International Conference KNOWLEDGE-BASED ORGANIZATION
Vol. XXIII No 1 2017
REVOLUTION IN MILITARY AFFAIRS AND OUTER SPACE
Jakub FUČÍK
Centre for Security and Military Strategic Studies, University of Defence, Brno,
The Czech Republic
jakub.fucik@unob.cz
Abstract: Concept of the Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA) analyses and describes processes of
major changes in military-strategic dimension, which provide possibilities especially for states to
enhance their military power and establish superiority over their opponents. Contemporary,
development of new (weapon) technologies (e.g. precision-guided munitions, unmanned aerial
vehicles) and doctrines (e.g. network centric warfare, system-of-systems) represents such opportunity.
Outer space in this context represents relatively new dimension of warfare with increasing importance
for strategical thinking of all main state actors (e.g. China, Russia, and the U.S.). This paper deals
with relation between RMA and outer space. The aim of this paper is to analyses how outer space and
space technologies influence contemporary/future RMA and vice versa.
Keywords: C4I, Network Centric Warfare, Outer Space, Revolution in Military Affairs.
1. Introduction
Since 1980s, it is possible to identify
changes in military-strategic dimension,
which are associated with concept of the
Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA).
Development of new (weapon) technologies
(e.g. precision-guided munitions, unmanned
aerial vehicles) and doctrines (e.g. network
centric warfare, system-of-systems)
represents opportunity (and challenges)
especially for states to enhance their
military power [1]. In this context, the
importance of the fourth dimension of
warfare - outer space - is increasing which
could be also demonstrated on the approach
of all main state actors (e.g. China, Russia,
and the U.S.) and their space policies.
Aim of this paper is focused on
examination of the relationship between the
RMA and the outer space. The main goal is
to identify how (in what form) these
concepts affect mutually, i.e. how one of
them shapes character of the other one. This
distinction is based on hypothesis that
between the current RMA and outer space
is interdependent relationship, which can be
analyzed in two dimensions: 1) how the
current RMA is influenced by outer space;
2) how the current RMA affects outer
space.
RMA for the purpose of this paper is
defined as the process and condition of
revolutionary changes in the nature or
method of warfare based on the external
manifestations (actions) which use the
threat of force or the use of force to achieve
political aims [2]. The "revolutionary" then
refers to the radical nature of these changes,
when in relation to the original system and
its elements must occur abruptly de facto
preserving just a minimum similarity (e.g.
in features, by which the system is
identified). We cannot therefore speak of a
progressive (gradual) transition and the
establishment of new elements into the
existing framework and its evolutionary
transition. With regard to the military
dimension of this revolution, we can use the
modified characteristics defined by Jeffrey
R. Cooper, which talks about: "... nonDOI:
10.1515/kbo-2017-0016
© 2017. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 License.
106 Unauthenticated
Download Date | 7/28/17 7:01 AM
follow and unprecedented change process
military capabilities, resulting in
transformation efficiency of combat
operations" [3].
However, this paper does not focus on
RMA in aforementioned "general" form,
but on its expression through specific
processes or changes. This is labeled by
period of about the 80s of the last century
and continuing today. Relevant changes in
the method of warfare are founded on a
technological level in the introduction and
use of advanced weapons and information
systems (e.g. precision-guided munitions PGM,
unmanned aircraft, and remote
sensing devices/sensors).
Changes on the doctrinal dimension are
represented by the establishment of the
concepts of so-called System of Systems
(SoS) and Network Centric Warfare
(NCW). The first mentioned is based on
two fundamental elements - information
and integration (cooperation). The
prerequisite is an amalgamation of
particular systems and components, such as
command, control, computers,
communications and information (C4I),
into one coherent functional framework [4].
The aim is to provide situational awareness
on the battlefield essentially in real time for
all relevant components of the armed
forces.
The second concept is associated with the
very existence and use of functional links
among the units on the battlefield, which
are integrated into the aforementioned
framework. Their interdependence allows
to maximize their combat skills and on the
other hand, to compensate for weaknesses
(e.g. through an almost perfect fire support,
information about intentions of the enemy).
Full use of this potential is connected e.g. to
implementation of so-called "swarming"
tactic, which in itself implies synchronized
and highly flexible combat deployment of a
large number of small clusters (military
units) [5].
