1	
  
Community	
  Broadcasting:	
  Publics,	
  Participants	
  and	
  Policies	
  
	
  
	
  
3.	
  Civil	
  Society	
  
	
  
Civil	
  society	
  refers	
  to	
  a	
  segment	
  of	
  society	
  apart	
  from	
  commerce	
  and	
  government	
  occupied	
  by	
  
individuals	
  and	
  groups	
  in	
  public	
  life	
  outside	
  the	
  home,	
  encompassing	
  their	
  cultural,	
  ethical,	
  
political,	
  and/or	
  religious	
  interests	
  (Powell	
  2007,	
  O'Connell	
  1999,	
  McDonald	
  1997,	
  Zaleski	
  
2006).	
  Individuals	
  commonly	
  pursue	
  these	
  interests	
  through	
  a	
  variety	
  of	
  voluntary	
  activities	
  in	
  
conjunction	
  with	
  community	
  groups,	
  labor	
  unions,	
  indigenous	
  groups,	
  charitable	
  organizations,	
  
faith-­‐based	
  organizations,	
  professional	
  associations,	
  and	
  foundations.	
  Individuals	
  and	
  the	
  
groups	
  that	
  comprise	
  civil	
  society	
  connect	
  through	
  their	
  public	
  and	
  private	
  networks	
  of	
  social	
  
values	
  and	
  institutions.	
  Participation	
  in	
  community	
  media	
  then,	
  can	
  be	
  understood	
  as	
  a	
  
component	
  of	
  civil	
  society,	
  and	
  thus	
  it	
  is	
  important	
  to	
  devote	
  some	
  attention	
  to	
  this	
  concept.	
  
	
  
Theoretical	
  conceptualizations	
  of	
  civil	
  society	
  can	
  be	
  difficult	
  and	
  ambiguous,	
  as	
  Cohen	
  and	
  
Arato	
  (1992,	
  27)	
  contend	
  “there	
  is	
  no	
  sufficiently	
  complex	
  theory	
  that	
  is	
  available	
  today”.	
  The	
  
realm	
  of	
  civil	
  society	
  is	
  a	
  concept	
  said	
  to	
  have	
  originated	
  in	
  the	
  texts	
  of	
  Aristotle	
  as	
  the	
  term	
  
“koinōnía	
  politike”,	
  which	
  describes	
  a	
  portion	
  of	
  society,	
  apart	
  from	
  government,	
  consisting	
  of	
  a	
  
community	
  of	
  citizens	
  with	
  shared	
  interests	
  (Davis	
  1996),	
  larger	
  than	
  the	
  privacy	
  of	
  family	
  and	
  
the	
  ethos	
  of	
  the	
  workplace.	
  Emmanuel	
  Kant	
  (1892)	
  positioned	
  the	
  concept	
  as	
  the	
  free	
  exercise	
  
of	
  reason	
  by	
  indviduals	
  in	
  opposition	
  to	
  the	
  monarchies	
  of	
  medieval	
  times,	
  and	
  in	
  the	
  period	
  of	
  
the	
  enlightenment,	
  John	
  Locke	
  built	
  upon	
  his	
  colleague	
  Thomas	
  Hobbes'	
  societal	
  "social	
  
contract"	
  to	
  delineate	
  civil	
  society	
  from	
  the	
  state	
  in	
  a	
  peaceful	
  coexistence	
  (O'Brien	
  1999).	
  
Upon	
  the	
  industrial	
  revolution	
  and	
  the	
  rise	
  of	
  modernity,	
  the	
  romanticist	
  Hegel	
  (1896)	
  
introduced	
  his	
  “bürgerliche	
  gesellschaft”	
  concept	
  of	
  a	
  free	
  civilian	
  society,	
  which	
  effectively	
  
launched	
  wide	
  debates	
  about	
  the	
  nature	
  and	
  role	
  of	
  civil	
  society	
  in	
  the	
  modern	
  European	
  
nation-­‐state.	
  Among	
  the	
  most	
  important	
  theoretical	
  debates	
  spawned	
  by	
  Hegel	
  centers	
  around	
  
the	
  tension	
  between	
  culture	
  and	
  politics	
  as	
  primary	
  and	
  legitimate	
  roles	
  for	
  civil	
  society.	
  
