1
Theorizing Globalization
Douglas Kellner
(http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/kellner/)
Globalization appears to be the buzzword of the 1990s, the primary attractor of books,
articles, and heated debate, just as postmodernism was the most fashionable and debated topic of
the1980s. A wideand diverse range of social theorists arearguing that today's world is organized by
accelerating globalization, which is strengthening the dominance of a world capitalist economic
system, supplanting the primacy of the nation-state by transnational corporations and
organizations, and eroding local cultures and traditions through a global culture.
1
Marxists, world
systems theorists, functionalists, Weberians, and other contemporary theorists are converging on
theposition that globalization is a distinguishing trend of thepresent moment.
Moreover, advocates of a postmodern break in history argue that developments in
transnational capitalism are producing a new global historical configuration of post-Fordism, or
postmodernism as an emergent cultural logic of capitalism(Harvey 1989; Soja 1989; Jameson 1991;
and Gottdiener 1995). Others define the emergent global economy and culture as a "network
society" grounded in new communications and information technology (Castells 1996, 1997, and
1998). For others, globalization marks the triumph of capitalism and its market economy (see
apologists such as Fukuyama 1992 and Friedman 1999 who perceive this process as positive, while
others portray it as negative, such as Mander and Goldsmith 1996; Eisenstein 1998; and Robins and
Webster 1999). Some theorists see the emergence of a new transnational ruling elite and the
universalization of consumerism(Sklair 2001), while others stress global fragmentation of “the clash
of civilizations” (Huntington 1996). Driving “post” discourses into novel realms of theory and
politics, Hardt and Negri (2000) present theemergence of “Empire” as producing emergent forms of
sovereignty, economy, culture, and political struggle that open the new millennium to an
unforeseeable and unpredictable flow of novelties, surprises, and upheavals.
Indeed, globalization is oneof themost hotly debated issues of the present era. For some, it
is a cover concept for global capitalism and imperialism, and is accordingly condemned as another
formof theimposition of thelogic of capital and the market on ever more regions of the world and
spheres of life. For others, it is thecontinuation of modernization and a force of progress, increased
wealth, freedom, democracy, and happiness. Its defenders present globalization as beneficial,
generating fresh economic opportunities, political democratization, cultural diversity, and the
opening to an exciting new world. Its critics see globalization as harmful, bringing about increased
domination and control by the wealthier overdeveloped nations over the poor underdeveloped
countries, thus increasing the hegemony of the “haves” over the “have nots.” In addition,
supplementing the negative view, globalization critics assert that globalization produces an
undermining of democracy, a cultural homogenization, and increased destruction of natural species
and the environment.
2
Some imagine the globalization project -- whether viewed positively or
negatively -- as inevitable and beyond human control and intervention, whereas others view
globalization as generating new conflicts and new spaces for struggle, distinguishing between
2
globalization fromabove and globalization frombelow (and Brecher, Costello, and Smith 2000).
I wish to sketch aspects of a critical theory of globalization that willdiscuss the fundamental
transformations in the world economy, politics, and culture in a dialectical framework that
distinguishes between progressive and emancipatory features and oppressive and negative
attributes. This requires articulations of the contradictions and ambiguities of globalization and the
ways that globalization is both imposed fromabove and yet can be contested and reconfigured from
below. I argue that the key to understanding globalization critically is theorizing it at once as a
product of technological revolution and the global restructuring of capitalism in which economic,
technological, political, and cultural features are intertwined. From this perspective, one should
avoid both technological and economic determinismand allone-sided optics of globalization in favor
of a view that theorizes globalization as a highly complex, contradictory, and thus ambiguous set of
institutions and social relations, as well as involving flows of goods, services, ideas, technologies,
cultural forms, and people (seeAppadurai 1996).
Finally, I will raise the question of whether debates centered around the "post" (i.e.
postmodernism, postindustrialism, postFordism, and so on) do or do not elucidate the phenomenon
of globalization. I argue in the affirmative, claiming that discourses of the post dramatize what is
new, original, and different in our current situation, but that such discourse can be and is easily
misused. For thediscourse of postmodernity, for example, to haveany force, it must be grounded in
analysis of scientific and technological revolution and the global restructuring of capital or it is just
an empty buzzword (seeBest and Kellner 1997 and 2001). Thus, I would suggest that to properly
theorize postmodernity, one must articulate globalization and the roles of technoscience and new
technologies in its construction. In turn, understanding how scientific and technological revolution
and theglobal restructuring of capitalismarecreatingunique historical configurations of globalization
helps oneperceive theurgency and force of thediscourse of the“post.”
Globalization, Technological Revolution, and theRestructuring of Capitalism
For critical social theory, globalization involves both capitalist markets and sets of social
relations and flows of commodities, capital, technology, ideas, forms of culture, and people across
national boundaries viaa global networked society (seeCastells 1996, 1997, and 1998 and Held, et al
1999). The transmutations of technology and capital work together to create a new globalized and
interconnected world. A technological revolution involving the creation of a computerized network
of communication, transportation, and exchange is the presupposition of a globalized economy,
along with theextension of a world capitalist market system that is absorbing ever more areas of the
world and spheres of production, exchange, and consumption into its orbit. The technological
revolution presupposes global computerized networks and the free movement of goods,
information, and peoples across national boundaries. Hence, the Internet and global computer
networks make possible globalization by producing a technological infrastructure for the global
economy. Computerized networks, satellite-communication systems, and the software and
hardware that link together and facilitate the global economy depend on breakthroughs in
microphysics. Technoscience has generated transistors, increasingly powerful and sophisticated
3
computer chips, integrated circuits, high-tech communication systems, and a technological
revolution that provides an infrastructure for the global economy and society (see Gilder 1989 and
2000; Kaku 1997; and Best and Kellner 2001).
From this perspective, globalization cannot be understood without comprehending the
scientific and technological revolutions and global restructuring of capital that are the motor and
matrix of globalization. Many theorists of globalization, however, either fail to observe the
fundamentalimportanceof scientificand technological revolution and the new technologies that help
spawn globalization, or interpret theprocess in a technological determinist framework that occludes
theeconomic dimensions of theimperatives and institutions of capitalism. Such one-sided optics fail
to grasp the coevolution of science, technology, and capitalism, and the complex and highly
ambiguous system of globalization that combines capitalism and democracy, technological
mutations, and a turbulent mixtureof costs and benefits, gains and losses.
In order to theorize theglobal network economy, one therefore needs to avoid the extremes
of technological and economic determinism. Technological determinists frequently use the discourse
of postindustrial, or postmodern, society to describe current developments. This discourse often
produces an ideal-type distinction between a previous mode of industrial production characterized
by heavy industry, mass production and consumption, bureaucratic organization, and social
conformity, contrasted to the new postindustrial society characterized by "flexible production," or
"postFordism," in which new technologies serve as the demiurge to a new postmodernity (Harvey
1987).
For postmodern theorists such as Baudrillard (1993), technologies of information and social
reproduction (e.g. simulation) have permeated every aspect of society and created a new social
environment. In the movement toward postmodernity, Baudrillard claims that humanity has left
behind reality and modern conceptions, as well as the world of modernity. This postmodern
adventure is marked by an implosion of technology and the human, which is generating a new
posthuman species and postmodern world (see Baudrillard 1993 and the analyses in Kellner 1989b
and 1994). For other less extravagant theorists of the technological revolution, the human species is
evolving into a novel postindustrial technosociety, culture, and condition where technology,
knowledge, and information aretheaxial or organizingprinciples (Bell 1976).
