109
Edward Song is a dissertation fellow at the Institute for Advanced Studies
in Culture, a dissertation fellow at the Center on Religion and Democracy,
and a doctoral candidate in the Philosophy Department at the University
of Virginia.
W O R R I E S A B O U T C O M M O D I F I C A T I O N A R E A S O L D A S
the market itself, but these worries appear to have grown with the
increasingly consumeristic character of contemporary society and the
remarkable social changes of the last ten years. With the political revolutions
of the last decade, free markets have replaced command
economies in the former communist states, and even in the advanced
capitalist nations, we have seen a remarkable social transformation as
commodification and the ethos of consumerism have become dominant
cultural forces. A wider range of goods are being bought and sold,
and market-talk is being applied to areas where it had previously been
foreign. Virtually anything can become a commodity now, and nothing
is unaffected by the market’s logic and categories of thought.
The recent intensification of commodification has prompted a corresponding
growth in the scholarly literature that seeks to evaluate its origins,
nature, and social effects. This literature is, of course, diverse in its
methods, approaches, interests, and conclusions. Many welcome the
tendency towards commercialization and commodification, trusting in
the market’s potential to eliminate inefficiencies, produce wealth,
extend human freedom, open new possibilities, and unleash the potential
of human creativity. Others are far less sanguine and worry about
C O M M O D I F I C AT I O N A N D C O N S U M E R
S O C I E T Y: A B I B L I O G R A P H I C R E V I E W
Edward Song
110
T H E H E D G E H O G R E V I E W / S U M M E R 0 3
the potentially corrosive effects of the market—its capacity to widen
and exacerbate social and economic differences, corrupt various goods
and social values, expose the disenfranchised to greater exploitation and
manipulation, and encourage patterns of consumption that put pressure
on vulnerable natural resources.
This bibliography attempts to survey the vast literature on commodification
by first looking at the classic and contemporary attempts to theorize
the origin and structure of the phenomenon of commodification.
It then turns to the historical development of commodification, first
looking at the early origins of consumerism and its development
through the important postwar period. Advertising and shopping are
crucial engines to the growth of a commodified culture and a survey of
this literature is followed by an examination of the literature that
attempts to provide systematic theoretical tools to evaluate the ethical
dimensions of the market and its expansion. Finally the bibliography
ends with a survey of some of the most prominent recent celebrations
and critiques of the phenomenon of commodification.
Classic Studies of Commodification
These classic studies of commodification are most notably characterized
by an emphasis on the material circumstances of class and production
as the key determinants of the cultural dynamics of
commodification. This approach finds its roots in the writings of Karl
Marx, who did not coin the term “commodification,” but whose analysis
of commodities and alienation are lasting bedrocks of its study.
Capitalism differs from other modes of production in that goods are
not owned by those who produce them, and their value does not lie in
their usefulness but in their exchange value. Operating under dehumanizing
conditions, workers become alienated from the objects of
their labor, their own true nature, and their fellow workers. Further,
the commodities produced by capitalist production are fetishized,
abstracted and detached from their real use in ways that create further
confusion about their origins and value.
111
This basic mode of analysis is extended by a variety of twentiethcentury
neo-Marxists, most notably those associated with critical theory
and the Frankfurt School. One of the central texts of this mode of
analysis is Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno’s Dialectic of
Enlightenment, which attempts nothing less than explaining “why
humanity, instead of entering a truly human state, is sinking into a new
kind of barbarism.”1 Tying this collapse to the self-destructive tendency
of the Enlightenment’s understanding of rational calculability and technology,
they presciently argue that this dynamic will ultimately produce
a debased mass culture where the desires and fancies of passive
consumers are easily manipulated by producers for their own ends.
Two other prominent accounts of commodification that focus on the
producers’ ability to manipulate consumers are John Kenneth
Galbraith’s The Affluent Society and Betty Friedan’s The Feminine
Mystique. Galbraith’s work highlights the ways that producers, through
advertising and salesmanship, produce desires for the goods they manufacture.
