour that involves the separation of design and
manufacture – a dichotomy that carries with it the implied, if not explicit,
contrast between inalienable, humane, authentic and creative work, on the
one hand, and purely mechanical, unfulfilling and alienating labour, on the
other.
Those writers who first formulated this essentially Manichean view of
the nature of work largely disregarded the sphere of consumption. The
societies they were concerned to understand were, as far as they could see,
manifestly dominated by the activity of production, while consumption, in
societies where the majority of the population were ill-nourished in
addition to being poorly clothed and housed, did not appear to be an issue
that warranted much investigation. When, however, in the years following
the Second World War, social scientists did begin to give more attention to
the arena of consumption,there was a tendency to carry over this predominantly
anti-modern romantic worldview and apply it to the other side of
the economic equation. The assumption tended to be that if large-scale
factory-based machine production was an essentially alienating experience
for those involved, then it would seem to follow that the consumption of
commodities produced in this way must be similarly alienating. Or, if the
activity of consumption could not itself be judged to actually add to
productive alienation, then at the least it could not serve to dispel or
counteract it in any way. Hence, consumption in modern societies,
generally labelled ‘mass consumption’, came to be seen, at least by
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intellectuals and leftwing social scientists, as a ‘bad thing’, while consumers
were generally portrayed as being at the mercy of the advertisers and
marketers, who were able, by exploiting the mass media, to manipulate
them for their own ends. Thus, consumers were largely portrayed as dupes,
conned into buying quantities of aesthetically uninspiring standardized
products,many of which they did not actually need and few of which were
capable of bringing any real or lasting satisfaction (Slater, 1997a: 63).
However, the past few decades have witnessed the gradual development of
a rather different interpretation of the role of consumption in late modern
capitalist societies, one in which this association of consuming with the
stifling of authentic modes of self-expression has effectively been turned
on its head.
THE REJECTION OF THE CONSUMER AS DUPE
The first shift in thinking that signified a move in this direction came with
the development of a programme of work, most of it undertaken in the
1960s and 1970s, into youth subcultures. This work tended to highlight the
extent to which the youthful members of these groups did not simply use
mass-market products uncritically, but rather employed them in ways that
signified their defiance of,or resistance to,the‘dominant ideology’(see Hall
and Jefferson, 1976). Then, in the second half of the 1980s, as the
sociology of consumption emerged as a distinct field of study for the first
time, came the suggestion that consumers were doing more than simply
resisting the pressures of the advertisers and marketers. For, as Daniel Miller
argues in Material Culture and Mass Consumption (1987), contemporary
consumption could be regarded as possessing ‘dealienating’ potential. His
claim is that consumption ought to be seen as a process in which a general,
abstract and alien object (a commodity) could become transformed into
something that is its very opposite. He writes that: ‘consumption as work
may be defined as that which translates the object from an alienable
condition; that is, from being a symbol of estrangement and price value, to
being an artefact invested with particular inseparable connotations’ (1987:
190).What Miller suggests transforms the object is not simply the process of
taking possession of it, but its incorporation into a total stylistic array, such
as a ritual gift or memorabilia. Such a process he refers to as involving the
recontextualization of the commodity in such a way that goods are
‘transmuted’into‘potentially inalienable culture’(1987: 215).3 Miller’s focus
is on consumption as ‘cultural practice’, with a consequent emphasis on the
manner in which the meaning of a product could be transformed by the
context and manner of its use. Hence, such activities as collecting, gifting
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or stylizing could be seen as effectively ‘negating’ the product’s status as a
commodity (1987: 192). Although Miller does not refer to this form of
consumption as craftwork (he does refer to it as ‘work’), let alone as ‘craft
consumption’, it would seem that such a term can appropriately be applied
to the activity of consumption as he envisages it. Hence, it will be his
perceptive insight that is taken as the starting point for the argument to be
developed here. This is that much of the consumption that individuals
undertake in contemporary western societies should be conceived of as
craft activity; that is, as activity in which individuals not merely exercise
control over the consumption process, but also bring skill, knowledge,
judgement, love and passion to their consuming in much the same way that
it has always been assumed that traditional craftsmen and craftswomen
approach their work.
WHAT IS CRAFT CONSUMPTION?