There are positive and negative models of technological determinism. A positive discourse
envisages new technologies as producing a new economy interpreted affirmatively as fabricating a
fresh wealth of nations. On this affirmative view, globalization provides opportunities for small
business and individual entrepreneurs, empowering excluded persons and social groups.
Technophiles claim that new technologies also make possible increased democratization,
communication, education, culture, entertainment, and other social benefits, thus generating a utopia
of social progress.
Few legitimating theories of the information and technological revolution, however,
contextualize thestructuring, implementation, marketing, and use of new technologies in the context
4
of the vicissitudes of contemporary capitalism. The ideologues of the information society act as if
technology were an autonomous force and either neglect to theorize the coevolution of capital and
technology, or usetheadvancements of technology to legitimate market capitalism (i.e. Gilder 1989
and 1999; Gates 1995 and 1999; Friedman 1999). Theorists, like Kevin Kelly, for instance, the
executive editor of Wired, think that humanity has entered a post-capitalist society that constitutes
an original and innovative stage of history and economy where previous categories do not apply
(1994 and 1998; see the critique in Best and Kellner 1999). Or, like Bill Gates (1995 and 1999),
defenders of the “new economy” imagine computer and information technologies producing a
"friction-free capitalism," perceived as a highly creative form of capitalism that goes beyond its
previous contradictions, forms, and limitations.
A negative version of technological determinism, by contrast, portrays the new world
system as constituted by a monolithic or homogenizing technological system of domination. The
German philosopher and Nazisupporter Martin Heidegger talked of the "complete Europeanisation
of theearth and man" (1971: 15), claiming that Western science and technology were creating a new
organization or framework, which he called Gestell (or "enframing"), and that was encompassing
ever more realms of experience. French theorist Jacques Ellul (1967) depicted a totalitarian
expansion of technology, or what he called la technique, imposing its logic on ever more domains of
life and human practices. More recently, a large number of technophobic critics argue that new
technologies and global cyberspace are a realm of alienation and reification where humans are
alienated from our bodies, other people, nature, tradition, and lived communities (Borgmann 1994
and 1999; Slouka 1995; Stoll 1995; Shenk 1998; and Virilio 1998).
In addition to technologically determinist and reductive postindustrial accounts of
globalization, there areeconomic determinist discourses that view it primarily as the continuation of
capitalismrather than its restructuring through technological revolution. A large number of theorists
conceive globalization simply as a process of theimposition of thelogic of capital and neo-liberalism
on various parts of theworld rather than seeing the restructuring process and the enormous changes
and transformations that scientific and technological revolution are producing in the networked
economy and society. Capital logic theorists, for instance, portray globalization primarily as the
imposition of the logic of capital on the world economy, polity, and culture, often engaging in
economic determinism, rather than seeing the complex new configurations of economy, technology,
polity, and culture, and attendant forces of domination and resistance. In thesame vein, some critical
theorists depict globalization as the triumph of a globalized hegemony of market capitalism, where
capital creates a homogeneous world culture of commercialization, commodification, administration,
surveillance, and domination (Robins and Webster 1999).
From these economistic perspectives, globalization is merely a continuation of previous
social tendencies; i.e. the logic of capital and domination by corporate and commercial interests of
the world economy and culture. Defenders of capitalism, by contrast, present globalization as the
triumph of freemarkets, democracy, and individual freedom (Fukuyama 1998 and Friedman 1999).
Hence, there are both positive and negative versions of economic and technological determinism.
Most theories of globalization, therefore, are reductive, undialectical, and one-sided, either failing to
5
see the interaction between technological features of globalization and the global restructuring of
capitalism, or the complex relations between capitalism and democracy. Dominant discourses of
globalization arethus one-sidedly for or against globalization, failing to articulate the contradictions
and theconflicting costs and benefits, upsides and downsides, of the process. Hence, many current
theories of globalization do not capture the novelty and ambiguity of the present moment that
involves both innovativeforms of technology and economy -- and emergent conflicts and problems
generated by thecontradictions of globalization.
In particular, an economic determinismand reductionism that merely depicts globalization as
the continuation of market capitalism fails to comprehend the new forms and modes of capitalism
itself which are based on novel developments in science, technology, culture, and everyday life.
Likewise, technological determinism fails to note how the new technologies and new economy are
part of a global restructuring of capitalism and are not autonomous forces that themselves are
engendering a new society and economy which breaks with the previous mode of social
organization. The postindustrial society is sometimes referred to as the "knowledge society," or
"information society," in which knowledge and information are given roles more predominant than
earlier days (seethesurvey and critique in Webster 1995). It is now obvious that the knowledge and
information sectors are increasingly important domains of our contemporary moment and that
therefore thetheories of Daniel Bell and other postindustrial theorists are not as ideological and far
off the mark as many of his critics on the left once argued. But in order to avoid the technological
determinism and idealism of many forms of this theory, one should theorize the information or
knowledge "revolution" as part and parcel of a new formof technocapitalism marked by a synthesis
of capital and technology.
Some poststructuralist theories that stress the complexity of globalization exaggerate the
disjunctions and autonomous flows of capital, technology, culture, people, and goods, thus a critical
theory of globalization grounds globalization in a theory of capitalist restructuring and technological
revolution. To paraphrase Max Horkheimer, whoever wants to talk about capitalism, must talk
about globalization, and it is impossible to theorize globalization without talking about the
restructuring of capitalism. Theterm"technocapitalism" is useful to describe thesynthesis of capital
and technology in the present organization of society (Kellner 1989a). Unlike theories of
postmodernity (i.e. Baudrillard), or the knowledge and information society, which often argue that
technology is the new organizing principle of society, the concept of technocapitalism points to
both theincreasingly important roleof technology and theenduring primacy of capitalist relations of
production. In an era of unrestrained capitalism, it would be difficult to deny that contemporary
societies are still organized around production and capital accumulation, and that capitalist
imperatives continue to dominate production, distribution, and consumption, as well as other
cultural, social and political domains.
3
Workers remain exploited by capitalists and capital persists
as thehegemonic force -- moreso than ever after thecollapse of communism.
Moreover, with the turn toward neo-liberalism as a hegemonic ideology and practice, the
market and its logic comes to triumph over public goods and the state is subservient to economic
imperatives and logic. Yet the term technocapitalism points to a new configuration of capitalist
6
society in which technical and scientific knowledge, computerization and automation of labor, and
information technology and multimedia play a role in the process of production analogous to the
function of human labor power, mechanization of thelabor process, and machines in an earlier era of
capitalism. This process is generating novel modes of societal organization, forms of culture and
everyday life, conflicts, and modes of struggle.
The emergence of new and original forms of technology, politics, culture, and economy
marks a situation parallel to that confronted by the Frankfurt school in the 1930s. These German
theorists who left Nazi Germany were forced to theorize the new configurations brought about by
the transition from market to state monopoly capitalism (Kellner 1989a and Bronner and Kellner
1989). In their now classical texts, the Frankfurt school analyzed the emergent forms of social and
economic organization, technology, and culture; the rise of giant corporations and cartels and the
capitalist state in "organized capitalism," in both its fascist or "democratic" state capitalist forms;
and theculture industries and mass culture which served as new modes of social control, new forms
of ideology and domination, and novel configurations of culture and everyday life.
