DEFINITIONS
Critical Political Economy is based upon a concern with the structural inequalities of
production and the consequences for representation and access to consumption. By placing issues
of economic distribution at its centre, it prioritises the relationship between the economy and
forms of democratic politics.
Cultural Studies foregrounds the analysis of popular cultural practices over dominant or elite
cultural practices. It emphasizes the social agency of individuals and their capacity to resist
social determination and dominant cultural agendas.
Introduction
The process of making sense of the world and taking meaning from the things
that surround us is one of the main reasons why people are fascinated with the
role of the media in society. This is largely because of the centrality of the symbolic
to media content and form – quite literally what do media images mean
for the way we interpret and evalate the world? In other words, how meaning
has been thought to be relayed, consensus achieved and change considered possible
through the media. How to come to terms with symbolic imaginings and
to understand their place in our world draws on a wide range of theory from a
range of disciplines that often disagree on the emphasis given in each approach;
the balance of power between the producer, the audience and social and
Bridging the Mythical Divide:
Political Economy and Cultural
Studies Approaches to the
Analysis of the Media.
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economic structures; the centrality of the media to social processes and the
appropriate means to carry out research. This chapter considers the way meaning
has been theorized in relation to the media in two key approaches that have
often been pitched one against the other: political economy and cultural studies.
Political economy and cultural studies are considered to be the two main theoretical
approaches in media studies and they have enjoyed a relationship of
antagonism on several levels. Put crudely, political economy views the media as
promoting the dominant ideology of the ruling classes: in spite of their liberating
potential, the media of modern mass communication have contributed to
the creation of new levels of social stratification – communication classes which
in turn engender new forms of domination. The mass media are an obstacle to
liberation and overwhelm all other forms of non-mass media.
A cultural studies approach starts with the basic argument that the mass
media give us citizens of the media: people who are able to manipulate imagery
and information for their own ends, to build their own identities and local politics
from the vast array of mediated bits and pieces they have at their disposal.
Through this, social and political agency occurs offering the possibility of oppositional
political projects emerging. Traditionally political economy has tended
to read the state and other superstructural forces from the specific configuration
of capital at any one time and insists that this is the starting point of social
analysis. Cultural studies reminds political economy that the substance of its
work, the analysis of communication, is rooted in the needs, goals, conflicts,
failures and accomplishments of ordinary people attempting to make sense of
their lives. Cultural studies has recognized the energising potential of multifaceted
forms of social agency, each of which brings with it dimensions of subjectivity
and consciousness that are vital to political praxis. Often this has been
displayed through research that focuses on media consumption (see below), but
cultural studies conceptions of power have a tendency to be rooted in individual
subjectivities, their identities and collective action rather than as political
economy would have it, structured in the institutions of society.
Although the two approaches have often been seen as entirely contrasting with
irreconcilable differences (see for example, Garnham, 1995; Grossberg, 1995) this
chapter argues that in practice such distinctions can be less clear-cut and there is
much to be gained from embracing the differences where they do exist and moving
towards a dialogic inter-disciplinarity. In sum, I will argue that debates from
both camps are required to inform a thorough analysis of the role of the media
in society. In other words, structural inequities must be taken on board, along
with cultural complexities of consumption, to resist a simplistic retreat to either.
MEDIA AND CRIME
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Considering the divide: conflict and continuity
The apparent conflict between political economy and cultural studies has been
rehearsed on several occasions. It is depicted variously as the disagreement over
how to theorize power and culture: between scholars who hold on to a Marxian
premise of labour/class in socio-relational analysis (political economists) and
those who reject this approach (culturalists); as a split between studies of production
(political economy) and studies of consumption (cultural studies); as the
attempt to study the social totality (political economy) and those who renounce
the possibility of ever achieving such grandiose aims; and/or as economic reductionism
(all social relations boil down to economic determinants) versus cultural
specificity. Each criticism masks work in the field that is inclined to acknowledge
and appreciate the necessary continuities between the two.
Kellner (1989) states that the Frankfurt School of the 1930s was the first to
incorporate both culture and communications in a critical social theory of mass
communications. Much like many media studies departments today, by combining
political economy of the media, cultural textual analysis, and audience
reception studies the Frankfurt school theorists worked through theories of
mass production, commodification, standardization and massification. In the
work of Adorno and Horkheimer (1979) we see a political economic analysis
based on the industrialization of the mass media into a culture industry. Other
theorists in the Frankfurt School also looked at the audience and a close consideration
of how ideology is carried out through the media and other public institutions
(see the work of Benjamin, 1973). There was, of course, much
disagreement and debate between them but they existed side by side, each
enhancing the critique of the other and between them they provided a systematic
approach to the media that included political economy and socio-cultural
approaches.
Kellner (1989) maintains that the inter-disciplinary approach of the Frankfurt
School integrated political economy and cultural studies within the context of
capitalist society and the manner in which culture and communications were
produced and the roles they played. However, as critical social theory transformed
over time into cultural studies, there was a shift away from some of the
foundational pretexts of the first generation of scholars of the Frankfurt School.
In short, the idea of the ‘culture industries’ as ideological and manipulative was
questioned (Kellner, 1998), and later rejected as the belief in oppositional cultural
practices increased. Similarly, class, which has always been at the core of
political economy approaches, became less central to critical studies as other
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MEDIA STUDIES
cultural signifiers, such as race, gender, nationality and audience identities,
were brought to the fore. This development led to a movement away from the
audience position as constructed by the text, towards the examination of the
pleasures of the actual audiences. It was the political move by feminist media
theorists to focus on women’s pleasure that first prompted conceptions of the
audience as active. Combined with the work of Birmingham’s Centre for
Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS), in particular, that of Stuart Hall, the
active audience paradigm came into being.
