Session 9
Maya Hadar
 Immigration to Israel
 Ingathering of the exiles
 Israel’s Multicultural Society
 Minor groups in Israel
 Minorities’ politics
On The Agenda
2
Ingathering Exiles
The Idea of “Ingathering Exiles”=>
 Jewish religious belief stemming from the Bible (Prophets):
 Isaiah 11:12 – He (the Lord) will hold up a beacon to the nations and
assemble the banished of Israel, and gather the dispersed of Judah
from the four corners of the earth
 Jeremiah 31:10: He who scattered Israel will gather them and will
guard them as a shepherd his flock
 The Holocaust
 Enabling immigration became a core value of Zionism
Ingathering Exiles
The Idea of “Ingathering Exiles”=>
 The Proclamation of the Establishment of the State of Israel
stated:
"The State of Israel will be open for Jewish immigration and the
ingathering of the exiles; it will foster the development of the country
for all its inhabitants; it will be based on freedom, justice, and peace as
envisaged by the prophets of Israel; it will ensure complete equality of
social and political rights to all its inhabitants irrespective of religion,
race or sex . . . ."
Ingathering Exiles
The Idea of “Ingathering Exiles”=>
 1950: Law of Return was set to regulate
immigration to Israel
 Granted every Jew the automatic right to immigrate
to Israel and become a citizen of the state
 “Ingathering of the Exiles” became a reality:
Jews immigrated to Israel from various countries
as early as in the 1950s
 Israel as a melting pot
“Israel Melting
Pot” T-shirt , 2008
Ingathering Exiles
Integration of immigrants=>
 The process of absorbing these immigrants was difficult:
 Reality of ma’abarot (transit camps) versus dream of Promised Land
 Ties to place of origin and religious/family customs versus pressure
to “become” Israeli
7
 Definition => Households move to permanently live in a new country-
’Aliah’
 Motives of receiving Country => Social-political: Jewish Alia (Israel)
and political refugees
 Economic: Australia – point ranking
 US: Quota by region and industry
 EU: young workforce to replace aging population
 Motives of Immigrants => Economic, social, religious
 Policy => Local economic assistance and equal/preferred labor market
status, welfare and taxes
(Legal) Immigration to Israel
Immigration to Israel
Historic outline =>
 Israel was established by Jews from Europe- Askenazi Jews (88% of
Jews living in Israel before the establishment of the state)
 Pre-state immigration (1930-1940s)
 Mizrahi Immigration waves (North Africa, Middle East, Asia, 1950s’)
“During the 1950s and 1960s, over half a million Mediterranean, North African, and
Middle Eastern Jews came to Israel with little more than the clothes on their collective
back. . . . Completely dependent upon state institutions intent on remolding them in
their own image, choices were limited and autonomy, except in the most private sense,
was unimaginable. . . . ”
-Keys to the Garden: New Israeli Writing
Immigration to Israel
Historic outline =>
 Post 1967
 Immigration from the former Soviet Union (1990’s)
 Immigration of Jews from Ethopia (1990’s-2000’s)
 Immigration from France (2015-)
10
Who are the immigrants?
 The majority of immigrants arriving in Israel are Jewish (e.g., a person
born to an Israeli citizen abroad arriving in Israel with an intention to
settle there)
Immigration to Israel
 Their non-Jewish family relatives
(e.g., non-Jewish spouses or first kin
of citizens or permanent residents
of Israel)
 Not included: foreign workers,
students and refugees
11
Determinants of Immigration
 A large share of the Jewish immigration to Israel was dominated by
“push” factors (national and religious persecutions and economic crises)
 “Pull” factors (religious and Zionistic ideology) have also played an
important role, especially among immigrants from Western Europe and
North America
 In some cases, immigration is dependent on political factors (post Soviet
Union immigration)
Immigration from the Former Soviet Union (FSU)=>
 1948-1967: Relations between Jews in the Soviet Union and the State
of Israel were limited
 Following the Six Day War => Awakened Jewish consciousness among
Soviet Jews + and increasing numbers sought Aliyah
 1970: The Soviet Union permitted significant number of Jews to leave
(a quarter of a million Jews had left the Soviet Union, 140k