Today, critical theorists confront the challenge of theorizing the new forms of
technocapitalism and novelties of the present era constructed by syntheses of technology and
capital in theemergence of a new stage of global capitalism. Thenotion of technocapitalismattempts
to avoid technological or economic determinism by guiding theorists to perceive the interaction of
capital and technology in thepresent moment. Capital is generating innovative forms of technology
just as its restructuring is producing novel configurations of a networked global economy, culture,
and polity. In terms of political economy, the emergent postindustrial form of technocapitalism is
characterized by a decline of the state and increased power of the market, accompanied by the
growing power of globalized transnational corporations and governmental bodies and declining
power of the nation-state and its institutions -- which remain, however, extremely important
players in theglobal economy, as theresponses to theterror attacks of September 11 document.
Globalization also is constituted by a complex interconnection between capitalism and
democracy, which involves positive and negative features, that both empowers and disempowers
individuals and groups, undermining and yet creating potential for fresh types of democracy. Yet
most theories of globalization areeither primarily negative, presenting it as a disaster for the human
species, or as positive, bringing a wealth of products, ideas, and economic opportunities to a global
arena. Hence, I would advocate development of a critical theory of globalization that would
dialectically appraise its positive and negative features. A critical theory is sharply critical of
globalization’s oppressiveeffects, skeptical of legitimating ideological discourse, but also recognizes
the centrality of the phenomenon in the present age. And it affirms and promotes globalization’s
progressive features (such as the Internet, which, as I document below, makes possible a
reconstruction of education and moredemocraticpolity, as well as increasing the power of capital),
while noting contradictions and ambiguities.
TheContradictions of Globalization
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The terrorist acts on the United States on September 11 and subsequent Terror War
dramatically disclose the downsides of globalization, the ways that global flows of technology,
goods, information, ideologies, and people can have destructive as well as productive effects. The
disclosureof powerful anti-Western terrorist networks shows that globalization divides theworld as
it unifies, that it produces enemies as it incorporates participants. The events disclose explosive
contradictions and conflicts at the heart of globalization and that the technologies of information,
communication, and transportation that facilitate globalization can also be used to undermine and
attack it, and generate instruments of destruction as wellas production.
4
The experience of September 11 points to the objective ambiguity of globalization, that
positive and negative sides are interconnected, that the institutions of the open society unlock the
possibilities of destruction and violence, as well as democracy, free trade, and cultural and social
exchange. Once again, the interconnection and interdependency of the networked world was
dramatically demonstrated as terrorists from the Middle East brought local grievances from their
region to attack key symbols of American power and the very infrastructure of New York. Some
saw terrorism as an expression of “thedark sideof globalization,” while I would conceive it as part
of the objective ambiguity of globalization that simultaneously creates friends and enemies, wealth
and poverty, and growing divisions between the “haves” and “have nots.” Yet, the downturning of
theglobal economy, intensification of local and global political conflicts, repression of human rights
and civil liberties, and general increase in fear and anxiety have certainly undermined the naïve
optimism of globaphiles who perceived globalization as a purely positive instrument of progress
and well-being.
The use of powerful technologies as weapons of destruction also discloses current
asymmetries of power and emergent forms of terrorism and war, as the new millennium exploded
into dangerous conflicts and interventions. As technologies of mass destruction become more
available and dispersed, perilous instabilities have emerged that have elicited policing measures to
stem the flow of movements of people and goods across borders and internally. In particular, the
USA Patriot Act has led to repressive measures that are replacing the spaces of the open and free
information society with new forms of surveillance, policing, and repression (see Kellner,
forthcoming).
Ultimately, however, the abhorrent terror acts by the bin Laden network and the violent
military response to the Al Qaeda terrorist acts by the Bush administration may be an anomalous
paroxysm whereby a highly regressive premodern Islamic fundamentalism has clashed with an oldfashioned
patriarchaland unilateralist Wild West militarism. It could be that such forms of terrorism,
militarism, and state repression will be superseded by more rational forms of politics that globalize
and criminalizeterrorism, and that do not sacrifice the benefits of the open society and economy in
thenameof security. Yet the events of September 11 may open a new era of Terror War that will
lead to the kind of apocalyptic futurist world depicted by cyberpunk fiction (see Kellner
forthcoming).
In any case, the events of September 11 have promoted a fury of reflection, theoretical
8
debates, and political conflicts and upheaval that put the complex dynamics of globalization at the
center of contemporary theory and politics. To those skeptical of the centrality of globalization to
contemporary experience, it is now clear that we are living in a global world that is highly
interconnected and vulnerableto passions and crises that can cross borders and can effect anyone or
any region at any time. The events of September 11 also provide a test case to evaluate various
theories of globalization and the contemporary era. In addition, they highlight some of the
contradictions of globalization and the need to develop a highly complex and dialectical model to
capture its conflicts, ambiguities, and contradictory effects.
Consequently, I want to argue that in order to properly theorize globalization one needs to
conceptualize several sets of contradictions generated by globalization's combination of technological
revolution and restructuring of capital, which in turn generate tensions between capitalism and
democracy, and “haves” and “have nots.” Within the world economy, globalization involves the
proliferation of the logic of capital, but also the spread of democracy in information, finance,
investing, and the diffusion of technology (see Friedman 1999 and Hardt and Negri 2000).
Globalization is thus a contradictory amalgam of capitalism and democracy, in which the logic of
capital and themarket system enter ever more arenas of global life, even as democracy spreads and
more political regions and spaces of everyday life are being contested by democratic demands and
forces. But the overall process is contradictory. Sometimes globalizing forces promote democracy
and sometimes inhibit it, thus either equating capitalism and democracy, or simply opposing them,
areproblematical. These tensions areespecially evident, as I willargue, in thedomain of the Internet
and the expansion of new realms of technologically-mediated communication, information, and
politics.
The processes of globalization are highly turbulent and have generated new conflicts
throughout the world. Benjamin Barber (1998) describes the strife between McWorld and Jihad,
contrastingthe homogenizing, commercialized, Americanized tendencies of the global economy and
culture with traditionalcultures which areoften resistant to globalization. Thomas Friedman (1999)
makes a morebenign distinction between what he calls the"Lexus" and the"Olive Tree." The former
is a symbol of modernization, of affluence and luxury, and of Westernized consumption, contrasted
with theOlive Treethat is a symbol of roots, tradition, place, and stable community. Barber (1997),
however, is too negative toward McWorld and Jihad, failing to adequately describe the democratic
and progressive forces within both. Although Barber recognizes a dialectic of McWorld and Jihad,
he opposes both to democracy, failing to perceive how both generate their own democratic forces
and tendencies, as well as opposing and undermining democratization. Within the Western
democracies, for instance, there is not just top-down homogenization and corporate domination, but
also globalization-from-below and oppositional social movements that desire alternatives to
capitalist globalization. Thus, it is not only traditionalist, non-Western forces of Jihad that oppose
McWorld. Likewise, Jihad has its democratizing forces as well as the reactionary Islamic
fundamentalists who are now the most demonized elements of the contemporary era, as I discuss
below. Jihad, like McWorld, has its contradictions and its potential for democratization, as well as
elements of domination and destruction (seeKellner, forthcoming).