Stuart Hall’s article Encoding and Decoding in Television Discourse, which was
first presented in the early 1970s, provided the impetus for active audience
studies. Hall believed that more attention should be paid to the ‘practice of
interpretative work’ in the decoding of televisual signs by audiences and, in particular,
how that reception frequently involved the ‘active transformation’ of
meaning. He predicted that such a realisation promised ‘... a new and exciting
phase in so-called audience research, of a quite new kind’ (Hall, 1993: 94).
So, as an antidote to a life condemned to ideological slavery came the active
audience. Active audience theorists have stressed that audiences are capable of
arriving at their own decisions about the meaning of a media text. In other
words, meaning does not reside within the text, or at least not exclusively so.
Many also stress that texts are ‘polysemic’, that is, they are capable of more
than one interpretation (e.g. Ang, 1985; Radway, 1984). Polysemy refers to the
potential for multiple meanings to be taken from one text, thus allowing ambiguity
and interpretative freedom. Textual determinism was rejected and ambiguity
and interpretative freedom heralded as intrinsic to significatory systems.
This marked an unbridgeable divide between political economy and cultural
studies that is challenged below.
Political economy
Political economy was developed in the late 1960s through a concern with the
increasing role of private businesses in cultural production. Golding and
Murdock (2000) made a distinction between traditional political economy and
critical political economic approaches to the media by highlighting four key
differences:
• Critical political economy sees the economy as interrelated with political, social and cultural
life rather than as a separate domain.
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• It is historical, paying close attention to long-term changes in the role of the state,
corporations and the media in culture.
• Critical political economy is centrally concerned with the balance between private enterprise
and public intervention.
• A critical approach goes beyond technical issues of efficiency to engage with the basic
moral questions of justice, equity and the moral good.
In their own words, a critical political economy:
… sets out to show how different ways of financing and organising cultural production
have traceable consequences for the range of discourses and representations
in the public domain and for audiences access to them. (Golding and Murdock,
1991: 15)
Critical political economy is especially interested in the ways that communicative
activity is continuously structured by the unequal distribution of material
and symbolic resources. Classically, theorists adopting this approach point to
the fact that media production has been increasingly commandeered by large
corporations and moulded to their interests and strategies. In recent years we
have seen a push towards privatization and the declining vitality of publiclyfunded
cultural institutions. The expansion and growth of commercialization
has inevitably pushed smaller-scale operations out of business or into consolidation
with larger companies. Newspapers have merged into each other or into
other groups in order to stay alive as they try to survive in an ever more competitive
market place. General economic conditions will also influence the
product of the media industries. The production output of the mass media is
concerned both with commodities and creation, the balance is precarious and
framed by the general economic context within which production takes place.
In periods of economic stringency the criteria of cost effectiveness are likely to
be the deciding factor of output, the result being a systematic rejection of the
unpopular and unprofitable and a reversion to tried and tested formulae with a
proven market. Critical political economists argue that the nature of the mass
media cannot be adequately considered apart from more general economic
changes, which in turn require a historical perspective which will locate
changes in the mass media within the general context of the processes of
industrialization.
Part of the debate within critical political economy focuses on issues of ownership
and control of the media. Having power in or control over media is argued
to impact upon the capacity to determine or influence the contents of the media
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products and meaning carried by them. This has grown out of a strictly Marxist
perspective which states that the class which has the means of material production
at its disposal has control, at the same time, over the means of mental production.
The fact that culture is produced and consumed under capitalism is
fundamental to understanding inequalities of power, prestige and profit. Early
work in the field was concerned to address the extent to which the cultural industries
serve the interests of the rich and powerful. Since these early Marxist days,
theories have developed so they are no longer structuralist theories of power,
which are now thought to be too simplistic in their notions of a direct transmission
of the ruling ideology to subordinate groups (as in the likes of Miliband, 1977
and Althusser, 1971). Now the focus is on ideas and concepts which people use
to make sense of the world and are to some extent dependent on the media. In
other words, the frameworks offered by the media are articulated by the nexus
of interests producing them. A critical political economy looks at the intentional
action (by owners, editors etc.) and structural constraints (such as resources of
time and money), at each level of the production process.
In Manufacturing Consent, published in 1994, Herman and Chomsky propose a
mass media propaganda model for a modern Western liberal democratic society,
in which cultural mechanisms for the maintenance of the status quo are less
overt, but not less effective, than in systems such as totalitarian dictatorships.
The mass media serve as a system for communicating messages and symbols to the
general populace. It is their function to amuse, entertain, and inform, and to inculcate
individuals with the values, beliefs, and codes of behaviour that will integrate them into
the institutional structures of larger society. (Herman and Chomsky, 1994: 1)
Herman and Chomsky’s propaganda model is based on media ‘filters’, through
which information must pass before it can reach the public. The first filter, limitation
of media ownership, is the result of a process of consolidation that began
in the nineteenth century, (Herman and Chomsky, 1994: 2). By 2000, there were
ten major players in the global entertainment and media industries: Disney,
General Electric, AOL-Time Warner, Sony, News Corporation, Viacom, Vivendi,
Bertelsmann, AT&T, and Liberty Media. (McChesney, November 2000) Though
not all of these are dedicated media companies, all develop, produce and distribute
a plethora of disparate cultural products in many countries through
countless corporate entities.
