Nuclear Fuel Cycle I
PhDr. Tomáš Vlček, Ph.D.
International Relations and Energy Security
Department of International Relations and European Studies
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Front End Price Break-down (2013)
Uranium 9.0 kg U3O8 $ 50 per lb $ 990 41%
Conversion 7.6 kg U $ 13 per kg $ 99 4%
Enrichment 7 SWU $ 150 per
SWU
$ 1050 43%
Fabrication 1 kg $ 300 per kg $ 300 12%
Total $ 2439 100%
About 20 tonnes of enriched uranium for an average large
reactor refuel is needed, the cost is thus about $ 50 million
Total front end world market is now worth about $ 25 billion
annually
Source: Steve Kidd, World Nuclear Association
Nuclear Fuel Economy
The reactor fuel buyers fight hard to save every last cent because
this is cost they feel they can influence. It has however minor role
on the NPP operating costs.
Impact of 50 % increase in fuel costs on generating costs
Source: Global Energy Decisions, ERI, Inc.; IEA WEO 2006; in Steve Kidd, 2010, Nuclear
Fuel: Myths and Realities
 Natural uranium is relatively abundant and evenly spread in
the earth's crust. The occurence is about 500 times higher
than with gold.
 Granite (% of the earth's crust) is less concentrated with
uranium = 4 ppm (0,0001 %).
 Coal is more abundant with uraniu, the concentration is
around 100 ppm (0,01 %), in some fertilizers up to 400 ppm
(0,04 %).
 If the concentration is high (0,03 % and more), the matter is
called uranium ore and could be mined with profit.
 Traditional mining (open mine pits, shaft mines)
 In-situ methods 7
Mining
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Mining
Uranium Mine Uranium Grade
(%)
Annual
Production (tU)
Country
Olympic Dam 0,05 4356 South Australia
Ranger 0,2 5544 Northern
Australia
McArthur River
mine
20,66 8491 USA
Dolní Rožínka 0,1-0,2 408 Czech Republic
Krasnokamensk 0,38 3431 Russian
Federation
Cigar Lake 20,67 - Canada
McClean Lake 2,4 2490 USA
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Mining
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 Rising NPP capacity factors (10 % in 1990s)
 Rising enrichment levels (up to 5 % U235)
 Uranium price levels limit usable deposits exploration and extraction (proven
reserves vs. pure guesses) – U from oceans
 According to Red Book, there is 7,635 Mt of Identified resources of U, not
counting resources with current production price above 260 USD/1 kg
 400 junior uranium companies emerged recently (largely still in exploration
stage)
 Stockpiles of natural and enriched uranium
 RepU (expensive U = pressure on reprocessing)
 P239 (Spent fuel, weapons)
 Down-blended weapons-grade uranium
 Re-enriched uranium tails assay (currently 0.25-0.3% U235)
 Higher enrichment (expensive U = pressure on higher enrichment/U235
extraction)
 Breeder reactors (U238 to P239)
 Fusion (?)
 Extreme short-term measures (lowering NPP production output means
longer fuel campaigns)
Uranium Production Perspective
 The ore usually contains about 0.1% uranium, sometimes even less.
 In this form it is unusable and any transport would be unnecessarily
expensive.
 Processing plants therefore usually surround the mine.
 At first one, the uranium is freed from the so-called uranium tailings. The
refined ore is then ground into mash. The mash is concentrated and then
chemically leached by sulfuric acid. After drying the resulting product is
the uranium concentrate U3O8 (yellow cake).
 After drying, and usually heating, the uranium is concentrated to about
80% and filled into 200 liter barrels in which it is transported for further
processing.
 The rest of the rock contains residues after dissolution and most of the
radioactivity (natural uranium radioactivity is consisted largely of
radioactive elements emerging due to uranium´s natural decay, these
remain in the uranium ore after precipitation of uranium). These tailings
are then placed back into the mine or tailing ponds, where they are
artificially isolated from the environment.