The verb to craft means to ‘make or fashion with skill, especially by hand’
(Hanks, 1979), while the kind of activities that have commonly been
regarded as warranting the label ‘craft’ would include weaving, handblock
printing, embroidery, silversmithing, jewellery working, bookbinding,
furniture making, and so on. Tanya Harrod (1995) defines craft as ‘made
and designed by the same person’, which is a definition that would seem
to fit the activities listed above, although she adds that this definition also
applies to the fine arts,such as painting or sculpture,such that the boundary
between these two spheres is hard to identify. The crucial feature of this
definition, however, is the emphasis placed on the fact that the craft
producer is someone who exercises personal control over all the processes
involved in the manufacture of the good in question. Hence, the craft
worker is someone who chooses the design for the product, selects the
materials needed and generally personally makes (or at least directly supervises
the making of) the object in question. Thus, one may say that the craft
producer is one who invests his or her personality or self into the object
produced. And it is, of course, on these grounds that this form of work
activity has traditionally been regarded as expressive of the more humane,
creative and authentic aspects of human nature. It follows that the term
‘craft consumption’ is similarly used to refer to activities in which individuals
both design and make the products that they themselves consume.
However, it is important to stress that the term ‘product’ is being used here
(in keeping with Miller’s use of the phrase ‘stylistic array’ above) to refer to
a creation that may itself consist of several items that are themselves massproduced
retail commodities. That is to say, the craft consumer is a person
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who typically takes any number of mass-produced products and employs
these as the ‘raw materials’ for the creation of a new ‘product’, one that is
typically intended for self-consumption. Thus, if we make the parallel
with craft production, we could say that the craft consumer is someone
who transforms ‘commodities’ into personalized (or, one might say,
‘humanized’) objects. And it is because such consumption is usually
characterized by a marked element of skill and mastery, while also allowing
for creativity and self-expression, that it is justified in being described as
‘craft consumption’.
Now, the term ‘craft’ is actually a shortened version of the word
‘handicraft’, a term that immediately draws attention to the contrast
between the traditional worker, who produces objects ‘by hand’, and the
modern factory worker, who produces them with the aid of a machine. It
is,of course,the very prevalence and dominance of the machine in contemporary
society that are the principal reasons why the term‘craft’would seem
such an inappropriate one to apply to any aspect of modern life. However,
it would be wrong to equate‘handicraft’activity with the complete absence
of machines, for such traditional crafts as pottery and weaving clearly
involve the use of ‘machines’ (that is, the potter’s wheel and the loom).
Hence, it is less the absence of machines that distinguishes handicraft from
more modern forms of manufacture, but rather the fact that the former
tend to be powered ‘by hand’ (or more accurately ‘by foot’) and, of greater
significance, are directly under the worker’s control. Indeed, it is really this
latter point that is most critical, since it is the factory system, with its
associated forms of discipline and control (such as the assembly line), that
constitutes the real contrast with handicraft production. Hence,the contrast
is not really between hand production and machine production, but rather
between a production system in which the worker is in control of the
machine and one in which the machine is in control of the worker.Viewed
in this light, it is possible to see how one of the intriguing features of
modern consumer society is the way in which machines have become
reappropriated by the craft tradition, aiding and abetting craft consumers
rather than robbing them of their traditional autonomy. Thus, the power
tool has become the crucial aid of all DIY enthusiasts, the electric mixer
of amateur chefs and the electric hedgetrimmer and lawnmower of
enthusiastic gardeners. What is significant about all these examples is the
fact that the human is in charge of the machine and not the machine of
the human. Although this is an obvious feature of the modern process
through which household tasks have increasingly been ‘mechanized’, its
potential importance for self-development and self-expression has tended
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to be overlooked in favour of a stress upon its role in reducing the ‘burden’
of household ‘drudgery’.
APPROPRIATING, PERSONALIZING AND CUSTOMIZING
To talk of the craft of consuming is not, in the first instance, to refer to
those processes through which individuals first select and then purchase
products and services. One could perhaps refer to those people who devote
a great deal of time, effort and intelligence to discovering ‘the best buy’ or
to ensuring that they obtain‘value for money’as crafty consumers,but these
activities are not what is under discussion here. Rather, the concern is with
what individuals actually do with the products that they buy once they get
them home. Now, this has only begun to be a topic of serious sociological
investigation in recent years. However, one thing that has been established
is that consumers commonly engage in what have been called ‘possession
rituals’ (McCracken, 1990: 85ff.); that is, activities that fulfil the important
function of enabling consumers to ‘take ownership’ of the goods in
question. A housewarming party can be regarded as just such a possession
ritual, as too can the common practice of trying on the new clothes that
have just been brought back from the shops (even though this is not the
occasion upon which the consumer intends to wear them). These rituals
help in the process of overcoming the inherently alien nature of massproduced
products and of assimilating them into the consumer’s own world
of meaning. This is a function that is then reinforced by what have been
called ‘grooming rituals’. These would involve such activities as washing
and cleaning one’s car, polishing one’s furniture and, of course, washing and
ironing one’s clothes – all of which serve the same important function of
helping consumers to appropriate standardized or mass-produced
commodities to their own individual world of meaning.4 However, not all
the activities that individuals engage in once they have acquired a good
could be said to come into the category of engaging in the ‘craft’ of
consuming. Indeed, there are important distinctions that need to be made
between such activities as those of ‘personalizing’ or ‘customizing’ products
and that of real craft consumption.