…the dominant media firms are quite large businesses; they are controlled by very
wealthy people or by managers who are subject to sharp constraints by owners and
other market-profit-oriented forces. (Herman and Chomsky, 1994: 12)
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In free market societies, cultural products are also likely to pass through the
advertising filter, which links the entertainment industry with other sectors.
Through their public association with media producers, advertisers gain an interest
in the company’s content:
Advertisers will want, more generally, to avoid programs with serious complexities
and disturbing controversies that interfere with the ‘buying mood’. (Herman and
Chomsky, 1994: 17)
This influence commonly functions pre-emptively: the sensibilities of the
advertiser are taken into consideration by the media company prior to the
screening of contentious material.
Another focal question for the critical political economy of communications
that engages with the moral dimension of this approach is to investigate how
changes in the array of forces which exercise control over cultural production
and distribution limit or liberate the public sphere (Habermas, 1989). The ethical
impulse lying behind the creation of the public sphere, of inventing a
space where citizens may meet and discuss as equals, is premised on the
desire to establish the conditions for living in a truly democratic society.
Critical political economy is concerned to explain how the economic dynamics
of production structure public discourse by promoting certain cultural
forms over others. Theorists in this approach argue that what is happening is
a narrowing of the range of discourses which inhibits a full understanding of
the complexities and ambiguities of our social conditions. For example, in the
UK it is argued that the increasing privatization and commercialization of
public space has lead to an abundance of the dominant, cheap transatlantic
forms of story-telling which excludes or marginalizes a whole range of
discourses.
Hesmondhalgh (2002) emphasizes the important point that not all political
economy of the media is the same. Within political economy there are subgenres.
Work by Schiller (1989), Herman and Chomsky (1994) and McChesney
et al. (1998) catalogues and documents the growth in wealth and power of the
cultural industries and their links with political and business allies. Like the
early work in the field, these theorists have been criticized for proposing a very
simplistic, top down model of power that assumes the lack of sophistication of
a conspiracy theory – those who possess power and wealth will seek, by every
means possible, to retain and extend it, most often successfully. This is an
equally unsophisticated reading of their work but nonetheless a certain strategic
tenacity is stressed.
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Critics of the McChesney, Schiller, and Herman and Chomsky camp foreground
complexity, contestation and ambivalence in terms of explaining the cultural
industries. Rather than assuming a straightforward and direct relationship
between wealth and power, other factors are considered such as the professional
ideology of journalism that establishes the codes and conventions of
news-making and allows for contradiction within industrial commercial cultural
production. The roles and working conditions of cultural workers are
taken into account, as are the processes of consumption beyond a simple product
exchange relationship.
A distinct lack of emphasis on investigating the audience or the consumer has
been signalled as a lack of concern with, or disbelief in, the agency of the individual.
A closer reading of political economy refutes this critique. Free market
economics argues that the best way of ensuring adequate distribution and production
of commodities is through the market. The more people want, the more
they will buy and thus the logic of the market will prevail; the necessary and
the strong will survive, the unnecessary will die. This sort of consumer sovereignty
approach is present in political economy but the critical political economist
is more likely to stress the more sophisticated processes of tracking
audience choice and interpretation of taste and trends within markets and how
this data then impacts upon the media product.
The work by du Gay et al., (1997) on the development of the Sony Walkman
as a cultural product reveals that through the monitoring of consumption and
market research, the design of the Walkman was modified from a stereo with
two headsets to one with a single headset. This illustrates how production and
consumption are indelibly connected. The technology was not simply produced
as a finished artefact which then had an impact on consumption – consumer
activities were crucial to the introduction, modification and subsequent redevelopment
and marketing of the product.
In a critical political economy, audience responses to texts are related to their
overall location in the economic system. This approach stresses that nobody has
access to a complete range of cultural goods without restriction. Political economy
tries to explain these constraints by recourse to material, social and cultural
barriers. For example, communications and facilities rarely come for free,
their access is dependent upon a person’s spending power and disposable
income is significantly different between different groups in society. For political
economists the shift in the provision and distribution of cultural goods from
being public services to private commodities signals a substantial change in the
opportunity for different groups in the population to have access to them. As
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long as access is associated with cost then those who can gain access will be
those with the financial capability – income will determine ones ability to function
fully in the public sphere.
Cultural differences are also relevant to readings of media texts. The meanings
of mediated imagery are tied to a community and its shared experiences
and to the actual ability of individuals to actively interpret it. This ability may
depend on many things not least educational and cultural capital, national, local
and personal socio-economic realities. Work by Fenton et al. (1998) illustrates
that social class and educational achievement are critical determinants of audience
responses to news texts. In this analysis the reader can effect the reading
process, can resist the ‘preferred reading’ (i.e. that which appears dominant in
the text) up to a point and to that end is an active agent. Yet agency is limited
by structure. The danger of a political economic approach is that it paints a
picture of a culture industry in which monolithic corporations rule supreme,
manipulating consumers and infiltrating our consciousness to the extent that
they could almost be considered totalitarian in their aims, reach and impact.
The corporate machine dominates all discourse. Any competing discourses that
challenge the status quo are either appropriated by the corporate machine for
commodification or squeezed out of existence. Escape from the prison-house of
the ideology of production becomes nigh impossible.