Following	
  Hegel	
  in	
  the	
  19th	
  century,	
  the	
  romanticist	
  Alexis	
  de	
  Tocqueville	
  emphasized	
  the	
  
primacy	
  of	
  culture	
  (Maker	
  1994),	
  whereas	
  in	
  the	
  20th	
  century,	
  Antonio	
  Gramsci	
  (1971,	
  477)	
  
took	
  a	
  strong	
  position	
  on	
  the	
  political	
  aspect	
  of	
  civil	
  society	
  as	
  “the	
  site	
  of	
  hegemonic	
  struggle,	
  
resistance	
  to	
  repressive	
  regimes	
  and	
  corporate	
  power,	
  and	
  a	
  facility	
  for	
  social	
  transformation”.	
  
This	
  duality	
  of	
  purpose	
  between	
  culture	
  and	
  politics	
  forms	
  a	
  foundation	
  for	
  further	
  discussions	
  
about	
  the	
  role	
  of	
  civil	
  society	
  in	
  today's	
  post-­‐modern	
  democracies.	
  
	
  
	
   2	
  
Many	
  current	
  scholars	
  focus	
  on	
  the	
  role	
  of	
  civil	
  society	
  in	
  the	
  reproduction	
  of	
  culture	
  and	
  
development	
  of	
  communities	
  (Putnam	
  et	
  al	
  1994,	
  Perlas	
  2013,	
  Kaufman	
  and	
  Dilla-­‐Alfonso	
  
1997).	
  Civil	
  society	
  for	
  these	
  theorists	
  is	
  bound	
  together	
  by	
  nature	
  and	
  social	
  connections	
  that	
  
often	
  take	
  the	
  form	
  of	
  cultural	
  representations,	
  transmitting	
  values	
  and	
  behaviors	
  among	
  
participant	
  individuals	
  and	
  groups.	
  Culture	
  as	
  a	
  concept	
  in	
  this	
  context	
  can	
  take	
  many	
  forms,	
  
reflected	
  in	
  the	
  various	
  participants	
  and	
  organizations	
  that	
  comprise	
  civil	
  society.	
  Agnes	
  Heller	
  
(2001,	
  141)	
  writes:	
  "Civil	
  society	
  consists	
  thus	
  of	
  a	
  mosaic	
  of	
  identities	
  and	
  non-­‐identities,	
  of	
  a	
  
mosaic	
  of	
  groups	
  of	
  cultural	
  memory	
  formation".	
  Beyond	
  the	
  representation	
  of	
  identities,	
  
culture	
  is	
  often	
  rooted	
  in	
  the	
  interests	
  of	
  citizens	
  and	
  delivered	
  by	
  components	
  of	
  civil	
  society.	
  
For	
  example,	
  Bruce	
  Sievers	
  (2009)	
  argues	
  that	
  not-­‐for-­‐profit	
  arts	
  groups	
  situated	
  in	
  civil	
  society	
  
"advance	
  pluralism,	
  promote	
  voluntary	
  action,	
  accommodate	
  diversity,	
  and	
  champion	
  
individual	
  visions	
  of	
  the	
  public	
  good".	
  
	
  
The	
  primary	
  role	
  of	
  civil	
  society	
  to	
  other	
  scholars	
  is	
  to	
  counter	
  the	
  political	
  power	
  and	
  
dominance	
  of	
  elites	
  in	
  government	
  and	
  commerce	
  (Godwin	
  1971,	
  Barber	
  1984,	
  Mueller	
  et	
  al	
  
2007,	
  Chomsky	
  1996).	
  Dominant	
  themes	
  in	
  this	
  view	
  include	
  the	
  marginalization	
  of	
  civil	
  society	
  
in	
  the	
  political	
  sphere,	
  and	
  the	
  exclusion	
  of	
  civil	
  society	
  from	
  the	
  decision-­‐making	
  process.	
  In	
  
turn,	
  a	
  politically	
  active	
  civil	
  society	
  seeks	
  proportional	
  representation	
  in	
  politics	
  that	
  restores	
  
citizens'	
  legitimate	
  role	
  in	
  decision-­‐making,	
  and	
  a	
  transfer	
  of	
  power	
  from	
  governments	
  and	
  
commercial	
  interests.	
  Ramirez	
  (2007,	
  38)	
  argues	
  that	
  these	
  demands	
  require	
  "the	
  initiatives	
  of	
  
grassroots	
  organizations,	
  of	
  local	
  popular	
  movements	
  that	
  endeavour	
  to	
  counteract	
  extreme	
  
forms	
  of	
  social	
  exclusion	
  and	
  open	
  up	
  new	
  spaces	
  for	
  democratic	
  participation".	
  Extreme	
  forms	
  