In practical terms, the army, which fully
applies both concepts, is allowed to
accurately interfere (invade) the opponent
at his most vulnerable areas, to prevent his
possible attempts to initiate counterattacks
or enact countermeasures and therefore
completely take over combat initiative and
paralyze his opponent.
The outer space is in this paper understood
in geopolitical terms. Through the
"traditional" considerations of
environmental influences on the interaction
of various actors that include land, maritime
and aerospace dimension (e.g. works of H.
Mackinder, A. T. Mahan or spouses
Sprouts) extended to an additional
dimension that exceeds (bridges) system
related "only" to one planet. By its nature, it
is airless space that surrounds celestial
bodies (planets, stars, asteroids etc.) [6].
Interest and consideration of this space in
the human history is dating back to its
relatively depth. Leaving aside any
explanation of the possible purpose of
megalithic structures e.g. In the English
Stonehenge, we can point among others on
the theory of Indian astronomer and
mathematician Aryabhata about the year
500 A.D., which treats the Earth as a sphere
rotating around its axis and at the same time
along with the other planets orbiting the
Sun [7].
A fundamental shift in space exploration
has brought the second half of the last
century. Plotting the first artificial satellite
to orbit the Earth, which was followed by
manned missions and landing on the lunar
surface, not only meant a practical
confirmation of the accessibility of this
dimension, but also opened up a completely
new set of ways of its utilization.
In general, these options can be divided into
two groups - civilian and military. The
dividing criterion is the nature of the
activities or artificial bodies (satellites,
stations, etc.), which are operated or located
in this environment. Civilian group includes
e.g. the establishment and use of satellite
networks for monitoring weather or
television signal transmission. Military
group includes e.g. spy satellite network,
107 Unauthenticated
Download Date | 7/28/17 7:01 AM
satellite navigation of the combat troops or
weapons platform designed for interception
of ballistic missiles. In accordance with the
aforementioned definition, we also cannot
forget to anti-satellite weapons (ASAT).
Although they can be placed on the Earth's
surface (the example of the U.S., Russia,
China), but their use is directly situated into
space. At the same time, it is necessary to
state that the boundary between these two
categories is quite unclear, or these two
groups often overlap in their elements, and
distinguishing them in practice is rather
problematic.
We can define such a phenomenon as socalled
"dual-use" technologies or activities.
Satellite navigation network, for example,
can be used not only to determine the
position of civilian actors, but also to
coordinate the advancement of combat
groups or homing guided missiles or drones
(a reference e.g. to the American GPS
system). Similarly, the Soviet space stations
Salyut class were used for both civil and
military purposes [8].
Security or economical aspects however do
not generally represent the sole motivation
for the individual states to obtain and
enhance their space capabilities. For
example, element of (gaining) prestige can
be identified as one of the indicators of the
position in the international system in terms
of power. The leading states in this regard
must act as bearers of technological
progress. The ownership and the
development of technologies for activities
in the outer space are fulfilling this
characteristic completely. Other motives
can include influence of strategic culture,
significance of the military-industrial
complex or personality of the leaders of
relevant country [9].
2. Impact of outer space on RMA
From the geopolitical point of view, outer
space represents next dimension for the
projection of (state) power, which is related
not only to the opportunity for cooperation
of individual actors in the exploration and
exploitation, but also to the emergence of
competition, eventually conflict situations,
while achieving their own interests. The
historical example is the so-called “Space
Race” between the U.S. and USSR about
the second half of the last century. Its
climax is universally known - on 20th July
1969 American crew of the spaceship
Apollo 11 successfully achieved lunar
surface [10]. Astronauts Neil Armstrong
and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin became the first
people who reached other planet (celestial
body).
The military dimension of the conflict
generally followed the context of the Cold
War and was evident in both of these
countries through their research and
development activities. Since the 60s of the
last century we can identify development of
the Soviet projects for the acquisition of
bombardment (FOBS/R-36), missile
defense (Kaskad, Skif) and anti-satellite
(IS, IS-MU, IS-MD/Naryad, Naryad-V)
systems placed in the space [11]. Strategic
Defense Initiative (SDI) can represent
example of the U.S. projects. The goal of
this research program was to build a
multilevel system of missile defense that
would allow the destruction of the
opponent's missiles in all phases of flight.