A critical political economy approach to the media has shifted away from the
assumption of such a mechanistic economic determinism but continues to stress
that power can be challenged and lessened only by political means. They argue
that theories which ignore the structure and locus of representational and definitional
power and emphasize instead the individual’s message transformational
capability, present little threat to the maintenance of the established order. Critical
political economists are happy to accept that ‘the text is different as produced and
as read’ (Mosco, 1996: 260) but they also maintain that the producers are, on the
whole, motivated by profit and audience share and will do whatever they can to
increase their capital. So, despite protestations to the contrary, critical political
economy does attempt to take account of audience activity but it does so within
a broader context of social and economic structures.
Work such as this challenges the idea that cultural and economic and are separate
discrete spheres and indeed that the cultural and economic what? boundaries
are antagonistic. Instead it prefers to stress the blurring or fusing of these
boundaries – the mutual constitution of economy and culture. Research in this
vein is concerned with the cultural dynamics of capitalism and markets as well
as questions of representation, identity and meaning.
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Cultural studies
Cultural studies is cross-disciplinary and embraces social theory, cultural analysis
and critique in an academic project that draws on the humanities, sociology,
social policy, social psychology, politics, anthropology, women’s studies and
social geography among others. At its core is a concern with a critique of
the configuration of culture and society with its sight fixed firmly on social
transformation.
British cultural studies situated culture within a theory of social production and
reproduction, specifying the ways that cultural forms served either to further social
domination or to enable people to resist and struggle against domination. It analyzed
society as a hierarchical and antagonistic set of social relations characterized
by the oppression of subordinate class, gender, race, ethnic, and national strata.
Employing Gramsci’s model of hegemony and counterhegemony, it sought to analyze
‘hegemonic’, or ruling, social and cultural forces of domination and to seek
‘counterhegemonic’ forces of resistance and struggle. (Kellner, 1989: 28)
The Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies, now disbanded, was
not – as many have criticized cultural studies in general as being – ahistorical,
particularist, or idealist. Rather its work was more often materialist, analyzing
socio-historical conditions and structures of domination and resistance. Kellner
(1989) notes that its work could be defined by its attempt to critique the crucial
political problems of their age. The early focus on class and ideology derived
from their acute sense of the oppressive and systemic effects of class in British
society and the struggles of the 1960s against class inequality and oppression.
Studies of subcultures in Britain sought out new counter cultures and examples
of people acting as agents of social change during a time when it appeared that
sectors of the working class were being integrated into the existing system and
conservative ideologies. The period of Thatcher’s government starting in 1979
and stretching to 1994 raised new issues of conservative populism. The focus
on feminism was influenced by the feminist movement, while the turn towards
race was motivated by the anti-racist struggles of the day.
In other words, the focus of British cultural studies at any given moment has
been determined by the struggles in the contemporary polity. Their studies of
ideology, domination and resistance, and the politics of culture, directed cultural
studies towards analyzing cultural artifacts, practices, and institutions
within existing networks of power and of showing how culture both provided
tools and forces of domination and resources for resistance and struggle. This
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was an important political direction that shifted emphasis from the effects of
media texts to audience uses of cultural artifacts. This led to a direct focus on
audiences and reception, areas that had been neglected in most previous textbased
approaches to media.
Feminist researchers in particular reacted against the simplistic conception of
the process of mass communication as one of linear transmission from sender
to receiver to claim that female audiences play a productive role in constructing
textual meanings and pleasures. Women do not simply take in or reject
media messages, but use and interpret them according to their own social, cultural
and individual circumstances – the audience is involved in making sense
of the images they see – the message does not have the total monopoly on
meaning. Audiences are seen as actively constructing meaning so that texts
which appear on the face of it to be reactionary or patriarchal can be subverted.
In the case of Ang (1985) the subversion comes through the pleasures that are
gained from it. The world of fantasy is the ‘place of excess where the unimaginable
can be imagined’ (Ang, 1996: 106).
This stimulated further examinations of the role of the active audience in
relation to (among others) television programmes (Ang, 1985; Corner et al.,
1990), romantic fiction (Radway, 1984) and comics (Barker, 1993). The audience
was no longer conceptualized as a collection of passive spectators but as a group
of individuals who can see the hidden text of a cultural product for what it is
and is not. The corollary of this was that as individuals have the capacity to
undermine the intended meaning of texts, they can therefore subvert the relations
of power within which they are located (Fenton et al., 1998).
Active audience theorists in media studies have been criticized on several
counts, often by political economists, of relativism gone mad – as an interpretative
free-for-all in which the audience possesses an unlimited potential to read
any meaning at will from a given text. Morley (from within the tradition of cultural
studies) has criticised the neglect in most active audience research of ‘the
economic, political and ideological forces acting on the construction of texts’
(1993: 15). By drawing attention away from the media and texts generally as
instruments of power, they have been accused of a lack of appreciation of wider
political factors and hence of political quietism (Corner, 1991) and ideological
desertion. Ang and Hermes, (again a cultural studies theorist) (1991) object to
the growth of active audience studies on broadly similar grounds. For them, the
problem is that writers who applaud and revel in the ability of audiences to subvert
texts, and hence to expropriate power, fail to give due recognition to the
immense marginality of that power within a wider context. Therefore, the
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celebration of the active audience and of its subversive powers inflates the
significance of the moment of audience reception.