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Processing
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 Given that uranium enrichment using existing technology
can only happen in a gaseous form, is the conversion of
yellowcake to gas a necessary step in the fuel supply
chain.
 Pitchblende (U3O8) can be directly converted to uranium
trioxide (UO3) which can be directly used in specific
reactors that do not require enriched fuel.
 For most reactors the uranium concentration in directly
produced uranium dioxide is not sufficiently high. Thus
the pitchblende is converted into uranium hexafluoride
(UF6), which is normally in a gaseous state.
 Uranium hexafluoride is then pumped into large metal
cylinders, where it solidifies, and transported to the
enrichment plants. 31
Conversion
Source: Euratom Supply Agency
-China´s capacity is expected to grow considerably in 2025 and beyond
-Plan to develop Ulba plant in Kazakhstan (12 000 tU)
Conversion
 The capacity of enrichment plants is determined in kg of
SWU (Separative Work Unit).
 Example: Bigger nuclear power plant with an output of
1300 MWe (equivalent to 3 of 4 units of Dukovany)
needs for annual operation about 25 tons of fuel
enriched to 3.75%. For its production 210 tons of natural
uranium and about 120,000 SWU is needed. Enrichment
plant with a capacity of 1 million SWU / year - such as
the Chinese plant in Lanzhou (900 kSWU / year) would
be able to supply eight such plants.
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Enrichment
Source: World Nuclear Association Nuclear Fuel Report 2013 & 2105, Areva 2014
Reference Document for most 2013 figures.
Enrichment
SWU calculator: http://www.wise-uranium.org/nfcue.html
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Country Company Location
Capacity (1000
SWU/year)
Porous membrane enrichment
Argentina CNEA Pilcaniyeu 20
Čína CNNC Lanzhou 900
Francie EURODIF Tricastin 10 800
USA
U. S.
Enrichment
Corp.
Paducah,
Kentucky
11 300
Porous membrane enrichment total 23 020
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Centrifuge enrichment
Brazil INB Resende ?
China CNNC
Hanzhong 500
Lanzhou 500
France EURODIF Gerges Besse II, Tricastin Under Construction
India DAE Nuclear Fuel Complex Ratnahalli 4,5
Iran AEOI
Nazanz ?
Qom ?
Japan
JNC Ningyo Toge 200
Japan Nuclear Fuel Limited Rokkasho-mura 1 050
North Korea Yongbyon 8
Germany Urenco Deutschland GmbH Gronau 2 750
Netherlands Urenco Nederland BV Almelo 4 400
Pakistan
Pakistan Atomic Energy
Commission
Kahuta 5
Russia Rosatom
UEIE Yekaterinburg 7 000
SKhK Seversk 4 000
ECP Zelenogorsk 3 000
AEKhK Angarsk 2 600
USA Urenco USA
National Enrichment Facility,
Lea County, NM
Under Construction
Great Britain Urenco UK Ltd. Capenhurst 5 050
Total centrifuge enrichment 31 067,5
Enrichment Economy
SWU calculator:
http://www.wise-uranium.org/nfcue.html
Nuclear Fuel Cost Calculator:
http://www.wise-uranium.org/nfcc.html
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Difference to every other step:
 1) Fabrication is a highly specialised service rather than commodity
(barrier for newcomers enetring the market)
 2) TVEL offers full front end process as a product (i.e. fuel) vs. steps
in the fuel cycle
 3) Main technology (NPP) suppliers are also main fuel producers
 4) Fuel is manufactured according to public tenders specifing the
product in details
 5) VVER technology was developed paralelly with western
technology (legacy of cold war)
 6) Markets were opened 25 years ago with no experience on both
sides
 7) The nuclear fuel quality is critical for NPP production. The financial
implications of reduced plant performance would quickly outweigh
any benefit from potentially lower fuel prices
Fabrication
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