PERSONALIZATION
One conventional means through which consumers could be said to
achieve ‘the appropriation effect’ is through the process of ‘personalizing’
standardized products. Here, mass-produced products are ‘marked’, either
by the retailer or the individual consumer, so as to indicate that they are
the singular possession of a specific individual. Adding one’s name or initials
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to a product such as a watch, pen or briefcase, for example, is a practice that
has long been established in the array of services offered by retailers.Viewed
from a purely instrumental standpoint, this practice could be considered to
amount to little more than a device for ensuring that the objects in question
remain in the possession of their owners, as in the case of the name tags
sewn into children’s clothes when they commence school. However, it is
also clear that in very many cases, the addition of the owner’s name or
initials to a product is an important possession ritual in its own right and,
hence, a direct indication that some subjective ‘appropriation’ of the item
in question has occurred. Of course, in some cases, as in that especially
brash and self-assertive version of the name tag that is the personalized car
registration plate, the possession ritual involved can also be seen as having
the added advantage (from the consumer’s viewpoint) of enabling the
owner to engage in conspicuous consumption. However, it is clear that
these examples cannot be seen as true instances of craft consumption, if
only because no significant modification to the nature of what is still a
standardized product has been undertaken. Rather, it would appear to be
more appropriate to regard such activities as ones that simply result in
commodities being ‘personalized’.
CUSTOMIZATION
Activities that approximate more closely to what one might consider cases
of craft consumption would be those where consumers ‘tailor’ products so
that they are better adapted to meet their needs. Taking up the hem of a
dress or taking in the waistband of a pair of trousers are both examples of
modifications of ‘off the peg’ items of clothing that might seem to justify
this designation. However, these are the kinds of services that are increasingly
offered by retailers themselves, so it is important to distinguish
between such activity when undertaken by the retailer and what, by
contrast, could be called genuine self-alteration. Even here, however,
although consumers may be required to exercise some element of skill, it
is still not the case that the activities engaged in result in any significant
modification to the basic design of the product. In that sense, ‘selfcustomization’
is still not necessarily equivalent to the kind of creative
action implied by the term craft consumer, as defined above, for it is the
element of design modification that is such a crucial feature of any
consumer activity that deserves to be labelled a craft and, even then, only
if undertaken by consumers themselves. Of course, it has long been the
case that consumers, if they possessed the resources, could purchase a
‘customizing service’ from either producers or retailers; that is, a service in
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which products were specifically designed and manufactured to meet an
individual’s tastes and preferences. The aristocracies of most countries have
long been able to ensure that the majority of their goods came into this
category, while, today, even the middle classes can often afford to have
certain critical purchases personally designed and made in this way, the
prime examples being the architect designed house and the bespoke suit.
Even here, however, although the customer may express clear preferences
concerning the design of the products in question (as well perhaps as the
materials to be used in their ‘construction’), it is still the case that they are
made by others and not by the consumers themselves. Hence,if one adheres
strictly to the definition of craft activity as one in which objects are ‘made
and designed by the same person’, then this kind of customizing would still
not count. Craft consuming clearly refers to more than either the simple
personalization or customization of products; that is, it has to signify more
than simply having a product marked with one’s name or initials or even
employing a specialist to design a product especially for one. For consumption
activity to warrant being described as a craft, then the consumer must
be directly involved in both the design and the production of that which
is to be consumed.