Despite the misgivings noted above and now recognized by many within
cultural studies, the achievements of cultural studies are plenty. They have
argued that ordinary, everyday culture needs to be taken seriously and in doing
so it has forced us to refine our notion of the problematic term ‘culture’. In this
process it has challenged essentialist assumptions of culture as a bounded, fixed
thing and encouraged a consideration of culture as a complex space where many
different influences combine and conflict (Hesmondhalgh, 2002: 39). Through
its focus on the concept of culture and how notions of culture are represented
in media texts it has emphasized the exclusion and marginalisation of the less
powerful in society. It has also forced cultural theorists to acknowledge their role
as researcher and the politics of speaking from a particular subject position.
By bringing to the fore issues of subjectivity, identity, discourse and pleasure
in relation to culture, it has obliged us to take account of the nature of mediated
discourse and recognize the exclusion of some voices to the preference of
others. It has made us appreciate the politics of pleasure in the text and how
meanings can be delimited and circulate in society.
Holistic approaches to the media
Recently, there have been studies that accept the benefits of each approach and
seek to embrace both in an attempt to account for the social totality of production,
content and reception of the media. As a result of a growing awareness of
the framing power of texts and an understanding that the text must be viewed
in relation to hegemonic culture, more circumscribed accounts of audience
activity have emerged that seek a re-acknowledgement of the role of texts and
production in a political economic context. These studies suggest that differently
located audiences may derive particular interpretations of texts, but that
the text itself is rarely subverted. In other words, the essential power of authors
to frame audience reception is accepted; audiences do engage in interpretation
but that interpretation is subject to the denotative structure of the text. In this
manner, ideology remains a crucial reference point. Examples of research
which reveal this orientation include Kitzinger’s (1993) research on AIDS in the
media, Corner et al.’s (1990) study of the representation of the nuclear energy
industry and Fenton et al.’s (1998) study of the representation of social science
in the media. In these analyses the reader can effect the reading process, can
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resist the ‘preferred reading’ (i.e. that which appears dominant in the text) up
to a point and to that end is an active agent. Yet agency is limited by structure.
As Tudor (1995: 104) says, ‘the remarkable capacity of human beings to construct
diverse meanings and take a variety of pleasures from texts is matched
only by the equally remarkable degree to which those meanings and pleasures
are common to large numbers of people’.
While we now have a huge amount of research about the audience reception
of a host of different types of text, it is difficult to gain an impression of its overall
impact and significance. What is really crucial, as Schiller (1989) and Ang
and Hermes (1991) suggest, is the overall impact of cultural products. We may
find that the conservative underpinnings of a number of episodes of a particular
soap opera shown to focus groups is not specifically imbibed by them, but
it is the overall interpretative impact of a host of different media and cultural
products that is crucial, not any one isolated media or text. Similarly, the
themes and issues that are absent in the messages inscribed in texts are as
important and potentially more significant than what is actually present.
Therefore, inviting audience members to reflect on television programmes or
newspaper articles and then deciding whether the inherent texts are polysemic
or whether audiences decode in terms of the preferred reading are limited
research strategies since the silences in the texts are likely to be marginalized
by the researcher’s and the audience’s emphasis on the text as such and on the
use of it by the latter (Fenton et al., 1998).
Box 1.1 The best of both worlds: using an holistic
approach
An approach that aimed to take account of both political economic and cultural
studies concerns was adopted in Mediating Social Science (Fenton et al.,
1998). In an attempt to make sense of the nature of communication and social
agency, the research made strenuous efforts to adopt a holistic approach to
the study of the media. In order not to prioritize one particular phase of communication
(and by implication the power of one type of agency), a number of
potential definers of meaning including social scientists as sources, journalists,
funding bodies, public relations departments and the general public as audience
were examined. This research included: analysis of the policy environment
(Continued)
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(Continued)
of higher education and the need for social scientists to be seen to be proactive
in gaining media coverage; analysis of the journalist–social scientist’s relationship
including the professional dynamics of the newsroom; analysis of the news
texts themselves; and analysis of audience’s responses to the news items. Key
to the latter was the question of how much freedom and autonomy audiences
have to undermine the intended meaning of texts and subvert the relations of
power within which they are located. This research suggests that the capacity
to establish voices (both by news sources and audiences) in opposition to the
status quo is restricted and contingent on many factors. Traditional mass media
are unlikely to provide a means by which oppositional voices can be relayed to
audiences and enhance critical, rational understanding. The researchers
analysed responses to newspaper, television and radio news reports of social
scientific research to reveal a marked consistency between intended meaning
at the point of production and audience understanding and interpretation of the
text. This is not to say that audience members passively deferred to the text –
on the contrary, they found substantial evidence of independent thought and
scepticism. However, the ‘distinctiveness of decoding’ occurred when evaluating
the text rather than at the point of interpretation. Resistance to the message
did not lead to a renegotiation of it. It was interrogated but not expanded.