of	
  repression	
  can	
  often	
  result	
  in	
  radical	
  forms	
  of	
  civil	
  society	
  taking	
  aggressive	
  actions	
  in	
  pursuit	
  
of	
  their	
  ideological	
  agendas.	
  These	
  radical	
  forms	
  seek	
  to	
  alter	
  social	
  structures	
  and	
  change	
  
value	
  systems	
  imposed	
  by	
  perceived	
  political	
  hegemony,	
  using	
  whatever	
  tactics	
  necessary	
  to	
  
effect	
  results.	
  (Markowitz	
  2003).	
  Adrian	
  Little	
  (2002,	
  103)	
  also	
  cites	
  economic	
  factors	
  as	
  an	
  
important	
  basis	
  for	
  radical	
  civil	
  society	
  activity	
  "where	
  radical	
  democrats	
  have	
  tended	
  to	
  focus	
  
on	
  a	
  differentiated	
  space	
  for	
  political	
  engagement...we	
  should	
  do	
  the	
  same	
  for	
  economic	
  and	
  
non-­‐economic	
  activities	
  and,	
  in	
  so	
  doing,	
  construct	
  an	
  alternative	
  political	
  economy	
  to	
  the	
  
hegemony	
  of	
  market	
  discourses".	
  An	
  ideological	
  civil	
  society	
  however,	
  does	
  not	
  exist	
  solely	
  in	
  
tension	
  with	
  the	
  state	
  and/or	
  commercial	
  interests	
  and	
  can	
  actually	
  strengthen	
  citizens'	
  respect	
  
for	
  these	
  societal	
  institutions	
  through	
  it's	
  watchdog	
  role,	
  promoting	
  active	
  citizenship	
  within	
  a	
  
cooperative	
  political	
  environment	
  (Diamond	
  2004).	
  
	
  
Whether	
  representing	
  culture	
  or	
  political	
  ideology,	
  active	
  citizenship	
  and	
  democratic	
  
participation	
  are	
  basic	
  requirements	
  of	
  all	
  functioning	
  democracies.	
  The	
  construction	
  of	
  civil	
  
society,	
  comprised	
  of	
  individuals,	
  groups	
  and	
  communities,	
  is	
  also	
  an	
  important	
  frame	
  through	
  
which	
  to	
  examine	
  the	
  concept.	
  The	
  integration	
  of	
  the	
  individual	
  with	
  civil	
  society	
  was	
  initially	
  
	
   3	
  
portrayed	
  in	
  Husserl’s	
  “life	
  world”,	
  made	
  up	
  of	
  systems	
  which	
  grow	
  out	
  of	
  relationships	
  among	
  
individuals	
  (1970,	
  108).	
  The	
  concept	
  of	
  life	
  world	
  was	
  adapted	
  by	
  Jürgen	
  Habermas	
  to	
  
emphasize	
  the	
  social	
  environment	
  comprised	
  of	
  competencies	
  and	
  practices.	
  In	
  his	
  theory	
  of	
  
communicative	
  action,	
  Habermas	
  (1987)	
  positioned	
  civil	
  society	
  as	
  a	
  central	
  component	
  of	
  his	
  
non-­‐economic	
  public	
  sphere	
  where	
  citizens	
  could	
  freely	
  assemble,	
  establish	
  connections	
  among	
  
communities,	
  and	
  have	
  their	
  voices	
  heard.	
  He	
  states:	
  “In	
  communicative	
  action	
  participants	
  are	
  
not	
  primarily	
  oriented	
  to	
  their	
  own	
  success;	
  they	
  pursue	
  their	
  goals	
  under	
  the	
  condition	
  that	
  
they	
  can	
  harmonize	
  their	
  plans	
  of	
  action	
  on	
  the	
  basis	
  of	
  common	
  situation	
  definitions”	
  (118).	
  
Within	
  civil	
  society,	
  Habermas	
  (ibid,	
  86)	
  identifies	
  avenues	
  for	
  development	
  called	
  “possibility	
  
spaces”	
  that	
  provide	
  the	
  fertile	
  soil	
  for	
  development	
  and	
  advancement	
  of	
  the	
  actors'	
  utility.	
  
Here	
  he	
  seems	
  to	
  integrate	
  the	
  micro	
  of	
  the	
  individual	
  with	
  the	
  macro	
  of	
  the	
  societal	
  structured	
  
norm,	
  to	
  find	
  a	
  balance	
  that	
  can	
  be	
  seen	
  in	
  the	
  social	
  structures	
  and	
  processes	
  that	
  define	
  civil	
  
society.	
  	