The program envisaged the placement of
some elements of defense (e.g. laser
weapons or kinetic interceptors) right into
the space [12]. Simultaneously, the
modified weapon platforms could be able to
fulfil the role of ASAT. However, with the
end of the Cold War the individual projects
were phased out or transformed [13].
On the other hand, the development of
space technologies in this sense provide a
real basis for the vision of the current
RMA. The building of robust satellite
network may provide to individual states
unprecedented awareness, monitoring,
navigation and communication capabilities.
These (sensor) elements are crucial for the
implementation of the concepts associated
with the current RMA. Both SoS and NCW
share especially (increased) requirements
108 Unauthenticated
Download Date | 7/28/17 7:01 AM
for information accuracy (in real time),
multi-level communication network among
combat units and their headquarters.
Satellite technology provide opportunity to
minimization of "fog of war". The result is
an overall awareness of the movement and
distribution of the opponent's forces in real
time.
Similarly, satellite technology provides a
much-desired feature of precision-guided
munitions, i.e. the real accuracy [14].
Operations Steel Rain and Desert Storm
which are connected with, in principle, the
rapid destruction of armed resistance from
the Iraqi army, despite some former
(sceptical) predictions about the expected
length and possible casualties on the
coalition side, represent examples of direct
manifestation how space technologies
influenced warfare in the terms of RMA.
3. Impact of RMA on the outer space
Aforementioned example from the Cold
War highlighted the successful
identification of potential strategic
importance of outer space (with all its
implications) for the power of individual
states and their position. This finding is
further supported by the development of
space policies of other major actors in the
international system (China, France, India,
Iran, Israel, Japan, the United Kingdom and
others.). Similarly, e.g. competition for
primacy in achieving Mars by manned
spaceflight is sometimes referred to as "the
new space race" and new source of clash
among participated parties (actors).
Contribution of the outer space can be
initially seen in its location and actual size
(or infinity). Space represents the domain in
which they are a part of Earth other planets,
stars and celestial bodies. However,
currently from a security standpoint is for
various actors in the international
environment not (so) important that this
area has to be overcome to achieve other
celestial bodies.
Given the attainability of the general level
of technological development of mankind,
which would enable both short and
economic spaceflights among the planets,
and also the pursuit of a permanent
settlement e.g. for the purpose of mining
and quarrying, we will not likely witness to
conflicts comparable (with a certain degree
of analogy) to fight for control of the
shipping routes, respectively overseas
colonies, in the near future.
On the other hand, the beginnings of the
aforementioned the U.S. - Soviet rivalry
pointed that individual states "recognize"
another implication of this characteristic.
Any position on the surface of Earth is
directly accessible from its orbit,
irrespective of uneven terrain, altitude and
its distance (not only from the rest
“civilization”, but also from the mainland
itself). Disposing relevant capacities in
space, therefore, plays a relatively major
role in the ability of individual actors to
project their power, or military power, on a
global scale. This issue highlights among
others the U.S. National Space Security
Strategy from 2011 [15].
Representatives of China, Russia and the
United States, i.e. the leading countries that
focus on the development of military
programs and projects applying theses
current RMA, agree that outer space plays a
key role in the establishment of military
capabilities and infrastructure [14]. For
example, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV)
require for achieving their effective combat
results comprehensive system of
communication, navigation and monitoring
satellites [16].
Protection of corresponding systems is
becoming for the state one of its key security
interest to ensure that aforementioned
capabilities (PGMs, UAVs etc.) can be used
according their purpose. From this point of
view, establishing concepts of the current
RMA is deeply connected to militarization of
this domain, which highlight not only further
increase in its strategic value, but also issues
of “dual-use” technologies.
109 Unauthenticated
Download Date | 7/28/17 7:01 AM
4. Conclusions
Paper was focused on examination of the
relationship between the current RMA and
the outer space. This interdependent
relationship was analysed in two
dimensions: 1) how the current RMA is
influenced by outer space; 2) how the
current RMA affects outer space.
In the first dimension, we can identify the
importance of development of space
technologies for operability of the modern
weapon systems (for example UAVs or
PGMs). Robust satellite network provide
unprecedented awareness, monitoring,
navigation and communication capabilities.
These elements are also crucial for the
implementation of the concepts of SoS and
NCW.