Two reasons are given for this interpretative closure. The first relates to the
genre of the text being analysed. Hard news reporting is governed by a range
of mechanistic, narrative conventions that are intended to generate a denotative
transparency to inhibit potential readings. For example, it is a genre where
prominence and frequency of appearance are reliable indications of significance
and signification. Most news-consumers are conversant with the rules of this
presentational game and construct their readings according to them. As such,
news is a peculiarly ‘closed’ form of actuality coverage whose polysemic potential
is circumscribed. There is none of the interpretative room to manoeuvre that
is such an evident and essential facet of other forms of fictional and factual
genres. The second reason for this interpretative closure relates to the nature
of the subject matter being reported. For example, one of the news reports
under study is about a remote and esoteric issue (false memory), which,
although its broader implications resonate with the audience, remains beyond
their direct personal and professional experiences. This, it is argued, is a situation
where we find the most acceptance of media definitions and the power of
the audience is at its most limited. It is also the point at which the social structural
factors of educational and cultural capital carry the most interpretative significance
(Fenton et al., 1998).
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Holistic approaches to media research establish that interrogating the role of
the media in society does not start or stop with the interpretation of it by audiences
or the analysis of it as a text. Although audiences are active, their activity
is still subject to a number of structural constraints. The media messages
matter because they make some interpretations more likely than others. The
cultural capital that audiences bring to media texts are not uniform - different
people from different social backgrounds will have different social and interpretative
tools at their command. By ordering the distribution of cultural tools
as well as cultural products, social structure serves as a constraint on the
process of making meaning. Cultural consumption is a social act; it is always
affected by the social context and the social relations in which it occurs. In
other words, audiences may be active producers of meaning but the process
takes place in conditions and from commodities that are not of our making.
Once the role of production passes to the consumer, as in much alternative
media production, the nature of the beast changes but it is still circumscribed in
the social structures from which it emerged. It is not suffice merely to celebrate
agency/resistance or to detail the structures of power. We must always attend
to the dialectical relationship between agency and structure, cultural production
and consumption.
The struggle over meaning takes place between the process of production and
the act of reception – both of which are determined by their place in a wider
social, political, economic and cultural context. Choices made by the audience
must be looked at within the social context of their daily life and the content
itself must be interpreted according to the social and political circumstances of
its production.
Box 1.2 Understanding big brother
A good example of the inter-play between structure and agency, as well as being
a modern multimedia phenomenon, is the television program Big Brother.
Devised by Jon De Mol in the Netherlands and launched in 1999, Big Brother
has become one of the most successful franchises in television history (Hill
and Palmer, 2002). Big Brother is a combination of various genres, in particular
documentary, game show and soap opera, designed to maximize audiences.
It is a live game show where contestants, previously unknown to each other, are
(Continued)
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(Continued)
put in a house for usually nine weeks under constant televisual surveillance and
each week nominate a member of the household for eviction. The nominees for
eviction are voted on by the viewing public. The winner is the final remaining
housemate who receives a cash prize. The format has been imported into
several countries and adapted to suit their own national characteristics.
The game function was enhanced by live feeds and continual access via digital
television. In the UK the website’s live coverage has itself been re-mediated
and broadcast every hour on the ‘Global Media Interface’ giant screen in
London’s Leicester Square. In Germany there is a Big Brother magazine. The
multimedia relay often in real time made it a major talking point. In the UK the
press (both tabloid and broadsheet) ran front page headline stories on the various
characters involved. The program elicited an enormous amount of comment,
discussion and evaluation by almost everyone: in the press, on public
transport, on social occasions and in households. Extracting one form of media
display for critical attention could not capture the extent of the inter-textual
experience that Big Brother had become. Scannell (2002: 277) explains that
this talk was not accidental
but a structural feature of the show’s relational totality of involvements
… to consider what it was that elicited such a ‘discursive ferment’ is to
get to the heart of the program’s core-structure as an event invented for
television. The program invited, indeed demanded, that not only should it
be watched on a daily basis but that it should be talked about …The more
you watched the program the more you knew about all the inmates, their
personal traits and the way they interacted with each other. Just as in
soap opera the more you watched the more expert you became in evaluating
character and behaviour as time went by.
This reveals that the text of Big Brother is crucial in assessing audiences’ relations
to it, both in terms of genre and in terms of narrative structure. As Scannell
(2002: 273) notes: ‘a range of different time spans and horizons were cleverly
utilized by the designers of Big Brother to build momentum, to create involvement’.
Scheduling to fit the context of our own daily lives was also crucial: ‘If the
pivotal time in the week is Friday evening, as that which is most looked forward
to, then using that night as the weekly program-climax meshed perfectly with the
time structures of daily life “out there” in the real world’ (Scannell, 2002: 273).
Big Brother offered the possibility of participation through voting and interactive
websites. It had an ever expanding frame of reference prompted by its
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(Continued)
popularity, descriptions of the live exits (when voted-off participants left the
house to be welcomed by thousands of cheering and booing fans), the anticipation
of audience behaviour (predicting voting strategies) and the developments
in the house. This was further augmented by constant references on news programs,
chat shows, breakfast television, in the press and on the internet. It
offered the possibility of engaging in gossip networks of an extensive nature –
allowing the moral evaluations of the character and actions of others. As Hill
notes (2002), one of the most compelling reasons for watching Big Brother was
that everyone else was watching it and talking about it.
Big Brother has also been described as symptomatic of a particular social
period that introduces what Corner (2002) has called a ‘postdocumentary culture’:
A period in which audience expectations, social affiliation and modes of
cognition and affect combine with the objective factors of a multi-channel and
intensively commercialised television industry. The funding of documentary is
threatened by the commodity status of all programmes in a television marketplace
that is radically changed in terms of production and consumption. This
cultural turn has been argued to be part of an evolution to a more voyeuristic,
narcissistic and carnivalesque society (Mathijs, 2002) demanding that any
future documentary project in television will need to reconfigure itself strategically
within the new economic and cultural contexts.
