190 Beyond Justice
social-technological interpretations of utopias by Saage and
Habermas (who are right as regards the first level), here an element
of individuality and non-determination – or non-identity, in
Adorno’s words – comes in.
This normative stance may ultimately be based on an awareness
of human creativity. For the impossibility of imagining and establishing
the perfect society leaves space for precisely the kind of
spontaneity that every society must permit. In this respect, More
remains faithful to Pico della Mirandola’s conception of dignity:
human dignity lies in its indeterminate nature and the ever-renewing
capacity of humans to determine themselves.46
This would
mean that utopias take their orientation from the idea of human
dignity after all. Yet happiness also features as an important normative
aspect, but now as something that cannot be produced and
directed or controlled. Happiness appears as a politically aporetic
concept. This is the lesson of utopian reflection.
At the beginning I raised the question of why utopias are only
a marginal topic in the history of political ideas. In the light of what
has been said, it remains open whether this is primarily a function
of the fact that the first normative level of utopian radicalism
pushes towards a society beyond justice and also in a paradoxical
sense beyond politics.47
It is also possible that the various conceptions
of happiness, in contrast to conceptions of rights and justice,
have become outdated and essentially contested. But it might also
be the case that the reasons why this is such a difficult tradition of
thought are to be found in the second level of normativity, the
hyperbolic and ironical skill of questioning oneself, a truly noble
and rare art. For the critical irony expressed in utopias is the
complex attitude of those who are able to let go of what human
beings cling to – namely, the status quo as well as the dreams, but
without betraying the latter.
46
Pico della Mirandola, On the Dignity of Man, p. 45.
47
The thesis that utopias suspend the political is found in Jameson, “The
politics of utopia.”
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Arendt and 166
justice in The Wild Duck 153,
160–2
knowing the inhuman 6
Minima Moralia 161
non-identity 190
Problems of Moral Philosophy 160
Adventures of Telemach (Fénelon)
188
alienation 5–6, 107
L’An 2440, rêve s’il en fut jamais
(Mercier) 188
Aquinas, Thomas
soul over human dignity 99
arbitrariness 21
Arendt, Hannah
Benjamin and 166
concept of power 106n, 175
context in totalitarianism 165–6
council democracy 173–5
Human Condition 169–73
Origins of Totalitarianism 167–9
On Revolution 168
self-determination 13
atheism
human dignity and 100
Augustine of Hippo 75
religious toleration 138, 139
soul over human dignity 99
Aung San Suu Kyi 72
authoritarianism
peace and justice 91
worldview 90
see also domination; tyranny
autonomy
human rights and 39, 40–2, 47,
49–51, 55
moral vs ethical 104
principle of justification 35
pursuit of good life 50–1
Rawls and social structure 31
reciprocity and generality 140–2
right to justification 124
subjective justification 3–4
toleration and 139–43
universal notion of 51
Bacon, Francis
Nova Atlantis 187–8, 189
Bayle, Pierre
Commentaire philosophique 136
Dictionaire historique and critique
138
Kant and 144
Pensées diverses sur la Comète 136
toleration 136–9, 142
Beitz, Charles 40, 41
intervention and rights 55
role of human rights 86
Index