immigrated to Israel)
Israel as a Melting Pot
 Late 1980s, even more Soviet Jews were
permitted to leave the Soviet Union
(President Gorbachev’s attempt to
liberalize the country)
 1989-1991: The collapse of the Soviet
Union further facilitated aliya
 1990: 190k immigrants, 1991: 150k
Israel as a Melting Pot
Immigration from the Former Soviet Union (FSU)=>
 Afterwards the stabilization of conditions in the former Soviet Union + adjustment
difficulties in Israel caused immigration to level off at approximately 70k per
year
Israel as a Melting Pot
Immigration from the Former Soviet Union
(FSU)=>
 Push-and-pull factors were Russian discriminatory practices, and Jewish
perceptions of Israel as “The Promised Land” and place of refuge
 Between 1989 and 2003, more than 950k Jews from the former Soviet
Union had made their home in Israel
Unemployment Rates: Immigrants & Native Israelis
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Men
Native Israelis 7.5% 7.1% 7.7% 6.7% 5.2% 4.8% 5.2% 5.8%
Russian immigrants 40.7% 28.5% 19.9% 15.0% 9.0% 7.1% 7.7% 7.0%
Women
Native Israelis 11.0% 11.0% 11.5% 10.0% 9.1% 7.4% 6.8% 7.0%
Russian immigrants 52.9% 50.3% 38.4% 28.5% 21.5% 17.6% 11.8% 10.4%
 Immigrants’ unemployment rate is significantly higher than of native
Israelis
 Unemployment rate drops as the immigrants assimilate
 Decreases in unemployment rate among immigrants are not associated
with an increase in unemployment rate for native Israelis
 The economy is expending in order to incorporate them
Unemployment Rates: Immigrants & Native Israelis
AGE GROUP 1998 1989-1998 % 1998 % 1989-1998
0-4 2,612 47,124 5.7% 5.7%
5-9 3,050 57,651 6.6% 7.5%
10-14 3,151 54,293 6.8% 7.1%
15-19 4,593 60,274 10.0% 7.8%
20-24 4,244 57,413 9.2% 7.5%
25-29 4,294 59,047 9.4% 7.7%
30-34 3,274 61,217 7.1% 8.0%
35-39 3,101 57,822 6.7% 7.5%
40-44 2,866 56,969 6.2% 7.4%
45-49 2,746 36,969 6.0% 4.7%
50-54 2,226 37,460 4.8% 4.8%
55-59 2,385 40,602 5.2% 5.3%
60-64 2,729 43,005 6.0% 5.6%
65-69 1,801 41,639 3.9% 5.4%
70-74 1,444 24,735 3.1% 3.2%
75+ 1,515 34,175 3.3% 4.4%
TOTAL 46,021 769,842 100% 100%
Immigration
from FSU by
Age
OCCUPATION 1998 1998-
1989
%
1998
%1989-
1998
Engineers 4,100 82,250 9.1% 10.7%
Physicians & dentists 800 16,900 1.6% 2.2%
Artists & authors 750 16,450 1.8% 2.1%
Nurses & para-medicals 1,150 18,550 2.4% 2.4%
Teachers 2,400 38,700 4.9% 5.0%
TOTAL 46,000 769,850 100% 100%
Major occupations of FSU immigrants
 Driven by push factors – demise of the USSR
 Other destination countries closing their doors
 High on human capital but low on Jewish
identity
 Most of the immigrants who arrived from the FSU
were urban and well-educated, but communism +
antisemitism did not allow for a developed Jewish
identity
 High % of mixed families and non-Jews
Israel as a Melting Pot
Russian Jews bargaining for
with a Bedouin in a market in
Be’er Sheva
Immigration from the FSU =>
 Invaluable contributions to Israeli society (cultural, scientific, high-tech,
medical, and sport):
 One in four staff members at Israel’s universities now are native Russian
speakers, higher concentration in the sciences
 Many Russian-speaking Israelis choose to preserve their language and
culture
 Russian newspapers, television stations, schools, and social media outlets
exist in Israel
 Multiple integration challenges
Israel as a Melting Pot
Immigration from the FSU=>
Immigration from the Former Soviet Union (FSU)=>
Israel as a Melting Pot
 Over a million citizens of the former
Soviet Union have immigrated to Israel
since the collapse of the Iron Curtain
(1989)
 Immigrants from the FSU currently make
up 15% of the Israeli population, and
have greatly affected the Israeli
society
 FSU immigrants forced Israel to ask difficult “Who is a Jew?” questions
Immigration from the Former Soviet Union (FSU)=>
 Under the Law of Return, Israel grants automatic citizenship to anyone
who has a Jewish grandparent, including people who would not be
considered Jewish according to the official Israeli rabbinate
 As many as a quarter of FSU immigrants are not considered Jewish by
Israel’s Orthodox rabbinate
 Makes it difficult, if not impossible, for many Russian-Israelis to be
married/buried in Israel (domains exclusively controlled by the rabbinate)
 How should Israel respond?