The economic context of Big Brother was played out in a global media marketplace.
Selling a format that can be locally produced is hugely economically
successful – it reduces the costs of production and the risks associated with
new programming. Big Brother’s global performance points to a strong and
often remarkable market share. During the first series in the Netherlands, up to
six million viewers tuned in to watch an intimate moment between two contestants.
In Germany the first series was so successful that a second was commissioned
immediately followed by a third. Other countries followed: Portugal,
Spain, Belgium, Switzerland, Sweden, UK, America, Australia, Argentina. All,
apart from America and Sweden, achieved a huge increase in market share for
their respective television companies. In the UK, Channel 4 had the best Friday
night ratings in its history. For the first series 677% of the population watched
Big Brother at least once. More than seven million viewers telephoned Channel
4’s hotline to vote for the winner; the website received three million page
impressions each day, which made it Europe’s top website during the summer
of 2000 (Hill, 2002). Put simply, the Big Brother format was eminently marketable,
cheap and came with the promise of delivering audiences.
(Continued)
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(Continued)
What such an example reveals is that Big Brother cannot be understood if
we insist on analysing it as a programme on its own. Rather it must be seen
as a stage of development in the history of documentary and entertainment;
as a televisual event and a website, news source, chat show fodder etc.; as a
global product for a mediated world where the driver is profit and market
share. We could not hope to understand its place in our world by focusing on
either the viewer’s enjoyment or the damaging influence of a particular ideology
chosen apparently by the producer to be relayed through the text. Both
pleasure and ideology are constantly at work when we consume culture and
the dilemma of how to understand the tension between them is at the centre
of progressive cultural theory. As Corner (2002: 268) says in relation to Big
Brother:
In assessing it, we should neither simplify nor forget the relationship
between its representational system and its commodity functions. By ‘performing
the real’ with such strategic zeal, framing its participants both as game players
and as television ‘actors’, it has helped mark a shift in the nature of
television as a medium for documentation. Perhaps it marks a shift, too, in the
nature of that broader sphere, a sphere where vectors both of structure and
agency combine to produce experience, that John Hartley (1996) has suggestively
dubbed ‘popular reality’.
Part of the appeal of Big Brother is in the tension between engaging with the
real (this is what people really do when you watch them 24 hours a day) and
the televisual (a mediated unreality); the ordinary and the extraordinary. Not
content with creating celebrities the format was exploited further with the extension
of the brand to Celebrity Big Brother, where all the contestants are minor
celebrities. In Junuary 2007 Celebrity Big Brother created a public relations
storm by inviting into the house a former Big Brother contestant turned celebrity
Jade Goody, a young, white, working class woman. There ensued a clash
between Goody and a Bollywood actor Shilpa Shetty that resulted in the show
being criticised as racist. The broadcasting regulator, Ofcom received 46,700
complaints, the most it has ever received with the majority being sent by email.
The event created an international furore that was debated in all the major
national news outlets and evn dicussed in the House of Commons during Prime
Minister’s Question Time. In the public debacle that followed Carphone warehouse,
one of the programmes major sponsors, withdrew its £3m sponsorship.
To understand the nature, scale and impact of this media event requires an
understanding of the race, class and gender politics of the time; the global multi
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(Continued)
media reach of the product; the changing nature of national identity; the
commercial imperatives that underpin all changing nature of national identity;
the commercial imperatives that underpin all production as well as the role of
new technology and the role of the interactive audience. The Jade Goody/Shilpa
Sheetty racism row brought into sharp relief the fact that cultural production
and cultural consumption are determeined by and intricately embadded within
social, economic and political contexts.
Conclusion
To talk of one dominant ideology related directly to economic power implies an
improbably coherent, controlling, argument-free ruling class that forces the rest
of us to go along with its interests. Mass media texts can, however, still be
understood in ideological terms, as forms of communication that privilege certain
sets of ideas and neglect others. Those who argue that media texts include
contradictory messages that at once present the dominant ideology but also
undermine it, point to the challenge of newer politics based on gender, ethnicity
and sexuality that reveal a society of difference both in terms of identity and
interpretation. Cultural studies teach us that difference is ever present albeit
incorporated into mainstream culture in a way that is unchallenging rather than
radical. It also teaches us that power is not uniform nor is it uniformly applied
and accepted. But while inequality and difference is ever more apparent the
concept of ideology still has a central role to play in suggesting connections
between media and power. The approach of critical political economists insists
that we retain a critical edge in our analytical prevarications and provides us
with the means to be politically discriminate.
The struggle over meaning takes place between the process of production and
the act of reception – both of which are determined by their place in a wider
social, political, economic and cultural context and both of which are subject to
constraints. Choices made by the audience must be looked at within the social
context of their daily life and the content itself must be interpreted according
to the social and political circumstances of its production. To focus largely or
exclusively on the structure and content of media messages and attempt to read
off the impact of these messages cannot possibly interrogate the consequences
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of mediated culture (Thompson, 1990). So, rather than just looking at how the
mass media may exert an ideological or hegemonic effect on the behaviour and
attitudes of individuals, it is crucial to consider the functioning of the mass
media within the larger sociological perspective of culture, social structure and
social groups. It would be foolish to ignore that we still live in deeply unequal
capitalist societies, driven by profit and competition operating on a global scale.