9
Friedman, by contrast, is too uncritical of globalization , caught up in his own Lexus highconsumption
life-style, failing to perceive the depth of the oppressive features of globalization and
breadth and extent of resistance and opposition to it. In particular, he fails to articulate
contradictions between capitalismand democracy, and the ways that globalization and its economic
logic undermines democracy as wellas circulates it. Likewise, he does not grasp the virulence of the
premodern and Jihadist tendencies that he blithely identifies with the Olive tree, and the reasons
why globalization and theWest areso strongly resisted in many parts of theworld.
Hence, it is important to present globalization as a strange amalgam of both homogenizing
forces of sameness and uniformity, and heterogeneity, difference, and hybridity, as well as a
contradictory mixture of democratizing and anti-democratizing tendencies. On one hand,
globalization unfolds a process of standardization in which a globalized mass culture circulates the
globe creating sameness and homogeneity everywhere. But globalized culture makes possible unique
appropriations and developments all over the world, thus proliferating hybridity, difference, and
heterogeneity.
5
Every local context involves its own appropriation and reworking of global products
and signifiers, thus proliferating difference, otherness, diversity, and variety (Luke and Luke 2000).
Grasping that globalization embodies these contradictory tendencies at once, that it can be both a
force of homogenization and heterogeneity, is crucial to articulating the contradictions of
globalization and avoiding one-sided and reductive conceptions.
My intention is to present globalization as conflictual, contradictory and open to resistance
and democratic intervention and transformation and not just as a monolithic juggernaut of progress
or domination as in many discourses. This goalis advanced by distinguishing between "globalization
from below" and the "globalization from above" of corporate capitalism and the capitalist state, a
distinction that should help us to get a better sense of how globalization does or does not promote
democratization. "Globalization from below" refers to the ways in which marginalized individuals
and social movements resist globalization and/or use its institutions and instruments to further
democratization and social justice. While on one level, globalization significantly increases the
supremacy of bigcorporations and biggovernment, it can also give power to groups and individuals
that were previously left out of the democratic dialogue and terrain of political struggle. Such
potentially positive effects of globalization include increased access to education for individuals
excluded from entry to culture and knowledge and the possibility of oppositional individuals and
groups to participate in global culture and politics through gaining access to global communication
and media networks and to circulate local struggles and oppositional ideas through these media. The
role of new technologies in social movements, political struggle, and everyday life forces social
movements to reconsider their political strategies and goals and democratic theory to appraise how
new technologies do and do not promote democratization (Kellner 1997 and 1999b).
In their magisterial book Empire, Hardt and Negri (2000) present contradictions within
globalization in terms of an imperializing logic of “Empire” and an assortment of struggles by the
multitude, creating a contradictory and tension-full situation. As in my conception, Hardt and Negri
present globalization as a complex process that involves a multidimensional mixture of expansions
of theglobal economy and capitalist market system, new technologies and media, expanded judicial
10
and legal modes of governance, and emergent modes of power, sovereignty, and resistance.
6
Combining poststructuralism with “autonomous Marxism,” Hardt and Negri stress political
openings and possibilities of struggle within Empire in an optimisticand buoyant text that envisages
progressive democratization and self-valorization in the turbulent process of the restructuring of
capital.
Many theorists, by contrast, have argued that one of the trends of globalization is
depoliticization of publics, the decline of the nation-state, and end of traditional politics (Boggs
2000). While I would agree that globalization is promoted by tremendously powerful economic
forces and that it often undermines democratic movements and decision-making, I would also argue
that there are openings and possibilities for both a globalization from below that inflects
globalization for positive and progressiveends, and that globalization can thus help promote as well
as undermine democracy.
7
Globalization involves both a disorganization and reorganization of
capitalism, a tremendous restructuring process, which creates openings for progressive social change
and intervention. In a more fluid and open economic and political system, oppositional forces can
gain concessions, win victories, and effect progressive changes. During the 1970s, new social
movements, new non-governmentalorganizations (NGOs), and new forms of struggle and solidarity
emerged that have been expanding to the present day (Hardt and Negri 2000; Burbach 2001; and
Foran, forthcoming).
The present conjuncture, I would suggest, is marked by a conflict between growing
centralization and organization of power and wealth in the hands of the few contrasted with
opposing processes exhibiting a fragmentation of power that is more plural, multiple, and open to
contestation than was previously the case. As the following analysis will suggest, both tendencies
areobservableand it is up to individuals and groups to find openings for political intervention and
social transformation. Thus, rather than just denouncingglobalization, or engaging in celebration and
legitimation, a critical theory of globalization reproaches those aspects that are oppressive, while
seizing upon opportunities to fight domination and exploitation and to promote democratization,
justice, and a progressivereconstruction of thepolity, society, and culture.
Against capitalist globalization from above, there have been a significant eruption of forces
and subcultures of resistance that have attempted to preserve specific forms of culture and society
against globalization and homogenization, and to create alternativeforces of society and culture, thus
exhibiting resistance and globalization from below. Most dramatically, peasant and guerrilla
movements in Latin America, labor unions, students, and environmentalists throughout the world,
and a variety of other groups and movements have resisted capitalist globalization and attacks on
previous rights and benefits.
8
Several dozen people's organizations from around the world have
protested World Trade Organization policies and a backlash against globalization is visible
everywhere. Politicians who once championed trade agreements like GATT and NAFTA are now
often quiet about these arrangements and at the 1996 annual Davos World Economic Forum its
founder and managing director published a warning entitled: "Start Taking the Backlash Against
Globalization Seriously." Reports surfaced that major representatives of the capitalist system
expressed fear that capitalismwas getting too mean and predatory, that it needs a kinder and gentler
11
state to ensure order and harmony, and that thewelfare state may make a come-back (see the article
in New York Times, February 7, 1996: A15).
9
One should take such reports with the proverbial
grain of salt, but they express fissures and openings in the system for critical discourse and
intervention.
Indeed, by 1999, the theme of the annual Davos conference was making globalization work
for poor countries and minimizing the differences between have and have nots. The growing
divisions between rich and poor were worrying some globalizers, as were the wave of crises in
Asian, Latin American, and other developing countries. In James Flanigan's report in the Los
Angeles Times (Feb. 19, 1999), the"main theme" is to "spread the wealth. In a world frightened by
glaring imbalances and theweakness of economies fromIndonesia to Russia, thetalk is no longer of a
new world economy getting stronger but of ways to 'keep the engine going.'" In particular, the
globalizers wereattemptingto keep economies growing in the more developed countries and capital
flowing to developingnations. U.S. Vice-President Al Gorecalled on all countries to spur economic
growth, and he proposed a new U.S.-led initiative to eliminate the debt burdens of developing
countries. South African President Nelson Mandela asked: "Is globalization only for the powerful?
Does it offer nothing to themen, women and children who areravaged by theviolence of poverty?"