Israel as a Melting Pot
 How should Israel respond?
 Should the Law of Return be amended to
only include those who are considered
Jewish by Orthodox Jewish law?
 Should non-Jewish immigrants be
encouraged to convert (should the process
be made easier and more inviting?
Israel as a Melting Pot
Immigration from the Former Soviet Union (FSU)=>
 Maybe identifying as Jewish, having Jewish ancestry, wanting to live in
Israel, and serving in the Israeli army is enough to be part of the Israeli
society regardless of religion?
Immigration from the Former Soviet Union (FSU)=>
Israel as a Melting Pot
 Is Jewishness a cultural construct or
a biological one?
Immigration from Ethiopia=>
 1980's and 1990’s: Aliyah of the ancient Jewish community of Ethiopia
 1984: 7,000 Ethiopian Jews walked to Sudan (hundreds of miles),
where a secret effort ‘Operation Moses’ brought them to Israel
 1991: Another 15,000 arrived in a dramatic airlift from Addis Ababa,
’Operation Solomon’ (took 30h)
 Several supposedly “last” groups of Ethiopian Jews that have made
aliyah to Israel, including a group of 450 who arrived in Israel in 2013
Israel as a Melting Pot
Israel as a Melting Pot
Immigration from Ethiopia=>
 2015: The Israeli government approved the entry of the “last group” of
Ethiopian Jews- app. 9,100 Ethiopian Jews, most of whom were at the
time living in refugee camps in Adis Ababa and Gondar
 The first group on October 9, 2016
 Many families split by Israel's migration decisions (Jews vs Falashim)
 Low human capital and pre-modern society
 Problems of integration & racism
Immigration from Western Countries =>
 While mass immigrations to Israel have mostly been from countries
of distress, immigration of individuals from the ’free world’ has also
continued throughout the years
 Mostly persons motivated by idealism
 This aliyah gained strength after the Six Day War, with the
awakening feelings of Jewish identity among Diaspora Jewry
Israel as a Melting Pot
 Survey population: immigrants who arrived in Israel during 1990-2007
and were ages 26 – 74 in 2010
 Survey sample: Sub-Sample of 2008 census sample
 The sample frame included about 84,000 immigrants. The survey sample
included about 5,100 immigrants
 About 4000 immigrants (80%) responded to the questionnaire
 3 methods of data collecting: regular mail, Internet and CATI (ComputerAssisted
Telephone Interviewing)
 MEDSTAT III - 1-5 July 2013
Methodology
Main findings – Main Demographic Characteristics
Immigrants by country of birth
4.6
80.5
14.9
Ethiopia USSR (Former) Other countries
Immigrants by year of immigration to Israel
56.3
31.6
12.1
1990–1995 1996–2001 2002–2007
Main findings – Reasons of Immigration
Immigrants by reasone of immigration
13.2
7.8
18.4
6.4
18.0 17.6
12.1
6.4
Political
situation in
countryof
origin(1)
Zionism Desire to live
as a Jew in
the Jewish
State
Desire to
advance
professionally
or
economically
Desire to
insure the
children's
future
Decision of
parents,
spouse or
another
relative
Immigration of
family
members
and/or friends
to Israel
Other
Main findings – Education level at the time of Immigration
Main findings – Employment after immigration
Main findings – Future Optimism
Contemporary Immigration => 2014
 Spike in immigration to Israel
 32% increase (compared to 2013), about 26,500 immigrants
 Immigration from the Ukraine increased more than 190% due to the
ongoing civil war and social unrest
 First time in the history of Israel immigration from France surpassed
immigration from every other country
 More people immigrated to Israel from free countries rather than from
countries in distress
Contemporary Immigration
Contemporary Immigration => 2015
 Rising tide of anti-Semitism + fear of terror attacks prompted the largest
immigration of Jews to Israel from Western Europe
 9,880 Western European Jews made aliyah, the largest annual number