Similarly, Friedan focuses on how the ideal of the housewife was
manipulated to create a stable and sizeable market of willing buyers.
Max Weber attempted to amend Marx’s exclusive focus on material production
by introducing the importance of social prestige or status in
addition to wealth and ownership of the means of production. These
factors play an important role in Thorstein Veblen’s analysis of consumption,
which argues that consumption is driven by the desire to
accrue prestige through conspicuous displays of leisure and consumption.
Weber also highlights the ever increasing bureaucratization of society
and the inexorable progression to ever more rationalized and
dehumanized modes of life—a theoretical approach recently put to use
in George Ritzer’s McDonaldization of Society, noted in the next section.
■ Bell, Daniel. The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism. New York:
Basic, 1996.
C O M M O D I F I C A T I O N A N D C O N S U M E R S O C I E T Y / S O N G
1 Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno, Dialectic of Enlightenment (Stanford:
Stanford University Press, 2002) xiv.
112
T H E H E D G E H O G R E V I E W / S U M M E R 0 3
■ Friedan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique. New York: Norton, 2001.
■ Galbraith, John Kenneth. The Affluent Society. New York: Houghton
Mifflin, 1998.
■ Horkheimer, Max, and Theodor Adorno. Dialectic of Enlightenment.
Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002.
■ Marcuse, Herbert. One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of
Advanced Industrial Society. Boston: Beacon, 1966.
■ Marx, Karl, and Frederick Engels. The Marx-Engels Reader. 2nd
edition. New York: Norton, 1978.
■ Simmel, Georg. The Philosophy of Money. Boston: Routledge &
Kegan Paul, 1978.
■ Veblen, Thorstein. The Theory of the Leisure Class. New Brunswick:
Transaction, 1992.
■ Weber, Max. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. New
York: Routledge, 2001.
Contemporary Analyses of Commodification and Consumer Culture
While the classic theories are primarily distinguished by their focus on
material issues of class and production, contemporary theories place far
more emphasis on the demand side of the dynamic, seeing the act of
consumption as commodification’s central element. One special focus
of these theories is the importance of the symbolic function of material
goods. Grant McCracken’s Culture and Consumption offers one of the
most useful and systematic of these contemporary theories, exploring
the way in which material goods come to be carriers of cultural meaning
in an ever changing dynamic between the culturally constituted
world, material goods, and consumers. Other studies of the symbolic
meanings attached to material objects include Arjun Appadurai’s edited
volume The Social Life of Things, Mary Douglas and Baron Isherwood’s
The World of Goods, and Daniel Miller’s Material Culture and Mass
Consumption. A systematic attempt at understanding the dynamics of
consumer culture that critiques many of the concerns of the classical
theorists is found in Colin Campbell’s The Romantic Ethic and the Spirit
of Modern Consumerism. Campbell argues that manipulations by producers
are not driving consumption so much as a peculiarly modern
113
kind of desire or longing—“autonomous imaginative hedonism”—that
delights in the self-indulgence encouraged by consumerism.
Another important characteristic of many contemporary theories of
consumption is their relationship with postmodernism and the claim
that consumer culture itself is a sign that contemporary culture is moving
in postmodern directions. Chief among these theorists is Jean
Baudrillard. Central to his analysis is his notion of “simulacra” and his
claim that society no longer uses reality as a referent for its representations.
Unmoored from reality, the image becomes central, and the value
of material goods lies not in their use but in their symbolic value.
Culture itself becomes focused on image, and consumerism gets its
energy from our desire to control and manipulate the images we present
to the world. Douglas Kellner’s Jean Baudrillard and Mike
Featherstone’s Consumer Culture and Postmodernism are helpful guides
through these issues.