  
	
  
Scholars	
  such	
  as	
  Bourdieu	
  (1984),	
  Giddens	
  (1998)	
  and	
  Carey	
  (1989)	
  identified	
  the	
  role	
  of	
  mass	
  
communication	
  in	
  the	
  reproduction	
  of	
  culture	
  within	
  civil	
  society	
  as	
  a	
  functioning	
  component	
  of	
  
democratic	
  pluralism.	
  Charles	
  Husband	
  (1998,	
  136)	
  writes	
  that	
  media	
  is	
  "a	
  core	
  element	
  in	
  civil	
  
society	
  and	
  a	
  fundamental	
  prerequisite	
  for	
  the	
  promotion	
  of	
  civic	
  trust	
  in	
  multi-­‐ethnic	
  
societies".	
  Mainstream	
  media	
  in	
  the	
  form	
  of	
  commercial	
  and	
  public	
  service	
  broadcasting	
  is	
  a	
  
primary	
  driver	
  of	
  cultural	
  reproduction,	
  but	
  when	
  individuals	
  and	
  groups	
  are	
  misrepresented	
  or	
  
denied	
  access,	
  they	
  can	
  look	
  to	
  alternative	
  media	
  forms	
  situated	
  in	
  civil	
  society	
  for	
  the	
  
representation	
  and	
  transmission	
  of	
  their	
  culture.	
  Kevin	
  Howley	
  (2010,	
  5)	
  writes:	
  "through	
  the	
  
production	
  and	
  dissemination	
  of	
  media	
  texts	
  that	
  assert	
  and	
  affirm	
  cultural	
  
identities...community	
  media	
  make	
  visible	
  cultural	
  differences	
  in	
  discursive	
  as	
  well	
  as	
  social	
  
space".	
  	
  
	
  
Communities	
  of	
  identity,	
  such	
  as	
  ethnic	
  minorities	
  and	
  marginalized	
  groups,	
  comprise	
  an	
  
important	
  segment	
  of	
  civil	
  society,	
  and	
  in	
  turn	
  a	
  significant	
  subset	
  of	
  community	
  broadcasting	
  
participants.	
  Positive	
  representations	
  of	
  their	
  culture	
  facilitated	
  by	
  community	
  broadcasting	
  can	
  
lead	
  to	
  social	
  inclusion	
  and	
  opportunities	
  for	
  positive	
  participation	
  in	
  society	
  for	
  themselves	
  and	
  
their	
  communities	
  (Perkins,	
  2010).	
  The	
  Alliance	
  des	
  Radios	
  Communautaires	
  du	
  Canada	
  (ARC)	
  
(2015)	
  says	
  about	
  community	
  radio	
  "Its	
  airwaves	
  reflect	
  the	
  cultural	
  reality:	
  songs,	
  music,	
  
writing	
  of	
  the	
  French-­‐speaking	
  population	
  it	
  serves.	
  Community	
  radio	
  stations	
  are	
  the	
  best	
  
standard-­‐bearers	
  of	
  our	
  culture".	
  In	
  this	
  context	
  of	
  participatory	
  democracy,	
  community	
  
broadcasting	
  can	
  be	
  seen	
  reconnect	
  local	
  populations	
  with	
  the	
  civic	
  and	
  cultural	
  life	
  of	
  their	
  
communities	
  (Howley	
  2000).	
  
	
  
	
   4	
  
When	
  examining	
  broadcast	
  mass	
  media	
  for	
  political	
  discourse	
  in	
  democratic	
  societies,	
  scholars	
  
commonly	
  focus	
  primarily	
  on	
  public	
  service	
  and	
  commercial	
  broadcasters	
  (Zaller	
  1999).	
  While	
  
civil	
  society	
  is	
  regularly	
  seen	
  as	
  included	
  in	
  this	
  discourse,	
  other	
  scholars	
  argue	
  that	
  civil	
  society	
  
is	
  actually	
  misrepresented	
  and	
  often	
  marginalized	
  by	
  these	
  forums	
  (McChesney	
  and	
  Nichols	
  
2000,	
  Coyer	
  et	
  al	
  2007).	
  In	
  addition,	
  mainstream	
  media	
  is	
  often	
  seen	
  as	
  compromised	
  by	
  
commercial	
  and	
  political	
  interests	
  compromising	
  their	
  legitimacy	
  as	
  a	
  true	
  pluralistic	
  forum,	
  for	
  
example	
  in	
  the	
  post-­‐authoritarian	
  states	
  of	
  Central/Eastern	
  Europe	
  (Stetka	
  2012b,	
  Doliwa	
  and	
  