ever recorded
 The vast majority of these immigrants (7,900) came from France, where there
were two large national terror attacks and several individual violent attacks
against Jews during that year
 800 individuals made aliyah from England
 31,013 Jewish individuals made Aliyah, a 12-year high
Contemporary Immigration
Contemporary Immigration =>
 2016 => Only 27,000 immigrants made aliyah to Israel, a significant
decrease compared with 2015
 2017 => 37,000 new immigrants, arriving from Russia (27%), the
Ukraine (25%), France (13%), and the United States (10%)
Contemporary Immigration
 Helping Jews Escape Hostile Areas
 Organized rescue missions of Jews who,
for safety’s sake, must immigrate to
Israel on short notice
 Israel as a safe haven in Israel
 Priority areas today for “Aliyah of
Rescue” are countries where living a
Jewish life is dangerous (countries that
are openly hostile to Israel)
Aliyah of Rescue
Operation Magic Carpet Airlifts
Yemenite Jews to Israel, 1949
38
Migration Share of Total Population Growth
35%
62%
80%
94%
50%
82%
65%
38%
20%
6%
50%
18%
1948-1960 1961-1971 1972-1982 1983-1989 1990-1999 2000-2008
Natural Increase Migration Balance
Israel as Ethnic Democracy
 According to the ’Law of Return’, a 'Jew' for the purposes of Aliyah and
citizenship is broadly defined, similarly to the Nazi anti-Jewish laws of the
1930s
 The gap between a civic and Halachic definitions of Jewishness is a source
of discrimination of non-Jews
 Lack of separation between state and religion & religious monopoly in
personal status laws
 The Law of Return does not include Arabs
Israel as Ethnic Democracy
 The problem of occupied territories and status of Palestinians beyond the
Green Line (including East Jerusalem)- Minority rights
 Two State solution vs State of all Citizens
 Ahkenasim, Spharadim & Mizrahim
 Old-timers vs. recent immigrants
 Social class and wealth
 Center vs periphery
 Political right-center-left-radical left
 Skin color, accents, dress & behavior codes
Social Cleaves
 Israel is a Democracy AND a Jewish State
 All citizens of Israel have the right to vote (eligible) and be represented
in the Israeli Parliament (Knesset)
 Pay taxes and are entitles to social welfare and health benefits
 Hold Israeli passports and identity cards
 Over 2 million people (app. 26% of Israel’s population) are not Jewish
and considered an ethnic minority
 Other minorities exist: cultural, religious etc.
 For example, Arabs are the largest cultural minority- common language,
different religious
Minority Communities in Israel
Religious minority groups in Israel =>
Minority Communities in Israel
 Christians
 Muslims
 Druze
 Cherkassy
 Achmadis
 Bahais
 Hindus
 Non homogenic
 Collectively defined as ‘Arab citizens of Israel’, non-Jewish communities
include a number of different (primarily Arabic-speaking) groups, each
with distinct characteristics
Muslim Arabs =>
 Over 1.2 million people, most of whom are Sunni
 Reside mainly in small towns and villages, over half of them in the north
of the country
Minority Communities in Israel
Bedouin Arabs =>
 Appr. 250k, Muslims
 Belong to some 30 tribes, a majority scattered over a wide area in the South
Minority Communities in Israel
 Formerly nomadic shepherds,
the Bedouin are currently in
transition from a tribal social
framework to a permanently
settled society and are
gradually entering Israel’s
labor force
Christian Arabs =>
 Some 123k, live mainly in urban areas (e.g. Nazareth, Shfar’am, and Haifa)
 The majority are affiliated with the Greek Catholic, Greek Orthodox and
Roman Catholic churches
Minority Communities in Israel
The Arameans =>
 Ancient nationality, small minority (200 families)
 Recognized as a Christian non Arab minority since
2014
 Distinguishing between Christian and Muslim
citizens of Israel- why?