One of the most important works relevant to the study of commodification
and consumer culture is Pierre Bourdieu’s Distinction, a mammoth
ethnographic and sociological examination that seeks to unmask
the social bases of taste. Standing more in the legacy of the classical theorists,
Bourdieu argues that social class provides the basic evaluative
frameworks for all cultural objects. Our tastes are located by our education
and social origin and are used to legitimize social differences and
locate one’s sense of place. While not directed specifically to questions
of commodification, Bourdieu provides an important theoretical statement
about the relationship between material goods and class.
Juliet Schor and Douglas Holt’s The Consumer Society Reader offers a
helpful edited collection of the central classical and contemporary readings
on consumer culture.
■ Appadurai, Arjun, ed. The Social Life of Things. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1986.
■ Baudrillard, Jean. The Consumer Society: Myths and Structures.
London: Sage, 1998.
■ Bauman, Zygmunt. Work, Consumerism and the New Poor.
Philadelphia: Open University Press, 1998.
C O M M O D I F I C A T I O N A N D C O N S U M E R S O C I E T Y / S O N G
114
T H E H E D G E H O G R E V I E W / S U M M E R 0 3
■ Bourdieu, Pierre. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of
Taste. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984.
■ Campbell, Colin. The Romantic Ethic and the Spirit of Modern
Consumerism. New York: Blackwell, 1987.
■ Douglas, Mary, and Baron Isherwood. The World of Goods: Towards
an Anthropology of Consumption. New York: Routledge, 1996.
■ Featherstone, Mike. Consumer Culture and Postmodernism. London:
Sage, 1991.
■ Kellner, Douglas. Jean Baudrillard: From Marxism to Postmodernism
and Beyond. Cambridge: Polity, 1989.
■ McCracken, Grant. Culture and Consumption: New Approaches to
the Symbolic Character of Consumer Goods and Activities.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988.
■ Miller, Daniel E. Material Culture and Mass Consumption. New York:
Blackwell, 1987.
■ Ritzer, George. The McDonaldization of Society. Thousand Oaks:
Pine Forge, 2000.
■ Schor, Juliet, and Douglas B. Holt, eds. The Consumer Society Reader.
New York: New, 2000.
■ Scitovsky, Tibor. The Joyless Economy: The Psychology of Human
Satisfaction. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
The Origins of Consumer Culture
While many scholars argue that commodification arose against the
backdrop of the industrial revolution and intensified through the twentieth
century, a number of interesting studies suggest that its origins are
in fact earlier. Neil McKendrick’s edited volume The Birth of a
Consumer Society, for example, is an important collection of essays that
chronicles the surprisingly consumeristic character of many aspects of
eighteenth-century English life. Historical sociologist Chandra Mukerji
argues in From Graven Images that we can find the beginnings of a
“hedonistic culture of mass consumption” even earlier, in the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries. Rosalind Williams’ Dream Worlds makes a similar
argument about nineteenth-century France. Cary Carson’s edited
volume Consuming Interests provides a helpful focus on consumerism in
eighteenth-century American life. Other interesting historical studies
115
tracing the rise of a consumer culture include Richard Ohmann’s Selling
Culture, William Leach’s Land of Desire, and T. J. Jackson Lear’s No
Place of Grace.
■ Carson, Cary, et al., eds. Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the
Eighteenth Century. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press,
1994.
■ Glickman, Lawrence B. A Living Wage: American Workers and the
Making of Consumer Society. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997.
■ Leach, William. Land of Desire: Merchants, Power and the Rise of a
New American Culture. New York: Vintage, 1994.
■ Lears, T. J. Jackson. No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the
Transformation of American Culture, 1880–1920. New York:
Pantheon, 1981.
■ McKendrick, Neil, et al. The Birth of a Consumer Society: The
Commercialization of Eighteenth-Century England. Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 1982.
■ Mukerji, Chandra. From Graven Images: Patterns of Modern
Materialism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1983.
■ Ohmann, Richard. Selling Culture: Magazines, Markets, and Class at
the Turn of the Century. New York: Verso, 1996.