TheGlobal Movement Against Capitalist Globalization
As thenew millennium opened, there was no clear answer to Mandela’s question and with
theglobal economic recession and theTerror War erupting in 2001, thesituation of many developing
countries has worsened. Yet as part of thebacklash against globalization over the past years, a wide
range of theorists have argued that the proliferation of difference and the shift to more local
discourses and practices define the contemporary scene. In this view, theory and politics should
shift from the level of globalization and its accompanying often totalizing and macro dimensions in
order to focus on the local, the specific, the particular, the heterogeneous, and the micro level of
everyday experience. An array of theories associated with poststructuralism, postmodernism,
feminism, and multiculturalism focus on difference, otherness, marginality, the personal, the
particular, and theconcrete over moregeneral theory and politics that aimat more global or universal
conditions.
10
Likewise, a broad spectrum of subcultures of resistancehavefocused their attention on
thelocal level, organizingstruggles around identity issues such as gender, race, sexual preference, or
youth subculture.
It can be argued that such dichotomies as those between the global and the local express
contradictions and tensions between crucial constitutive forces of thepresent moment, and that it is
therefore a mistake to reject focus on one side in favor of exclusive concern with the other
(Cvetkovich and Kellner 1997). Hence, an important challenge for a critical theory of globalization is
to think through the relationships between the global and the local by observing how global forces
influence and even structure an increasing number of local situations. This requires analysis as well
of how local forces mediate the global, inflecting global forces to diverse ends and conditions, and
producing unique configurations of thelocal and theglobal as thematrixfor thought and action in the
contemporary world (seeLukeand Luke2000).
12
Globalization is thus necessarily complex and challengingto both critical theories and radical
democraticpolitics. But many people these days operate with binary concepts of the global and the
local, and promote oneor theother sideof theequation as thesolution to the world's problems. For
globalists, globalization is the solution and underdevelopment, backwardness, and provincialism are
the problem. For localists, globalization is the problem and localization is the solution. But, less
simplistically, it is the mix that matters and whether global or local solutions are most fitting
depends on theconditions in thedistinctivecontext that one is addressing and the specific solutions
and policies being proposed.
For instance, theInternet can be used to promote capitalist globalization or struggles against
it. Oneof themore instructive examples of the use of the Internet to foster movements against the
excesses of corporate capitalismoccurred in theprotests in Seattle and throughout the world against
theWorld Trade Organization (WTO) meeting in December 1999. Behind these actions was a global
protest movement using theInternet to organize resistance to the WTO and capitalist globalization,
while championing democratization. Many web sites contained anti-WTO material and numerous
mailing lists used the Internet to distribute critical material and to organize the protest. The result
was the mobilization of caravans from throughout the United States to take protestors to Seattle,
many of whom had never met and were recruited through the Internet. There were also significant
numbers of international participants in Seattle which exhibited labor, environmentalist, feminist,
anti-capitalist, animal rights, anarchist, and other groups organized to protest aspects of
globalization and form new alliances and solidarities for future struggles. In addition, protests
occurred throughout theworld, and a proliferation of anti-WTO material against theextremely secret
group spread throughout theInternet.
11
Furthermore, the Internet provided critical coverage of the event, documentation of the
various groups' protests, and debate over the WTO and globalization. Whereas the mainstream
media presented the protests as "anti-trade," featured the incidents of anarchist violence against
property, while minimizing police violence against demonstrators, the Internet provided pictures,
eyewitness accounts, and reports of police brutality and the generally peaceful and non-violent
nature of the protests. While the mainstream media framed the protests negatively and privileged
suspect spokespeople like Patrick Buchanan as critics of globalization, the Internet provided
multiple representations of the demonstrations, advanced reflective discussion of the WTO and
globalization, and presented a diversity of critical perspectives.
The Seattle protests had some immediate consequences. The day after the demonstrators
made good on their promise to shut down the WTO negotiations, Bill Clinton gave a speech
endorsing the concept of labor rights enforceable by trade sanctions, thus effectively making
impossible any agreement and consensus during the Seattle meetings. In addition, at the World
Economic Forum in Davos a month later there was much discussion of how concessions were
necessary on labor and the environment if consensus over globalization and free trade were to be
possible. Importantly, theissue of overcomingdivisions between theinformation rich and poor, and
improving the lot of the disenfranchised and oppressed, bringing these groups the benefits of
13
globalization, werealso seriously discussed at themeeting and in themedia.
More importantly, many activists were energized by the new alliances, solidarities, and
militancy, and continued to cultivate an anti-globalization movement. The Seattle demonstrations
were followed by April 2000 struggles in Washington, D.C., to protest the World Bank and IMF,
and later in the year against capitalist globalization in Prague and Melbourne; in April 2001, an
extremely large and militant protest erupted against the Free Trade Area of the Americas summit in
Quebec City and in summer 2001 a large demonstration took place in Genoa.
In May 2002, a surprisingly large demonstration took place in Washington against capitalist
globalization and for peace and justice, and it was apparent that a new worldwide movement was in
themaking that was uniting diverse opponents of capitalist globalization throughout the world. The
anticorporate globalization movement favored globalization-from-below, which would protect the
environment, labor rights, national cultures, democratization, and other goods from the ravages of an
uncontrolled capitalist globalization (see Falk 1999; Brecher, Costello, and Smith 2000; and Steger
2002).
Initially, theincipient anti-globalization movement was precisely that -— anti-globalization.
The movement itself, however, was increasingly global, was linking together a diversity of
movements into global solidarity networks, and was using the Internet and instruments of
globalization to advance its struggles. Moreover, many opponents of capitalist globalization
recognized theneed for a global movement to havea positive vision and be for such things as social
justice, equality, labor, civil liberties and human rights, and a sustainable environmentalism.
Accordingly, the anti-capitalist globalization movement began advocating common values and
visions.
In particular, the movement against capitalist globalization used the Internet to organize
mass demonstrations and to disseminate information to the world concerning the policies of the
institutions of capitalist globalization. The events made clear that protestors were not against
globalization per se, but were against neo-liberal and capitalist globalization, opposing specific
policies and institutions that produce intensified exploitation of labor, environmental devastation,
growing divisions among the social classes, and the undermining of democracy. The emerging antiglobalization-from-above
movements are contextualizing these problems in the framework of a
restructuring of capitalism on a worldwide basis for maximum profit with zero accountability and
have made clear the need for democratization, regulation, rules, and globalization in the interests of
people and not profit.
The new movements against capitalist globalization have thus placed the issues of global
justice and environmental destruction squarely in the center of important political concerns of our
time. Hence, whereas the mainstream media had failed to vigorously debate or even report on
globalization until the eruption of a vigorous anti-globalization movement, and rarely, if ever,
critically discussed the activities of the WTO, World Bank and IMF, there is now a widely
circulating critical discourse and controversy over these institutions. Stung by criticisms,
14
representatives of the World Bank, in particular, are pledging reform and pressures are mounting
concerningproper and improper roles for the major global institutions, highlighting their limitations
and deficiencies, and theneed for reforms like debt relief from overburdened developing countries to
solve someof their fiscal and social problems.
To capital's globalization-from-above, cyberactivists havethus been attempting to carry out
globalization-from-below, developingnetworks of solidarity and propagating oppositional ideas and
movements throughout the planet. To the capitalist international of transnational corporate-led
globalization, a Fifth International, to useWaterman's phrase (1992), of computer-mediated activism
is emerging, that is qualitatively different from the party-based socialist and communist
Internationals. Such networking links labor, feminist, ecological, peace, and other anticapitalist
groups, providing the basis for a new politics of alliance and solidarity to overcome the limitations
of postmodern identity politics (seeDyer-Witheford 1999 and Burbach 2001).