SUBVERSIVE CUSTOMIZATION
There is another sense in which manufactured products could be said to
have been ‘customized’ and this is when they are employed in a manner
other than that intended by the manufacturers. Of course, many different
motives could prompt individuals to use products in an unusual or unanticipated
fashion and not all of these ‘adaptations’ could be viewed as
stemming from a desire for self-expression or creativity. In many cases, this
may simply represent a mistake on the part of the consumer or a response
to unusual circumstances. On the other hand, consumers may simply have
more ingenuity and creativity than manufacturers and retailers may credit
them with.5 One particularly interesting example of such customization is
the adaptation or employment of standardized products in ways other than
those intended by the manufacturers, such that they serve as marks or
‘badges’ of subcultural membership. An obvious example of this practice
would be the wearing of baseball caps the ‘wrong way round’. Clearly, a
modification of this kind can hardly be said to represent an example of
individual creativity, although its initiation and adoption by a group might
be considered examples of ‘subversive customization’. Other classic
examples of this practice would be the defiant modification of the norms
of dress that are supposed to apply to uniforms, which are typical of
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‘rebellious’ schoolchildren. Practices such as wearing socks rolled down
instead of pulled up,shirts hanging out instead of being tucked in,ties worn
loosely rather than tightly around the neck, and so on.
Such examples serve to illustrate that advertisers and retailers are not
the only forces influencing the manner in which consumers choose to make
use of goods – not that this trend is especially new. Members of youth
subcultures, for example (as the reference to baseball caps suggests), have
been inclined to act as subversive consumers in this way for some time. The
so-called teddy boys of the 1950s, for example, actually asked tailors to
make up suits to their own Edwardian designs, ignoring the professional
advice that the tailors themselves offered concerning what was considered
aesthetically acceptable in men’s wear. The unique garb that distinguished
such groups as the hippies and the punks was also first introduced not by
fashion designers, but by young people themselves. In each of these
instances, the wearers largely designed their clothes – something that is still
true today and is manifest in the well-known phenomenon of ‘street
fashion’. What is perhaps new is the tendency for a broad swathe of
consumers – consumers who are not art students or members of any youth
group – to also begin to want to act in this way; that is, to take a degree
of personal control over the nature and design of the clothes they wear
and,indeed,over a wide range of the products that they routinely consume.
This would appear to stem from a desire to imprint their own personality,
via a statement about their taste, on the product itself. Thus, there is
evidence to suggest that female consumers, in particular, increasingly want
to customize their own clothes, as in the example of the shopper who sets
about changing the handle on her recently purchased (expensive) Gucci
handbag (Craik, 2000). Other similar examples that were cited in the same
article involved the shortening of just one arm of a brand new dress,adding
lace trim to a skirt or making rips or tears in a new pair of jeans. Such
‘modifications’ to items of apparel that have been carefully and deliberately
designed to look as they do clearly reveal the existence of a powerful desire
to personalize consumer goods.6 What is especially interesting about these
examples is that they can be seen as actions that aim to recover that
‘singularity’ or ‘uniqueness’ that has traditionally been the hallmark of the
handcrafted object. Thus, consumers can be said to engage in these actions
in order that the commodity in question not only ‘becomes theirs’, but also
becomes marked off from its numerous manufactured identical twins. For
the majority of people who cannot afford an haute couture original, uniqueness
is therefore achieved through the work undertaken by the consumer
once the apparently finished object is in their possession.
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CRAFT CONSUMPTION AS ENSEMBLE ACTIVITY
However, customizing individual commodities is not typical of most
contemporary craft consumption. This is far more likely to take the form
of the creation of new ‘ensemble-style products’ out of the raw materials
of finished commodities than the direct modification of the latter, as can
be seen if we turn to consider the most obvious and important areas of
consumer activity in contemporary society where a craft dimension clearly
exists.These can be identified as the worlds of DIY and home modification
and improvement, together with gardening, cooking and the building and
maintaining of a ‘wardrobe’ of clothing ‘outfits’. What is significant about
these forms of consumption is that it is possible to buy a finished or ‘off
the shelf’product in each case or,alternatively,to pay experts both to design
and supervise the ‘manufacture’ of the end product. However, it would
appear that increasing numbers of people are rejecting these options and
choosing instead to ‘craft’ such products for themselves; that is, they are
deciding to both design and make the end result. The very popularity of
television programmes that feature food and cooking or the redesign and
redecoration of household interiors or gardens, together with the many
associated magazines and books, supports the suggestion that there exists a
large population of consumers who want to be successful in creating their
own aesthetically significant end products.7
The preparation of food is a good case in point. In one sense,of course,
this is a production activity as much as (or, indeed, rather than) a consumption
one. However, when not undertaken as paid labour and by those who
also intend to eat the end product, such a distinction is difficult to make.