■ Shammas, Carole. The Preindustrial Consumer in England and
America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
■ Williams, Rosalind H. Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late
Nineteenth Century France. Berkeley: University of California Press,
1981.
American Consumerism in the Post-War Period
While the roots of consumerism might well be older than one might
expect, it is nonetheless true that American postwar affluence enabled
the growth of consumer culture in crucial ways. Lizabeth Cohen’s recent
volume, A Consumer’s Republic, provides an excellent examination of
how mass consumption helped to shape American life in the postwar
era. Cohen argues that much of life was shaped by the ideal of a consumer’s
republic, “a strategy…for reconstructing the nation’s economy
and reaffirming its democratic values through promoting the expansion
C O M M O D I F I C A T I O N A N D C O N S U M E R S O C I E T Y / S O N G
116
T H E H E D G E H O G R E V I E W / S U M M E R 0 3
of mass consumption.”2 Karal Marling’s As Seen on TV offers a very
interesting study of visual culture and the importance of images in the
1950s. A more general history of the postwar period in which consumption
plays an important role is James T. Patterson’s excellent
Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945–1974.
■ Cohen, Lizabeth. A Consumer’s Republic: The Politics of Mass
Consumption in Postwar America. New York: Knopf, 2003.
■ Hurley, Andrew. Diners, Bowling Alleys, and Trailer Parks: Chasing
the American Dream in the Postwar Consumer Culture. New York:
Basic, 2001.
■ Marling, Karal. As Seen on TV: The Visual Culture of Everyday Life in
the 1950s. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994.
■ May, Elaine Tyler. Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold
War Era. New York: Basic, 1988.
■ Patterson, James T. Grand Expectations: The United States,
1945–1974. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
■ Potter, David. People of Plenty: Economic Abundance and the American
Character. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1954.
■ Samuelson, Robert J. The Good Life and Its Discontents: The
American Dream in the Age of Entitlement, 1945–1995. New York:
Times, 1995.
■ Whiting, Cecile. A Taste for Pop: Pop Art, Gender, and Consumer
Culture. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Shopping and Advertising
Advertising has, of course, received a great deal of attention as scholars
debate the capacity of advertisers to shape and influence consumer
spending patterns. An excellent survey of the development of advertising
through the crucial middle part of the twentieth century is Roland
Marchand’s Advertising the American Dream. Stuart Ewen’s Captains of
2 Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumer’s Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar
America (New York: Knopf, 2003) 11.
117
Consciousness offers one of the sharpest polemics against modern advertising,
arguing that through sophisticated marketing techniques, advertisers
have effectively created a system of social control that creates
artificial desires and frustrates our ability to find happiness and selfrespect.
Michael Schudson’s Advertising, the Uneasy Persuasion offers a
more nuanced appraisal of the influence and power of advertising in
American society. Schudson argues that, in fact, an advertisement probably
has very little influence on sales, but that it “tends to promote attitudes
and lifestyles which extol acquisition and consumption at the
expense of other values.”3 Another attempt to make sense of the social
cost of modern marketing techniques is offered by Joseph Turow, who
argues that increasingly detailed demographic and buying information
allows marketers to appeal to more homogeneous sub-sections of the
consumer markets in ways that encourage self-centered individualism
and exclusivity.
■ Davidson, Martin P. Consumerist Manifesto: Advertising in
Postmodern Times. New York: Routledge, 1992.
■ Ewen, Stuart. Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social
Roots of Consumer Culture. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976.
■ Fox, Stephen R. The Mirror Makers: A History of American
Advertising and Its Creators. Urbana: University of Illinois Press,
1997.
■ Frank, Thomas. The Conquest of Cool: Business Culture, Counter
Culture, and the Rise of Hip Consumerism. Chicago: The University
of Chicago Press, 1997.
■ Jhally, Sut. The Code of Advertising: Fetishism and the Political
Economy of Meaning in the Consumer Society. New York: St. Martin’s,
1997.