It is also undeniable that we live in a media dominated world with many different
ideas and identities in circulation at any one time. We need to understand
the former to appreciate the latter. It is vital to appreciate the relation between
individual autonomy, freedom and rational action on the one hand and the
social construction of identity and behaviour on the other. There may be a
struggle between competing discourses but it is far from being a free-for-all. To
understand the role of the mass media in society we need to consider it in its
social entirety – however difficult that may seem.
Summary
• Political economy and cultural studies approaches to the media have historically been
seen as divergent and antagonistic in the ways in which power and culture is theorized
and the appropriate means of researching media, communication and culture.
• Critical political economy seeks to reveal how forms of financing and organizing cultural
production has consequences for public discourses and representations and the public’s
access to them within a broad context of social and economic structures. It begins
from the standpoint that we live in deeply unequal capitalist societies, driven by profit
and competition operating on a global scale. It tries to show how this impacts upon the
constitution of the public imagination.
• Cultural studies puts ordinary, everyday life at the centre of research and foregrounds
issues of subjectivity, identity, discourse and pleasure in relation to culture. While
acknowledging the broader structural concerns of political economists, cultural studies
also points out the many different ideas and identities in circulation at any one time that
offer the potential for social and political agency.
• Many studies have recognized that keeping political economy and cultural studies in distinct
camps fails to take account of the complexity of communication and culture. By
attempting to combine the socio-economic and political concerns of political economy (the
macro-context), with the agency and subjectivity of cultural studies (the micro-context,
researchers are beginning to address issues of media, culture and society in their social
entirety.
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GOING FURTHER
On the Frankfurt School:
Adorno, T. and Horkheimer, M. (1973) Dialectic of Enlightenment. London: Verso. (Chapter
on ‘The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception’.)
Benjamin, W. (1973) ‘The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction’ in Illuminations,
London: Fontana.
On political economic approaches to media and communications:
Golding, P. and Murdock, G., (1991) ‘Culture, Communications and Political Economy’ in J.
Curran and M. Gurevitch (eds) Mass Media and Society, London: Edward Arnold.
Mosco, V. (1995) The Political Economy of Communication. London: Sage.
Schiller, H. (1989) Culture Inc. New York: Oxford University Press.
On cultural studies approaches to media and communications:
Hall, S. (1980) ‘Cultural Studies: two paradigms’ in P. Scannell (ed.) Media, Culture and
Society. Academic Press: London.
McGuigan, J. (1992) ‘Populism and Ordinary Culture’ in Cultural Populism. Routledge:
London. pp. 13–44.
Williams, R. (1965) ‘The Analysis of Culture’ in The Long Revolution. Penguin:
Harmondsworth. pp. 57–70.
On the conflict between political economy and cultural studies:
Ferguson, M. and Golding, P. (eds) (1997) Cultural Studies in Question. London: Sage.
Garnham, N. (1995) ‘Political economy and cultural studies: Reconciliation or divorce?,
Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 12: 62–71.
Grossberg, L. (1995) cultural studies vs . political economy: Is anyone else bored with this
debate?, Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 12: 72–81).
Holistic approaches to the study of media and communications:
Du Gay P., Hall, S., Janes, L., MacKay, H. and Negus, K. (1997) ‘The Production of the Sony
Walkman’ in Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman. Milton Keynes: The
Open University Press.
Fenton, N., Bryman, A. and Deacon, D. with Birmingham, P. (1998) Mediating Social Science.
London: Sage.
STUDENT ACTIVITIES 1:1
1 Go back to the work of the Frankfurt School and focus on the critique of the culture
industry proposed in the writings of Adorno and Horkheimer.
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MEDIA STUDIES
Consider the questions:
• What aspects of Adorno and Horkheimer’s argument in ‘Enlightenment as Mass Deception’
could be characterized a political economic analysis and why?
• Are Adorno and Horkheimer’s arguments useful when analyzing cultural production
today?
2. In political economy having power in or control over the media implies the capacity
to determine or influence the contents of media products and meanings carried by
them.
Consider the questions:
• What are the key concepts from the tradition of ‘critical political economy’ of the mass
media? How have these been used as a means of understanding cultural production and
media organizations?
• Why do political economists continue to stress questions of ownership? Is there a link
between the ownership of the mass media and the dissemination of messages?
• What is meant by commodification? How does the process of commodification impact
upon cultural producers and their audiences? Is it possible to resist commodification?
3. In cultural studies, being a consumer infers social agency, having the capacity to resist
dominant social relations and ultimately change them.
Consider the questions:
• What is the relationship of culture to the economy in these pieces?
• How is the audience conceived?
• Where does power reside?
4. The conflict between political economy and cultural studies is longstanding and well documented
but may finally be wearing thin.
Consider the questions:
• What are the main points of contention between the two approaches?
• Have there ever been attempts to overcome this theoretical divide?
• What are the potential difficulties in combining the best of both theories?
5. This chapter argues that understanding mediation and communication requires a radically
contextualized and dialogic inter-disciplinary approach.
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Task: Consider the iPod as a cultural product. Try to do a political economic analysis of the
iPod. Think about who produces it, how it is produced, who buys it, what legislation is relevant
to it, the technological infrastructure it is part of. Now try to do a cultural studies
analysis. Think about who uses it and for what purposes, the role it plays in an individual’s
sense of self and identity formation. Now think about the complex of power relations
involved in producing, buying and using something like an iPod. Where does power reside?
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