Of course, rightwing and reactionary forces can and have used the Internet to promote their
political agendas as well. In a short time, one can easily access an exotic witch's brew of Web-sites
maintained by the Ku Klux Klan, myriad neo-Nazi assemblages, including the Aryan Nation and
various militia groups. Internet discussion lists also disperse these views and rightwing extremists
are aggressively active on many computer forums, as well as radio programs and stations, public
access television programs, fax campaigns, video and even rock music productions. These
organizations are hardly harmless, having carried out terrorism of various sorts extending from
church burnings to the bombings of public buildings. Adopting quasi-Leninist discourse and tactics
for ultraright causes, these groups have been successful in recruiting working-class members
devastated by the developments of global capitalism, which has resulted in widespread
unemployment for traditional forms of industrial, agricultural, and unskilled labor. Moreover,
extremist Web-sites haveinfluenced alienated middle-class youth as well(a 1999 HBO documentary
on Hate on the Internet provides a disturbing number of examples of how extremist Web-sites
influenced disaffected youth to commit hatecrimes).
A recent twist in the saga of technopolitics, in fact, seems to be that allegedly “terrorist”
groups arenow increasingly using the Internet and Web-sites to promote their causes. An article in
the Los Angeles Times (February 8, 2001: A1 and A14) reports that groups like Hamas use their
Web-site to post reports of acts of terror against Israel, rather than calling newspapers or
broadcasting outlets. A widerange of groups labeled as “terrorist” reportedly use e-mail, list-serves,
and Web-sites to further their struggles, causes including Hezbollah and Hamas, the Maoist group
Shining Path in Peru, and a variety of other groups throughout Asia and elsewhere. The Tamil
Tigers, for instance, a liberation movement in SriLanka, offers position papers, daily news, and free
e-mail service. According to theTimes, experts arestill unclear “whether the ability to communicate
online worldwide is prompting an increase or a decrease in terrorist acts.”
There have been widespread discussions of how the bin Laden Al Qaeda network used the
Internet to plan the September 11 terrorist attacks on the U.S., how the group communicated with
each other, got funds and purchased airline tickets via the Internet, and used flight simulations to
15
practice their hijacking. In the contemporary era, the Internet can thus be used for a diversity of
political projects and goals ranging fromeducation, to business, to political organization and debate,
to terrorism.
Moreover, different political groups are engaging in cyberwar as adjuncts of their political
battles. Israeli hackers have repeatedly attacked the Web-sites of Hezbollah, while pro-Palestine
hackers have reportedly placed militant demands and slogans on the Web-sites of Israel’s army,
foreign ministry, and parliament. Likewise, Pakistani and Indian computer hackers have waged
similar cyberbattles against opposing forces Web-sites in the bloody struggle over Kashmir, while
rebel forces in the Philippines taunt government troops with cell-phone calls and messages and
attack government Web-sites.
The examples in this section suggest how technopolitics makes possible a refiguring of
politics, a refocusing of politics on everyday life and using the tools and techniques of new
computer and communication technology to expand the field and domain of politics. In this
conjuncture, theideas of Guy Debord and the Situationist International are especially relevant with
their stress on the construction of situations, the use of technology, media of communication, and
cultural forms to promote a revolution of everyday life, and to increase the realm of freedom,
community, and empowerment.
12
To some extent, the new technologies are revolutionary, they do
constitutea revolution of everyday life, but it is often a revolution that promotes and disseminates
thecapitalist consumer society and involves new modes of fetishism, enslavement, and domination,
yet to be clearly perceived and theorized.
The Internet is thus a contested terrain, used by Left, Right, and Center to promote their
own agendas and interests. The political battles of the future may well be fought in the streets,
factories, parliaments, and other sites of past struggle, but politics is already mediated by broadcast,
computer, and information technologies and willincreasingly be so in the future. Those interested in
the politics and culture of the future should therefore be clear on the important role of the new
public spheres and intervene accordingly, while critical pedagogues have the responsibility of
teaching students the skills that will enable them to participate in the politics and struggles of the
present and future.
ConcludingComments
And so, to paraphraseFoucault, wherever there is globalization-from-above, globalization as
the imposition of capitalist logic, there can be resistance and struggle. The possibilities of
globalization-from-below result fromtransnational alliances between groups fighting for better wages
and working conditions, social and political justice, environmental protection, and more democracy
and freedom worldwide. In addition, a renewed emphasis on local and grassroots movements have
put dominant economic forces on the defensive in their own backyard and often the broadcasting
media or the Internet have called attention to oppressive and destructive corporate policies on the
local level, putting national and even transnational pressure upon major corporations for reform.
Moreover, proliferating media and the Internet make possible a greater circulation of struggles and
16
the possibilities of new alliances and solidarities that can connect resistant forces who oppose
capitalist and corporate-state elite forms of globalization-from-above(Dyer-Witheford 1999).
In a certain sense, thephenomena of globalization replicates thehistory of theU.S. and most
so-called capitalist democracies in which tension between capitalism and democracy has been the
defining feature of the conflicts of the past two hundred years. In analyzing the development of
education in the United States Bowles and Gintis (1986) and Aronowitz and Giroux (1986) have
analyzed the conflicts between corporate logic and democracy in schooling; Robert McChesney
(1996 and 1999), myself (Kellner 1990, 1992, 2001, and forthcoming), and others have articulated
the contradictions between capitalism and democracy in the media and public sphere; while Joel
Cohen and Joel Rogers (1983) and many others are arguing that contradictions between capitalism
and democracy aredefining features of theU.S. polity and history.
On a global terrain, Hardt and Negri (2000) have stressed the openings and possibilities for
democratictransformative struggle within globalization, or what they call Empire. I am arguing that
similar arguments can be made in which globalization is not conceived merely as the triumph of
capitalismand democracy working together as it was in theclassical theories of Milton Friedman or
morerecently in Francis Fukuyama. Nor should globalization be depicted solely as the triumph of
capital as in many despairing anti-globalization theories. Rather, one should see that globalization
unleashes conflicts between capitalismand democracy and in its restructuring processes creates new
openings for struggle, resistance, and democratictransformation.
I would also suggest that the model of Marx and Engels as deployed in the "Communist
Manifesto" could also be usefully employed to analyze the contradictions of globalization (Marx
and Engels 1978: 469ff). From the historical materialist optic, capitalism was interpreted as the
greatest, most progressive force in history for Marx and Engels, destroying a backward feudalism,
authoritarian patriarchy, backwardness and provincialism in favor a market society, global
cosmopolitanism, and constant revolutionizing of the forces of production. Yet in the Marxian
theory, so too was capitalism presented as a major disaster for the human race, condemning a large
part to alienated labor, regions of the world to colonialist exploitation, and generating conflicts
between classes and nations, theconsequences of which thecontemporary eracontinues to suffer.