It is clear, however, that more and more consumers are prepared to engage
in the considerable effort necessary not merely to select the ingredients, but
also to undertake the subsequent (often complex) preparation, cooking and
presentation necessary to deliver that set of culturally prestigious culinary
dishes that comprises the entity called ‘a meal’ – food that, even if it is not
always intended merely for self-consumption, is usually not intended for
sale in the marketplace. There would seem to be little doubt that it is
reasonable to call this a craft activity. After all, the end product is made or
fashioned with skill and by hand and even if ‘the basic design’ may be taken
from elsewhere (i.e. a recipe book), some improvisation frequently occurs.
It is also an instance wherein skill and knowledge may enter into the choice
of the ‘raw materials’ (i.e. the ingredients) and where there is ample room
for creativity. At the same time, there exists an easy and readily available
alternative consumption strategy, one that avoids the craft route, given that
there are both a wide range of ready meals on the market as well as
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innumerable restaurants and takeaway outlets. However, what is crucial to
note about much of this ‘craft consumption’ (even if it is sometimes less
apparent in cooking than in areas such as interior decoration, personal
dressing or gardening) is that it does not normally involve the physical
‘creation’ of a product. Rather, what is actually ‘created’ is an ‘ensemble’ or
a ‘putting together’ of products, each of which may itself be a standardized
or mass-produced item. Indeed, it is this kind of ‘ensemble creativity’ that
is so typical of the modern craft consumer, being apparent, for example, in
the way that individuals choose to coordinate the clothes that comprise an
‘outfit’ or in the manner in which they arrange furniture and decorative
items to create a given ‘style’ in a room or in their home as a whole.
COLLECTING AS CRAFT CONSUMPTION
However, recognizing that much contemporary craft consumption takes
the form of the construction of assemblages serves to draw attention to
collecting, which, because it focuses exclusively on this particular activity,
helps to highlight certain distinctive features of modern craft consumption.
Collecting as an activity has been defined as ‘the process of actively,
selectively, and passionately acquiring and possessing, things removed from
ordinary use and perceived as part of a set of non-identical objects or
experiences’ (Belk, 1995: 67). It is clear from this definition that collecting,
with its emphasis on an active orientation and passionate involvement, is
itself a form of craft consumption, with ‘the collection’ as the ‘handmade’
end result. It is also clear that this process not only requires skill and knowledge,
but is essentially creative in nature. For collectors actively recontextualize
individual products, situating them in a larger creation called ‘the
collection’ and thereby giving them a new meaning and significance. This
is a process that not only involves possession and grooming rituals, but also
the considerable investment of the ‘self’ of the collector consumer in this
new creation. As such, it bears comparison with the creative activity of the
DIY, gardening or cookery enthusiast, although, in this instance, the
individual manufactured products purchased in the marketplace (not all
collections are of saleable products, of course) are not, when considered as
discrete entities, modified in any way. Here, too, we may note that collecting
is another widespread and fast growing feature of contemporary
consumer societies.These comments also serve to draw attention to a further
distinctive feature of craft consumption, which is that it has a crucial
autotelic or aesthetic dimension and, as such, has a fundamental resemblance
to ‘play’. For, as Bjarne Rogan observes, collecting is ‘much more than a
matter of distinction and social emulation. It is also fun and play’ (1998: 44).
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FROM CUSTOMIZING TO CRAFT CONSUMPTION
Although there are several paths that individual consumers could take that
might lead them to engage in craft-like activities, the most obvious is as a
‘natural’ development out of normal grooming or possession rituals. Thus,
if the act of redecorating a room involves changing the colour from what
it was when it was first occupied, then the activity in question could be
said to approximate to the process of ‘customizing’;8 that is, to changing
the product in some fashion to meet an individual’s particular needs, tastes
or desires. This could then, in turn, spark a more lasting interest in interior
decoration, one that leads to the acquisition of specialized knowledge and
skills, such that the simple act of customizing has turned into the more
long-term programme that is‘craft consumption’. But,then,a concern with
grooming and possession rituals may also be one symptom of a pre-existing
‘hobby’ or ‘leisure time pursuit’ that is itself built around a mass-produced
commodity and, hence, it is this interest that leads directly to customizing
activity and, thence, genuine craft consumption.9
CRAFT CONSUMPTION AND THE LARGER CULTURE
It is not intended to suggest that the majority of consumers in contemporary
western societies are craft consumers. All that is being claimed is
that a significant and growing section of modern consumers falls into this
category. Clearly, as noted above, the non-craft option not only continues
to exist, but is also the form of consumption chosen by many. Thus, it is
still the case that a sizeable number of modern consumers never garden or
redecorate or physically modify their living quarters in any way or even
spend much time choosing clothes or preparing meals. And, for many of
these people, such non-craft consumption is forced on them by the
impoverishment of their way of life. Thus, they may lack either the money
and/or the time to craft a meal, while perhaps they simply do not have a
garden or live in rented accommodation. On the other hand, there are also
a number of affluent owner occupiers who,although they do indeed possess
the resources (including the time) to engage in craft consumption, choose
not to do so and, in so doing, continue to conform to the stereotype of
the modern mass consumer. Of course, it is not simply the absence of
sufficient time or wealth that prevents many consumers from taking the
craft option, for, as Bourdieu observes, one also needs a certain amount of
‘cultural capital’in order to be in a position to reappropriate mass-produced
products in such a way that they express a person’s individuality or serve as
a means to self-fulfilment. More specifically, one can say that a certain kind
of cultural capital is needed in order to envisage commodities as ‘raw
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materials’ that can be employed in the construction of composite ‘aesthetic
entities’ and also to know what principles and values are relevant to the
achievement of these larger constructions. In fact,craft consumers are likely
to be people who do not merely possess just such cultural capital, but are
also more concerned than most about the possible ‘alienating’ and
homogenizing effects of mass consumption – something that helps to
account for their enthusiasm for the craft option, since they are likely to
view this as the appropriate way of successfully resisting such pressures (see
Holt, 1997).