■ Kovinski, William Severina. The Malling of America: An Inside Look
at the Great Consumer Paradise. New York: William Morrow, 1985.
■ Lears, T. J. Jackson. Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of
Advertising in America. New York: Basic, 1995.
C O M M O D I F I C A T I O N A N D C O N S U M E R S O C I E T Y / S O N G
3 Michael Schudson, Advertising, the Uneasy Persuasion: Its Dubious Impact on
American Society (New York: Basic, 1986) 210.
118
T H E H E D G E H O G R E V I E W / S U M M E R 0 3
■ Leiss, William, Stephen Kline, and Sut Jhally. Social Communication
in Advertising: Persons, Products, and Images of Well-Being. New York:
Routledge, 1988.
■ Marchand, Roland. Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for
Modernity, 1920–1940. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.
■ Miller, Daniel. A Theory of Shopping. Ithaca: Cornell University
Press, 1998.
■ Schudson, Michael. Advertising, the Uneasy Persuasion: Its Dubious
Impact on American Society. New York: Basic, 1986.
■ Turow, Joseph. Breaking Up America: Advertisers and the New Media
World. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1997.
Markets and Morality
While many of the volumes in this bibliography offer what amount to
moral evaluations of the phenomenon of commodification, the books
in this section attempt to offer more systematic investigations of the
ethical dimensions of commodification. Amartya Sen’s On Ethics and
Economics offers a classic exploration of the ethical dimensions of economic
theory and policy, suggesting the importance of more sophisticated
accounts of human motivation, well-being, and rights than are
typically used by economic theorists. Value in Ethics and Economics by
Elizabeth Anderson develops a novel pluralist theory of value and
applies it to certain practical cases of commodification such as prostitution
and commercial surrogacy. Anderson argues that such instances of
commodification are wrong because they fail to accord such goods with
the distinctive kind of moral appreciation that they deserve. A similar
theory is offered by Margaret Jane Radin who argues that certain kinds
of commodification are worrisome because they constitute threats to
human autonomy and personhood.
■ Anderson, Elizabeth. Value in Ethics and Economics. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
■ Broome, John. Ethics Out of Economics. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1999.
■ Buchanan, Allen E. Ethics, Efficiency and the Market. Totowa:
Rowman & Allanheld, 1985.
119
■ Paul, Ellen Frankel ,et al., eds. Ethics and Economics. New York:
Blackwell, 1985.
■ Radin, Margaret Jane. Contested Commodities. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1996.
■ Sen, Amartya K. On Ethics and Economics. New York: Blackwell, 1987.
■ Wilbur, Charles K., ed. Economics, Ethics and Public Policy. Lanham:
Rowman & Littlefield, 1998.
Celebrations of the Market
While most of the scholarly attention given to the phenomenon of
commodification has been critical, there are, of course, many who
champion unfettered markets and welcome this new tendency to commodify.
These celebrations are typically tied to libertarian appraisals of
the market, which argue that markets give consumers a broader range
of choices, encourage success, punish failure, and reward the free and
creative entrepreneur. According to this view, no system of political
economy better promotes human freedom and creativity. Friedrich von
Hayek’s The Road to Serfdom offers a classic and historically influential
treatise on libertarian views of the market. A more accessible celebration
of the virtues of free markets is offered in Milton and Rose
Friedman’s Free to Choose.
One of the most prominent recent apologists for the market is Tyler
Cowen. In his In Praise of Commercial Culture, Cowen traces the ways
that consumer culture and free markets have encouraged creative artistic
achievement in the realms of literature, the visual arts, and music.
More recently, his book Creative Destruction argues that the cross-cultural
exchange made possible by globalization and the expansion of free
markets has made a dizzying array of cultural choices available to practically
anyone. Far from degrading culture, global free markets have
created “a plethora of innovative and high-quality creations in many
different genres, styles and media”4 providing new options and choices
C O M M O D I F I C A T I O N A N D C O N S U M E R S O C I E T Y / S O N G
4 Tyler Cowen, Creative Destruction: How Globalization is Changing the World’s
Cultures (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002) 18.