Rankovic	
  2014).	
  Civil	
  society	
  indviduals,	
  groups	
  and	
  organizations	
  then	
  turn	
  to	
  alternative	
  
media	
  forms	
  to	
  provide	
  a	
  voice	
  in	
  democratic	
  discourse,	
  and	
  as	
  a	
  counterbalance	
  to	
  the	
  
dominant	
  media	
  power	
  of	
  government	
  and	
  commercial	
  elites.	
  Social,	
  environmental,	
  economic	
  
and	
  political	
  justice	
  for	
  all	
  citizens	
  are	
  among	
  the	
  many	
  political	
  issues	
  addressed	
  by	
  alternative	
  
media	
  (Atton	
  2002).	
  As	
  a	
  subset	
  of	
  alternative	
  media,	
  transmission	
  of	
  political	
  representations	
  
is	
  a	
  common	
  component	
  of	
  community	
  broadcasting,	
  where	
  members	
  of	
  civil	
  society	
  promote	
  
their	
  agendas	
  and	
  advocate	
  for	
  various	
  social	
  movements.	
  	
  
	
  
This	
  political	
  orientation	
  of	
  community	
  broadcasting	
  is	
  commonly	
  combined	
  with	
  cultural	
  
pursuits	
  to	
  form	
  a	
  "mixed	
  model"	
  which	
  is	
  ubiquitous	
  throughout	
  the	
  world.	
  A	
  more	
  strident	
  
political	
  version	
  of	
  this	
  model	
  can	
  often	
  be	
  found	
  where	
  ideological	
  opposition	
  to	
  government	
  
is	
  more	
  prevalent,	
  and	
  participants'	
  basis	
  for	
  civil	
  society	
  takes	
  a	
  more	
  oppositional	
  political	
  
form.	
  That	
  dynamic	
  is	
  reflected	
  in	
  community	
  broadcasters	
  with	
  a	
  strong	
  ideological	
  approach,	
  
such	
  as	
  Radio	
  Vallekas	
  (2015)	
  in	
  Madrid,	
  founded	
  on	
  a	
  commitment	
  to:	
  "Garantizar	
  el	
  ejercicio	
  
directo	
  del	
  derecho	
  a	
  la	
  comunicación	
  a	
  toda	
  la	
  ciudadanía."	
  ("Guarantee	
  the	
  right	
  to	
  
communicate	
  for	
  all	
  citizens").	
  The	
  extreme	
  version	
  of	
  politically-­‐oriented	
  community	
  
broadcasting	
  arose	
  from	
  this	
  oppositional	
  model	
  as	
  part	
  of	
  the	
  radical	
  media	
  movement.	
  The	
  
scholar	
  John	
  Downing	
  (2001,	
  v)	
  describes	
  radical	
  media	
  as:	
  "generally	
  small-­‐scale	
  and	
  in	
  many	
  
different	
  forms,	
  that	
  express	
  an	
  alternative	
  vision	
  to	
  hegemonic	
  policies,	
  and	
  perspectives".	
  
Radical	
  media	
  in	
  the	
  community	
  broadcasting	
  context	
  transmits	
  political	
  representations	
  
through	
  radio	
  and	
  television	
  programs	
  produced	
  locally	
  by	
  participants,	
  and/or	
  distributed	
  
internationally	
  in	
  conjunction	
  with	
  transnational	
  networks	
  for	
  journalism	
  and	
  political	
  activism.	
  	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
Alliance	
  des	
  Radios	
  Communautaires	
  du	
  Canada	
  (ARC).	
  What	
  is	
  Community	
  Radio?	
  
http://www.amarc.org/?q=node/47	
  Accessed	
  29.11.2015	
  
	
   5	
  
	
  
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  C.	
  (2002).	
  Alternative	
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  B.	
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  Strong	
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  Participatory	
  Politics	
  for	
  a	
  New	
  Age.	
  Berkeley:	
  University	
  
of	
  California	
  Press.	
  
	
  
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  A	
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  the	
  Judgment	
  of	
  Taste.	
  translated	
  by	
  
Richard	
  Nice,	
  Cambridge,	
  MA.:	
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  Press.	
  
	
  
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  J.	
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  Powers	
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  on	
  Human	
  Nature	
  and	
  the	
  Social	
  Order.	
  
London:	
  Pluto	
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  Civil	
  Society	
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  Cambridge,	
  MA.:	
  MIT	
  Press.	
  
	
  
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  K.	
  et	
  al.	
  (2008).	
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  Society	
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Accessed	
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