However, this does not mean that members of the poorer ranks of
modern societies (poor, that is, in either the conventional and/or cultural
sense of the term) are necessarily excluded altogether from undertaking
craft consumption, for not all activities of this kind require considerable
capital or expenditure, nor are all sections of the less well off without
sufficient leisure time. In addition, the requisite cultural capital is often
relatively easy to obtain, often via the media outlets mentioned above.
Finally, it is important to note that for some aspects of craft consumption,
this capital may indeed be populist rather than elitist in nature. This is
because, when judged in relation to the overall complex cultural system of
modern societies, craft activity could be said to exist at the intersection of
genuine popular folk knowledge with fashion and high art; that is, on one
side,there is a body of personally acquired practical‘know how’of the kind
that is often passed down through families or transmitted from practitioner
to practitioner by word of mouth. Examples would include granny’s recipe
for Yorkshire pudding or ginger cake or the allotment’s longest serving
resident’s secrets concerning how to grow prize leeks. On the other side,
one finds those artists and designers whose innovative activity tends to
establish the current fashion or style,whether it be for bathrooms,furniture,
garden plants or ways of serving food. The point at which these two
influences intersect could be said to represent the ‘cultural middle ground’
most commonly occupied by the craft consumer.
WHY DOES THERE APPEAR TO BE A GROWTH IN CRAFT CONSUMPTION?
Igor Kopytoff suggests that not merely is ‘There . . . clearly a yearning for
singularization in complex societies’ (1986: 80), but that this process should
not be seen as existing in simple opposition to commodification. Rather,
he suggests that the two should be seen as existing in a kind of dialectical
relationship, such that the progressive strengthening of the one serves not
so much to eliminate the other, but rather to stimulate an equal and
opposite reaction. The basis for this claim is that each is essential if an
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‘orderly and meaningful social order is to exist’ (1986: 80). This is an
intriguing suggestion and offers a possible explanation for the rise of craft
consumption in societies in which commodification clearly continues
apace. For, not only is this latter process repeatedly ‘contested’ (sometimes
with considerable success;see Radin,1996),but it is more than possible that
its intensification prompts individuals to seek new and more effective ways
to combat its effects;that is,more ways of ‘making things precious’,‘special’,
‘singularly meaningful’ or ‘beyond price’. While it is obvious that this
cannot easily be achieved simply by ‘turning one’s back’ on commercial
society or by refusing to be involved in ‘the world of goods’, the more
realistic strategy is to ‘embrace’ the world of commodities and to use one’s
own cultural and personal resources to transform these into ‘singularities’.
Certainly, it is possible to see how the growth of craft consumption in
contemporary western societies might represent such a reaction to progressive
commodification. For it is possible that, as more and more aspects of
modern life become subject to this economic imperative,so more and more
individuals might come to experience the need to escape from, or even
counteract,this process.That is to say,they might come to desire some small
corner of their everyday existence to be a place where objects and activities
possess significance because they are regarded as unique, singular or even
sacred. Seen in this light, the arena of craft consumption could become
highly valued because it is regarded as an oasis of personal self-expression
and authenticity in what is an ever-widening ‘desert’ of commodification
and marketization.