120
T H E H E D G E H O G R E V I E W / S U M M E R 0 3
that are ultimately enriching. Similarly, James Twitchell’s Lead Us Into
Temptation celebrates contemporary consumer culture, arguing that
consumers have not been the victims in a process of mass corporate
manipulation but rather active participants. Consumerism has become
our new religion, providing meaning in a far more democratic and
liberating way than traditional religion.
■ Brooks, David. Bobos in Paradise: The New Upper Class and How
They Got There. New York: Touchstone, 2000.
■ Cowen, Tyler. In Praise of Commercial Culture. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1998.
■ —————. Creative Destruction: How Globalization is Changing
the World’s Cultures. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002.
■ Friedman, Milton, and Rose Friedman. Free to Choose: A Personal
Statement. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1980.
■ Hayek, F. A. The Road to Serfdom. Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press, 1994.
■ Lebergott, Stanley. Pursuing Happiness: American Consumers in the
Twentieth Century. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.
■ Twitchell, James. Lead Us Into Temptation: The Triumph of American
Materialism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999.
Recent Critiques of Commodification and the New Consumerism
The recent intensification of commodification has given birth to a
growing body of literature that seeks to make sense of the meaning of
these changes and the challenges they have produced. These works raise
a number of diverse worries. For example, Arlie Hochschild’s recently
reissued The Managed Heart offers a fascinating study of the commodification
of personality and emotion that occurs in various sectors of
the service industry, as the capacity of workers to feel or display certain
emotions is exploited for profit. Two other noteworthy studies of the
intensification of consumerism and marketing are Robert Frank’s One
Market Under God and Naomi Klein’s No Logo. Robert Kuttner’s
Everything for Sale offers an excellent and balanced discussion of the
strengths and limitations of free markets.
121
Consumer spending has been the focus of much scholarly concern, as
many worry about the recent trends toward rising spending habits,
decreased personal savings, and an increase in the number of hours
worked per week. Juliet Schor, in a series of recent books, has charted
the development of the recent intensification of consumer spending
habits and shown how they place new strains and pressures on
American families. Prodded on by the media and marketers, Americans
spend more in order to imitate affluent lifestyles, work longer and
harder, and are less happy and healthy as a result. Robert Frank’s Luxury
Fever offers a similar account of the economic and cultural forces that
are driving the new consumerism. Frank traces the development of the
new demand for high-end, luxury goods, and argues that the economic
and personal problems that it creates are best addressed by employing a
new tax scheme based on consumption.
■ Frank, Robert H. Luxury Fever: Money and Happiness in an Era of
Excess. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000.
■ Frank, Thomas. One Market Under God: Extreme Capitalism, Market
Populism, and the End of Economic Democracy. New York:
Doubleday, 2000.
■ Hochschild, Arlie. The Managed Heart: Commercialization of
Human Feeling. Twentieth Anniversary Edition. Berkeley: University
of California Press, 2003.
■ Klein, Naomi. No Logo: Taking Aim at the Brand Bullies. New York:
Picador, 1999.
■ Kuttner, Robert. Everything for Sale: The Virtues and Limits of
Markets. New York: Knopf, 1997.
■ Linden, Eugene. Affluence and Discontent: The Anatomy of Consumer
Societies. New York: Viking, 1979.
■ Manning, Robert D. Credit Card Nation: The Consequences of
American’s Addiction to Credit. New York: Basic, 2001.
■ Schor, Juliet. The Overspent American: Upscaling, Downshifting, and
the New Consumer. New York: Basic, 1998.
■ —————. The Overworked American: The Unexpected Decline
of Leisure. New York: Basic, 1991.
C O M M O D I F I C A T I O N A N D C O N S U M E R S O C I E T Y / S O N G