The Druze =>
 Tradition dates back to the 11th century and incorporates elements of
Islam, Hinduism and even classical Greek philosophy
 Some 122k Arabic-speakers living in 22 villages in the northern regions
of the Galilee, Carmel and the Golan Heights
Minority Communities in Israel
 Constitute a separate cultural, social,
and religious community
 Israeli Druze rarely marry across
religious lines
The Druze =>
Minority Communities in Israel
 The Druze tradition has been closed off to outsiders and proselytism has
been prohibited. Since that ban, the Druze population has continued to
exist solely based on the continuation of its previous generations
 While the Druze religion is not accessible to non practitioners, one
known aspect of it is taqiyya- complete loyalty and adherents to the
government of the country in which they reside
 In Israel, the Druze are active in public life and subject to the military
draft (in contrast with Israeli Arabs, who are exempt from military
service)
Cherkassy/Circassians =>
Minority Communities in Israel
 Originate in the Caucasus
 Invaded by the Russians in the 19th century
 The Cherkassy community felt threatened
 The Ottoman Empire (ruled Palestine)
considered the Cherkazi to be good allies
(good fighters, could protect their interests in
Palestine)
 Invited them to come over + gave them land in
the Galilee
The Caucasus is an area
situated between the Black
Sea and the Caspian Sea,
occupied by Russia, Georgia,
Azerbaijan & Armenia
Cherkassy/Circassians =>
Minorities in Israel
 (Sunni) Muslims but not Arabs
 Share neither the Arab origin nor the cultural background of the larger
Islamic community
 Around 4,000 Cherkassy living in 2 main villages in the Galilee
 While maintaining a distinct ethnic identity, they participate in Israel’s
economic and national affairs without assimilating either into Jewish
society or into the Muslim community
 Mandatory army service (for men)
 Education systems are in Hebrew, Cherkassic and Arabic
Arab Israelis
Arab Community Life =>
 Late 19th century: when Jewish immigration stimulated
economic growth, many Arabs were attracted to the area
by its employment opportunities, higher wages, and
better living conditions
 The majority of Israel’s Arab population lives in selfcontained
towns and villages in Galilee, including the city
of Nazareth, the central area between Hadera and
Petah Tikva, the Negev, and in mixed urban centers
(Jerusalem, Acre, Haifa, Lod, Ramle, and Jaffa)
Religious groups in Israel => Achmadim
 ‘New’ religion (19th Century), originated in India
 A combination of several religions, mostly Islam, Hindu, and
Christianity
 Do not accept the Jihhad (Holy War) aspect of Islam
 Urban, live in Haifa, around 2k people
Minorities in Israel
Arab Israelis
Arab Community Life =>
 Israel’s Arab community is essentially non-assimilating
 The community’s distinct identity is facilitated through:
 The use of Arabic (Israel’s second official language)
 A separate Arab/Druze school system
 Arabic mass media, literature, and theater
 Maintenance of independent Muslim, Druze, and Christian
denominational courts which adjudicate matters of personal status
Arab Israelis
Arab Community Life =>
 Compulsory education + participation in Israel’s democratic process are
rapidly affecting traditional outlooks and lifestyles
 Gradual weakening of tribal and patriarchal authority
 Israeli Arab women: significantly liberalized by legislation stipulating
equal rights + prohibition of polygamy and child marriage
 The political involvement of the Arab sector is manifested in national and
municipal elections
 Arabs run political + administrative affairs in their own municipalities and
represent Arab interests through their elected representatives in the Knesset
Arab Israelis
Arab Community Life =>
 Since Israel’s establishment, Arab citizens have been exempted from
compulsory service in the IDF
 Out of consideration for their family, religious, and cultural affiliations with
the Arab world (which has subjected Israel to frequent attacks)
 Out of concern over possible dual loyalties
 Volunteer military service is encouraged
 Since 1957, at the request of their community leaders, IDF service has
been mandatory for Druze and Circassian men, while the number of
Bedouin joining the career army voluntarily increases steadily
Arab Israelis
Arab Community Life =>
 The Israeli police force welcomed its first Muslim-Arab deputy police
commissioner in February 2016
 Is heading a new division within the Israeli police force, tasked with
promoting law enforcement in Israel’s Arab sector and recruiting fellow
Muslims and/or Arabs to join the force
Arab Israelis
Arab/Jewish Dynamics =>
 Arab citizens exist on the margins of the conflicting worlds of Jews and
Palestinians
 While remaining a segment of the Arab people (in culture and identity)
and disputing Israel’s identification as a Jewish state, they see their future
tied to Israel
 Adopted Hebrew as a second language and Israeli culture as an extra layer
in their lives
 Exhibit patriotism
 Strive to attain a higher degree of participation in national life, greater
integration into the economy and more benefits for their own
towns/villages
Arab Israelis
Arab/Jewish Dynamics =>
 Development of inter-group relations between Israel’s Arabs and Jews
has been hindered by deeply-rooted differences in religion, values, and
political beliefs
 Co-exist as two self-segregated communities
 Contact and segregation
 As a multi-ethnic, multicultural, multi-religious, and multi-lingual society,
Israel has a high level of informal segregation patterns (groups are not
separated by official policy but keep apart)
Arab Israelis
Arab/Jewish Dynamics =>
 Despite a fairly high degree of social cleavage, economic disparities and
heated political life, the society is relatively stable.
 The low level of social conflict between the different groups
(notwithstanding an inherent potential for social unrest) can be attributed to
the country’s judicial and political systems, which represent strict legal and
civic equality
 From a melting pot society to a mosaic society
 Made up of different population groups coexisting in the framework of a
democratic state
Next Session...
60
 Minorities in Israel
 Arab Israelis
61
Thank You For Your Attention!
Questions???