Of course, to suggest this is not to deny that the growth of craft
consumption is not at the same time entirely functional for the continued
expansion of consumer capitalism or that, ironically, it might not actually
serve to provide yet further opportunities for commodification. For, as we
have already seen, such craft activities do themselves generate an increased
demand for a wide range of consumer goods and services from paint to
specialized cooking implements, from recipe books to new species of
plants. At the same time, it could be argued that such activity, like all
leisure pursuits and hobbies, also functions as ‘recreation’ in the sense that
it enables individuals to recover their faculties and energies so that they
are once again ‘fit’ to fulfil their productive roles (see Slater, 1997a: 2).
However, it could be that craft consumption possesses a somewhat different
relationship to the world of work, one that also helps explain its rise to
prominence.
For what is also clear is that it is largely middle-class and professional
people who have embraced craft consumption so enthusiastically, just those
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groups who, in recent years, have experienced not merely deprofessionalization,
but also increased bureaucratization, external monitoring and
formal performance assessment. Could it be that, as a result, these people
are increasingly retreating into a privatized world of self-expression as a
direct consequence of the decreasing opportunities for independent
creative and expressive activity available in their occupational roles? For
these are just the people whose work has traditionally had many of the
attributes of a ‘vocation’, which is to say that it has not merely been viewed
as a ‘life task’, but also that it has been regarded as offering both a clear
sense of identity and profound personal satisfaction. However, as their
occupations have progressively lost their professional character – largely as
a consequence of government intervention – then this might explain their
tendency to seek in the private sphere just those satisfactions that they find
are no longer available to them in the public one. In this respect, it could
be claimed that deprofessionalization is doing to the middle classes exactly
what Hoggart (1957) claimed industrialization did to the working classes,
which was to divert the creative human energies that were formerly
expressed in the world of work into the world of leisure.
But then, perhaps, rather more cynically, one might argue that the
growth of craft consumption is merely evidence of how the middle and
upper middle classes have succeeded in adapting a postmodern consumer
society so that they can continue to give expression to their traditional sense
of cultural superiority. Thus, instead of merely bemoaning ‘the crass
materialism and acquisitiveness’ of rampant consumerism (something
which, in their eyes, has become all too pervasive, largely as a consequence
of the uninhibited greed and hedonism of their social inferiors) or alternatively
attempting to escape the worst effects of a materialist and consumerist
society by downsizing or joining the simple living movement, they have
co-opted and adapted consumerism in such a way that it can give
expression to their own distinctive cultural values and traditions. Essentially
this involves aestheticizing and ethicizing (if not also spiritualizing) this
world. For, as long as consumption was seen as an arena in which the
dubious motives of greed, envy and status striving prevailed, then it was
also necessarily anathema to people with a strong moral and ethical cultural
heritage. However, if it could be redrawn as a sphere in which considerations
of taste, beauty, authenticity and personal expressiveness were
dominant, then it could indeed become assimilated to this very tradition.
Viewed in this way, the craft consumption/commodity consumption
distinction does not so much represent a new social cleavage as constitute
an old one in a new form.
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CONCLUSION
Assumptions deriving from 19th- and early 20th-century writing in the
social sciences have long structured thought about production and
consumption in modern industrial societies. Significant among these has
been that dichotomous mode of conceptualizing the creation of goods and
commodities that is conventionally expressed as the contrast between craft
and non-craft or industrial production. This contrast is typically envisaged
not simply as a division between two different modes of production, but
as two fundamentally contrasting ways in which human beings relate to the
object world, ways that are diametrically opposed in their effects on those
involved. Thus, while craftwork is seen as humane and liberating, enabling
individuals to engage in authentic, expressive and creative activity, factorybased
and automated machine production is considered to have the
opposite effect, not simply eliminating this possibility, but also creating a
class of alienated workers. It is this model that has, by extension, frequently
been carried over into the realm of consumption. Thus, while the
consumption of craft objects is seen as a sign of a healthy educated discernment
and ‘good taste’, the consumption of mass-manufactured goods is
commonly regarded as both a symptom of, and a further contribution to,
a general state of ‘alienation’. What is suggested here is that this picture
should be radically modified to recognize that just as there are two contrasting
modes of production,so there are also two different modes of consumption.