The second dimension is highlighted by
strategic value of the outer space.
Nowadays, we should especially mentioned
that any position on the surface of Earth is
directly accessible from its orbit,
irrespective of uneven terrain, altitude and
its distance. Space systems, which are
dedicated to ensure increasing of military
effectiveness in the terms of the current
RMA, also represent some kind of
vulnerability (e.g. threat of enemy ASATs).
From this point of view, establishing
concepts of the current RMA is deeply
connected to securitization and
militarization of this domain.
Acknowledgements
The work presented in this paper has been
supported by the Ministry of Defence of the
Czech Republic (Research Project
“STRATAL” No. 907930101023).
References
[1] Jakub FUČÍK and Zdeněk KŘÍŽ, Informační revoluce, vojensko-technická revoluce,
nebo revoluce ve vojenských záležitostech? (Information Revolution, MilitaryTechnical
Revolution, or Revolution in Military Affairs?), Obrana a strategie, Vol. 13,
No. 2, 2013, pp. 15-24.
[2] For further details see Colin S. GRAY, Strategy for Chaos - Revolution in Military
Affairs and The Evidence of History, London, Frank Cass, 2005.
[3] Jeffrey R. COOPER. Another View of the Revolution in Military Affairs,
http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub240.pdf, Strategic Studies
Institute, 1994, p. 13.
[4] For further details see e.g. William A. OWENS and Ed OFFLEY. Lifting the Fog of
War. New York, Farrar Straus Giroux, 2000.
[5] For more details see David S. ALBERTS, John J. GARTSKA and Frederick P. STEIN,
Network Centric Warfare: Developing and Leveraging Information Superiority,
Washington D.C., CCRP, 1999.
[6] Barry F. DAITON, Time and Space, Montreal, McGill-Queen's University Press, 2001,
pp.132 - 133.
[7] Michael J. SHEEHAN, The International Politics of Space, New York, Routledge,
2007, p. 144.
[8] Curtis PEEBLES, Battle for Space, London, Book Club Associates, 1983, p. 29.
[9] For further details see Jakub FUČÍK, Tvorba vesmírné politiky aneb stejné motivy u
odlišných států? (Formulation of Space Policy, or the Same Motives at Different
States?), Master Thesis, Faculty of Social Studies, Masaryk University, Brno, 2013.
[10] Charles A. MURRAY and Catherine B. COX, Apollo: The Race to the Moon, New
York, Touchstone, 1990, p. 356.
110 Unauthenticated
Download Date | 7/28/17 7:01 AM
[11] Miroslav GYŰRÖSI, The Soviet Fractional Orbital Bombardment System Program,
http://www.ausairpower.net/APA-Sov-FOBS-Program.html, Air Power Australia, 2010,
updated 2012; and/or Anatoly ZAK, Russian military space program: Yesterday, today
and tomorrow, http://swfound.org/media/53469/rsw_milspace_web.pdf,
RussianSpaceWeb.com, 2011.
[12] For further details see Kevin CROWLEY, The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI): Star
Wars, http://www.coldwar.org/articles/80s/SDI-StarWars.asp, n.d.; and Petr SUCHÝ,
Reagan a říše zla. Vývoj americké zahraniční politiky a vztahů mezi supervelmocemi v
letech 1981 – 1989 (Reagan and the Evil Empire. The development of US foreign
policy and relations between the superpowers in the years 1981 - 1989), Brno, CDK,
2004, pp. 97 -106.
[13] Matthew MOWTHORPE, The United States Requirements for an Antisatellite (ASAT)
Capability, The Journal of Social, Political and Economic Studies, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp.
132 – 147, 2002.
[14] Compare with Michael NEARY, Space: The Next Revolution in Military Affairs?,
Journal of International Service, Vol. 18, No. 1, 2008, p. 114.
[15] U.S. National Space Security Strategy, https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=10828, 2011.
[16] For further details about UAVs see for example Richard STOJAR, Bezpilotní
prostředky a problematika jejich nasazení v soudobých konfliktech (The Unmanned
Aerial Vehicles and Issues Connected with Their Use in Contemporary Conflicts),
Obrana a strategie, Vol. 16, No. 2, 2016, pp. 5-18.
111 Unauthenticated
Download Date | 7/28/17 7:01 AM