Marxdeployed a similar dialectical and historical model in his later analyses of imperialism
arguing, for instance, in his writings on British imperialism in India, that British colonialism was a
great productiveand progressiveforce in India at the same time it was highly destructive (Marx and
Engels 1978: 653ff). A similar dialectical and critical model can be used today that articulates the
progressive elements of globalization in conjunction with its more oppressive features, deploying
thecategories of negation and critique, while sublating (Aufhebung) thepositive features. Moreover,
a dialectical and transdisciplinary model is necessary to capture the complexity and
multidimensionality of globalization today that brings together in theorizing globalization, the
economy, technology, polity, society and culture, articulating the interplay of these elements and
avoiding any formof determinismor reductivism.
17
Theorizingglobalization dialectically and critically requires that we both analyze continuities
and discontinuities with the past, specifying what is a continuation of past histories and what is
new and original in the present moment. To elucidate the later, I believe that the discourse of the
postmodern is useful in dramatizing the changes and novelties of the mode of globalization. The
concept of thepostmodern can signal that which is fresh and original, calling attention to topics and
phenomena that require novel theorization, and intense critical thought and inquiry. Hence, although
Manuel Castells has the most detailed analysis of new technologies and the rise of what he calls a
networked society, by refusing to link his analyses with theproblematicof the postmodern, he cuts
himself off from theoretical resources that enable theorists to articulate the novelties of the present
that areunique and different fromtheprevious modeof social organization.
13
Consequently, although there is admittedly a lot of mystification in the discourse of the
postmodern, it signals emphatically theshifts and ruptures in our era, the novelties and originalities,
and dramatizes themutations in culture, subjectivities, and theory which Castells and other theorists
of globalization or theinformation society gloss over. Thediscourse of thepostmodern in relation to
analysis of contemporary culture and society is just jargon, however, unless it is rooted in analysis
of theglobal restructuring of capitalismand analysis of the scientific-technological revolution that is
part and parcel of it.
14
As I have argued in this study, the term "globalization" is often used as a code word that
stands for a tremendous diversity of issues and problems and that serves as a front for a variety of
theoreticaland political positions. While it can function as a legitimating ideology to cover over and
sanitize ugly realities, a critical globalization theory can inflect the discourse to point precisely to
these deplorable phenomena and can elucidate a series of contemporary problems and conflicts. In
view of thedifferent concepts and functions of globalization discourse, it is important to note that
theconcept of globalization is a theoretical construct that varies according to the assumptions and
commitments of thetheory in question. Seeing the term globalization as a construct helps rob it of
its force of nature, as a sign of an inexorable triumph of market forces and the hegemony of capital,
or, as the extreme right fears, of a rapidly encroaching world government. While the term can both
describe and legitimate capitalist transnationalism and supranational government institutions, a
critical theory of globalization does not buy into ideological valorizations and affirms difference,
resistance, and democraticself-determination against forms of global domination and subordination.
Globalization should thus be seen as a contested terrain with opposing forces attempting to
use its institutions, technologies, media, and forms for their own purposes. There are certainly
negative aspects to globalization which strengthen elite economic and political forces over and
against the underlying population, but, as I suggested above, there are also positive possibilities.
Other beneficial openings include the opportunity for greater democratization, increased education
and health care, and new opportunities within the global economy that open entry to members of
races, regions, and classes previously excluded from mainstream economics, politics, and culture
within themodern corporate order.
Further, there is utopian potential in the new technologies as well as the possibility for
18
increased domination and the hegemony of capital. While the first generation of computers were
large mainframe systems controlled by big government and big business, later generations of
"personal computers" and networks created a more decentralized situation in which ever more
individuals own their own computers and use them for their own projects and goals. A new
generation of wireless communication could enable areas of the world that do not even have
electricity to participatein thecommunication and information revolution of the emergent global era.
This would require, of course, something likea Marshall Plan for the developing world which would
necessitate help with disseminating technologies that would address problems of world hunger,
disease, illiteracy, and poverty.
In relation to education, the spread and distribution of information and communication
technology signifies the possibility of openings of opportunities for research and interaction not
previously open to students who did not have the privilege of access to major research libraries or
institutions. TheInternet opens moreinformation and knowledge to more people than any previous
institution in history, although it has its problems and limitations. Moreover, the Internet enables
individuals to participate in discussions, to circulate their ideas and work, that were previously
closed off to many excluded groups and individuals.
A progressive reconstruction of education that is done in the interests of democratization
would demand access to new technologies for all, helping to overcome theso-called digital divide and
divisions of the“haves” and “have nots” (seeKellner 2000). Expanding democratic and multicultural
reconstruction of education forces educators and citizens to confront the challenge of the digital
divide, in which there are divisions between information and technology “haves” and “have nots,”
just as there are class, gender, and race divisions in every sphere of the existing constellations of
society and culture. Although thelatest surveys of the digital divide indicate that the key indicators
areclass and education and not raceand gender, nonetheless making computers a significant force of
democratization of education and society will require significant investment and programs to assure
that everyone receives thetraining, literacies, and tools necessary to properly function in a high-tech
global economy and culture.
15
Hence, a critical theory of globalization presents globalization as a force of capitalism and
democracy, as a set of forces imposed fromabove in conjunction with resistance from below. In this
optic, globalization generates new conflicts, new struggles, and new crises, which in part can be seen
as resistanceto capitalist logic. In thelight of theneo-liberalprojects to dismantle the Welfare State,
colonize thepublic sphere, and control globalization, it is up to citizens and activists to create new
public spheres, politics, and pedagogies, and to use the new technologies to discuss what kinds of
society people today want and to oppose thesociety against which people resist and struggle. This
involves, minimally, demands for more education, health care, welfare, and benefits from the state,
and to struggle to create a more democratic and egalitarian society. But one cannot expect that
generous corporations and a beneficent state aregoing to make available to citizens the bounties and
benefits of the globalized new information economy. Rather, it is up to individuals and groups to
promote democratization and progressivesocial change.
19
Thus, in opposition to the globalization-from-above of corporate capitalism, I would
advocate a globalization-from-below, which supports individuals and groups using the new
technologies to create a more multicultural, egalitarian, democratic, and ecological globalization. Of
course, the new technologies might exacerbate existing inequalities in the current class, gender, race,
and regional configurations of power and give the major corporate forces powerful new tools to
advance their interests. In this situation, it is up to people of good willto devise strategies to use the
new technologies to promote democratization and social justice. For as the new technologies become
ever morecentral to every domain of everyday life, developingan oppositional technopolitics in the
new public spheres will become more and more important (see Kellner 1995a, 1995b, 1997, and
2000). Changes in theeconomy, politics, and social lifedemand a constant rethinking of politics and
social change in thelight of globalization and thetechnological revolution, requiring new thinking as a
response to ever-changing historicalconditions.
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Notes
1. Attempts to chart theglobalization of capital, decline of thenation-state, and rise of a new global
culture include theessays in Featherstone 1990; Giddens 1990; Robertson 1991; King1991; Bird, et
al, 1993; Gilroy 1993; Arrighi 1994; Lash and Urry 1994; Grewel and Kaplan 1994; Wark 1994;
Featherstone and Lash 1995; Axford 1995; Held 1995; Waters 1995; Hirst and Thompson 1996;
Wilson and Dissayanake1996; Albrow 1996; Cvetkovich and Kellner 1997; Kellner 1998; Friedman
1999; Held, et al 1999; Hardt and Negri 2000; Steger 2002; and Stiglitz 2002.