These do not correspond, however, in any simple manner to
consumption of different kinds of goods (craft consumption is not in that
sense to be equated with the consumption of craft goods), but rather to
contrasting ways of relating to commodities. Just as craft production is
significant less for how the good is actually manufactured than for the
opportunity it offers for human self-expression and creativity, so too is craft
consumption important because of the opportunity it presents for the
manifestation of similar valued human qualities. For, consumption, just like
work or ‘productive activity’ generally, can be experienced as nothing more
than ‘a chore’, a mere necessity. On the other hand, it can also be the most
significant part of a person’s inner life or, to use C. Wright Mills’s words,
‘an exuberant expression of self . . . the development of man’s universal
nature’ (1951: 215). Such a mode of consumption does not merely exist in
contemporary consumer society, but is actually flourishing and can be seen
as part of the widespread aestheticization of everyday life and the fact that
consumption imperatives rather than production ones now tend to mould
contemporary culture. What is more, it is increasingly the consumption
needs of those with disposable income and ample leisure time that dictate
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the nature of the commodity world and the way that these products are
marketed and used. And it is clear that many of these people want to be
able to use products in more and more expressive and creative ways; that
is, they want to be able to ‘realize their potential’ and ‘express their true
selves’ by means of consumer ‘props’. They desire, in effect, to become craft
consumers, and if it is assumed that this trend is set to continue into the
near future, then the prospect exists of a postmodern society in which craft
consumption is not merely the dominant form of consumption, but also
the principal mode of individual self-expression.
Notes
1. In fact, Gabriel and Lang (1995) propose a far more complex set of images of the
consumer. These three are, however, those that one most commonly encounters in
the literature.
2. This is not to deny that consumption activity may relate to issues of identity. It is
merely to reject the prevalent postmodern assumption that consuming is motivated
by a desire to create identity (see Campbell, 2004).
3. Danny Miller is here recovering the Hegelian concept of ‘sublation’ or
reabsorption (Miller, 1987: 12, 28); see also Tim Dant’s discussion (1999: 32–4).
4. Individuals also engage in ‘divestment rituals’, such as ‘divestment grooming’,
which involves such activities as cleaning, repairing and decorating items that one
intends to sell (see McCracken, 1990: 83–7).
5. Of course, disjunctions between the advertised use of products and their actual use
may simply stem from the advertising strategies employed by the manufacturers
themselves. Thus, the manufacturers of computers may advertise their value as
educational aids simply in order to persuade parents to buy them for their children.
The latter, however, then use them to play computer games, something that the
manufacturers had in fact anticipated (Silverstone, 1994).
6. The subheading to the Guardian article from which these examples are taken states,
‘You’ve Bought it, Now Make it Yours. Fashion Editor Laura Craik Explains How
to Customise Your Clothes’ (Craik, 2000).
7. It is recognized that much of the appeal of such programmes also lies in their
entertainment value and that people might watch them simply for fun rather than
for instruction. However, it is also important to note that television is an especially
important medium for the transmission of this kind of cultural capital because
much of the knowledge needed is discursive in character and, hence, aspiring
practitioners need to be shown rather than told how to do it.
8. This would appear to be equivalent to what Dale Southerton refers to as ‘personal
improvisation’ (2001: 165).
9. The distinction between undertaking craft consumption and simply engaging in a
‘hobby’ is clearly not an easy one to make. If a hobby is defined as an activity that
is pursued in one’s spare time for pleasure or relaxation, then this would clearly also
be true of craft consumption. However, the term ‘hobby’ does not necessarily carry
the added suggestion that the individual concerned has developed any special
expertise or knowledge. Nor does the term ‘hobby’ necessarily imply that the
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individual displays the passion and commitment that has here been suggested marks
the craft consumer. See Slater (1997b) on consumption and hobbies. See also Bert
Moorhouse on how elite hot-rodders pursue their hobby in a manner that justifies
their being described as ‘craftsmen’ (1999: 293).
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Colin Campbell is Professor of Sociology at the University of York. He is the author of The
Romantic Ethic and the Spirit of Modern Consumerism (1987) and co-editor of The Shopping
Experience (with Pasi Falk; 1997). He has also written on sociological theory in works such as
The Myth of Social Action (1996) and on the sociology of religion in ‘Weber, Rationalisation
and the Evolution of Religious Thought in the Modern Western World’ in Religion and Social
Theory (edited by Jim Beckford and John Walliss; forthcoming). His most recent publications on
consumerism include ‘I Shop Therefore I Know that I Am: The Metaphysical Basis of Modern
Consumerism’, in Elusive Consumption: Tracking New Research Perspectives (edited by Karin
Ekstrom and Helen Brembeck; 2004) and ‘On Understanding Modern Consumerism and
Misunderstanding the Romantic Ethic Thesis: A Reply to Boden and Williams’ (Sociology 37[4]).
Address: Department of Sociology, University of York, Heslington, York, YO10 5DD, UK.
[email: cbc3@york.ac.uk]
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