2
What now appears at the first stage of academic and popular discourses of globalization in the
1990s tended to be dichotomized into celebratory globophilia and dismissive globophobia. There
was also a tendency in some theorists to exaggerate the novelties of globalization and others to
dismiss these claims by arguing that globalization has been going on for centuries and there is not
that much that is new and different. For an excellent delineation and critique of academic
discourses on globalization, see Steger 2002.
3
In his extreme postmodern stage, Baudrillard (1993) argued that “simulation” had replaced
production as the organizing principle of contemporary societies, marking “the end of political
economy.” See the critique in Kellner 1989b. In general, I am trying to mediate the economic
determinism in some neo-Marxian and other theories of globalization and the technological
determinism found in Baudrillard and others.
4
I am not able in the framework of this paper to theorize the alarming expansion of war and
militarism in the post-September 11 environment. For my theorizing of war and militarism, see
Kellner 2002 and forthcoming.
5. For example, as Ritzer argues (1993 and 1996), McDonald's imposes not only a similar cuisine all
over the world, but circulates processes of what he calls "McDonaldization" that involve a
production/consumption model of efficiency, technological rationality, calculability, predictability,
and control. Yet as Watson et al 1997 argue, McDonald's has various cultural meanings in diverse
local contexts, as well as different products, organization, and effects. Yet the latter goes too far
toward stressing heterogeneity, downplaying the cultural power of McDonald's as a force of a
homogenizing globalization and Western corporate logic and system; seeKellner 1999a and 2003.
6
While I find Empire an extremely impressive and massively productive text, I am not sure,
however, what is gained by using the word “Empire” rather than the concepts of global capital and
political economy. While Hardt and Negri combine categories of Marxism and critical social theory
with poststructuralist discourse derived from Foucault and Deleuze and Guattari, they frequently
favor thelatter, often mystifyingand obscuring theobject of analysis. I am also not as confident as
Hardt and Negri that the “multitude” replaces traditional concepts of the working class and other
modern political subjects, movements, and actors, and find the emphasis on nomads, “New
Barbarians,” and the poor as replacement categories problematical. Nor am I clear on exactly what
forms their poststructuralist politics would take. Thesameproblem is evident, I believe, in an earlier
decade’s provocativeand postmarxist text by Laclau and Mouffe (1985), who valorized new social
movements, radical democracy, and a postsocialist politics without providing many concrete
examples or proposals for struggle in thepresent conjuncture.
7. I am thus trying to mediate in this paper between those who claim that globalization simply
undermines democracy and those who claim that globalization promotes democratization like
Friedman (1999). I should also note that in distinguishing between globalization from above and
globalization from below, I do not want to say that one is good and the other is bad in relation to
democracy. As Friedman shows (1999), capitalist corporations and global forces might very well
promote democratization in many arenas of theworld, and globalization-from-below might promote
special interests or reactionary goals, so I am criticizing theorizing globalization in binary terms as
primarily “good” or “bad.” While critics of globalization simply see it as the reproduction of
capitalism, its champions, like Friedman, do not perceive how globalization undercuts democracy.
Likewise, Friedman does not engage the role of new social movements, dissident groups, or the
“have nots” in promoting democratization. Nor do concerns for social justice, equality, and
participatory democracy play a rolein his book.
8. On resistanceto globalization by labor, seeMoody 1997; on resistance by environmentalists and
other social movements, see the studies in Mander and Goldsmith 1996, while I provide examples
below fromseveral domains.
9. Friedman (1999: 267f) notes that George Soros was thestar of Davos in 1995, when the triumph
of global capital was being celebrated, but that the next year Russian Communist Party leader
Gennadi A. Zyuganov was a major media focus when unrestrained globalization was being
questioned -- though Friedman does not point out that this was a result of a growing recognition that
divisions between “haves” and “have nots” were becoming too scandalous and that predatory
capitalismwas becoming too brutal and ferocious....
10. Such positions are associated with the postmodern theories of Foucault, Lyotard, Rorty, and
have been taken up by a wide range of feminists, multiculturalists, and others. On these theorists
and postmodern politics, see Best and Kellner 1991, 1997, and 2001, and the valorization and
critique of postmodern politics in Hardt and Negri 2000 and Burbach 2001.
11. As a December 1 abcnews.comstory titled "Networked Protests" put it:
disparate groups fromtheDirect Action Network to theAFL-CIO to various environmental
and human rights groups have organized rallies and protests online, allowing for a global
reach that would havebeen unthinkablejust fiveyears ago.
As early as March, activists werehitting the news groups and list-serves -- strings of emailmessages
people useas a kind of long-term chat -- to organize protests and rallies.
In addition, while theorganizers demanded that the protesters agree not to engage in violent
action, there was one web site that urged WTO protesters to help tie up the WTO's Web servers,
and another group produced an anti-WTO web site that replicated the look of the official site (see
RTMark's Web-site, http://gatt.org/; the same group had produced a replica of George W. Bush's
site with satirical and critical material, winning the wrath of the Bush campaign). For compelling
accounts of theanti-WTO demonstrations in Seattle and an acute analysis of theissues involved, see
Paul Hawkens, "What Really Happened at the Battle of Seattle,"
(http://www.purefood.org/Corp/PaulHawken.cfm) and Naomi Klein, "Were the DC and Seattle
Protests Unfocused, or AreCritics Missing thePoint?" (www.shell.ihug.co.nz/~stu/fair).
12. On the importance of the ideas of Debord and the Situationist International to make sense of
the present conjuncture see Best and Kellner 1997, Chapter 3, and on the new forms of the
interactiveconsumer society, seeBest and Kellner 2001.
29
13. Castells claims that Harvey (1989) and Lash (1990) say about as much about the postmodern as
needs to be said (1996: 26f). With duerespect to their excellent work, I believe that no two theorists
or books exhaust the problematic of the postmodern which involves mutations in theory, culture,
society, politics, science, philosophy, and almost every other domain of experience, and is thus
inexhaustible (Best and Kellner 1997 and 2001). Yet one should be careful in using postmodern
discourse to avoid the mystifying elements, a point made in the books just noted as well as Hardt
and Negri 2000.
14. SeeBest and Kellner 1997 and 2001.
15. The "digital divide" has emerged as the buzzword for perceived divisions between information
technology have and have nots in the current economy and society. A U.S. Department of
Commerce report released in July 1999 claimed that digital divide in relation to race is dramatically
escalating and the Clinton administration and media picked up on this theme (See the report
"Americans in the Information Age: Falling Through the Net" at
http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/digitaldivide/). A critique of the data involved in the report
emerged, claiming that it was outdated; more recent studies by Stanford University, Cheskin
Research, ACNielson, and the Forester Institute claim that education and class are more significant
factors than race in constructing the divide (see http:cyberatlas.internet.com/bigpicture/demographics
for a collection of reports and statistics on the divide). In any case, it is clear
that there is a gaping division between information technology haves and have nots, that this is a
major challenge to developingan egalitarian and democratic society, and that something needs to be
done about the problem. My contribution involves the argument that empowering the have nots
requires thedissemination of new literacies and thus empowering groups and individuals previously
excluded fromeconomic opportunities and socio-political participation.