Department of International Relations and European Studies1 Nuclear Fuel Cycle doc. PhDr. Tomáš Vlček, Ph.D. tomas.vlcek@mail.muni.cz Department of International Relations and European Studies2 Contents ̶ Nuclear Fuel Cycle ̶ Mining ̶ Processing ̶ Conversion ̶ Enrichment ̶ Fabrication ̶ History ̶ World reactor fleet ̶ Service part ̶ Back End Department of International Relations and European Studies3 Nuclear Fuel Cycle 4 Nuclear Fuel Cycle Department of International Relations and European Studies Department of International Relations and European Studies5 Nuclear Fuel Cycle Department of International Relations and European Studies6 Uranium About 20 tonnes of enriched uranium for an average large reactor refuel is needed, the cost is thus about $ 50 million. Total front end world market is now worth about $ 25 billion annually. Source: Steve Kidd, World Nuclear Association Uranium 8.9 kg U3O8 $ 68 per kg $ 605 43% Conversion 7.5 kg U $ 14 per kg $ 105 8% Enrichment 7.3 SWU $ 52 per SWU $ 380 27% Fabrication 1 kg $ 300 per kg $ 300 22% Total $ 1390 100% Front end fuel cycle costs of 1 kg of uranium as UO2 fuel (2017 costs, source: WNA) Department of International Relations and European Studies7 Uranium The reactor fuel buyers fight hard to save every last cent because this is cost they feel they can influence. It has however minor role on the NPP operating costs. Impact of 50 % increase in fuel costs on generating costs ̶ Source: Global Energy Decisions, ERI, Inc.; IEA WEO 2006; in Steve Kidd, 2010, Nuclear Fuel: Myths and Realities Department of International Relations and European Studies8 Uranium ̶ Natural uranium is relatively abundant and evenly spread in the earth's crust. The occurrence is about 500 times higher than with gold. ̶ Granite (around 75% of the earth's crust) is less concentrated with uranium = 4 ppm (0,0001 %). ̶ Coal is more abundant with uranium, the concentration is around 100 ppm (0,01 %), in some fertilizers up to 400 ppm (0,04 %). ̶ If the concentration is high (0,03 % and more), the matter is called uranium ore and could be mined with profit. ̶ Traditional mining (open mine pits, shaft mines) ̶ In-situ methods Department of International Relations and European Studies9 Uranium Nuclear Energy Agency / International Atomic Energy Agency (2018): Uranium 2018: Resources, Production and Demand, p. 17 Department of International Relations and European Studies10 Uranium Nuclear Energy Agency / International Atomic Energy Agency (2018): Uranium 2018: Resources, Production and Demand, p. 26, 56 Department of International Relations and European Studies11 Uranium Source: WNA Department of International Relations and European Studies12 Department of International Relations and European Studies13 Department of International Relations and European Studies14 Department of International Relations and European Studies15 Department of International Relations and European Studies16 Department of International Relations and European Studies17 Department of International Relations and European Studies18 Department of International Relations and European Studies19 Department of International Relations and European Studies20 Department of International Relations and European Studies21 Department of International Relations and European Studies22 Uranium Department of International Relations and European Studies23 Department of International Relations and European Studies24 Department of International Relations and European Studies25 Uranium Production Perspective ̶ Rising NPP capacity factors (10 % in 1990s) ̶ Rising enrichment levels (up to 5 % U235) ̶ Uranium price levels limit usable deposits exploration and extraction (proven reserves vs. pure guesses) – U from oceans ̶ According to Red Book, there is 7.989 Mt of Identified resources of U, not counting resources with current production price above 260 USD/kg ̶ 400 junior uranium companies emerged recently (largely still in exploration stage) ̶ Stockpiles of natural and enriched uranium ̶ RepU (expensive U = pressure on reprocessing) ̶ P239 (Spent fuel, weapons) ̶ Down-blended weapons-grade uranium ̶ Re-enriched uranium tails assay (currently 0.25-0.3% U235) ̶ Higher enrichment (expensive U = pressure on higher enrichment/U235 extraction) ̶ Breeder reactors (U238 to P239) ̶ Fusion (?) ̶ Extreme short-term measures (lowering NPP production output means longer fuel campaigns) Department of International Relations and European Studies26 Processing ̶ The ore usually contains about 0.1% of uranium, sometimes even less. ̶ In this form it is unusable and any transport would be simply too expensive. ̶ Processing plants therefore usually surround the mine. ̶ First, uranium ore is freed from the so-called uranium tailings. The refined ore is then ground into mash. The mash is concentrated and then chemically leached by sulfuric acid. After drying the resultiis the uranium concentrate U3O8 (yellow cake). ̶ After drying, and usually heating, the uranium is concentrated to about 80% and filled into 200 liter barrels in which it is transported for further processing. ̶ The rest of the rock contains residues after dissolution and most of the radioactivity (natural uranium radioactivity is consisted largely of radioactive elements emerging due to uranium´s natural decay, these remain in the uranium ore). These tailings are then placed back into the mine or tailing ponds, where they are artificially isolated from the environment. Department of International Relations and European Studies27 Department of International Relations and European Studies28 Department of International Relations and European Studies29 Department of International Relations and European Studies30 Department of International Relations and European Studies31 Department of International Relations and European Studies32 Conversion ̶ Uranium enrichment can currently only happen in gaseous form ̶ Triuranium octoxide (U3O8) can be directly converted to uranium trioxide (UO3) which can be directly used in specific reactors that do not require enriched fuel. ̶ For most reactors the uranium concentration in directly produced uranium dioxide is not sufficiently high. Thus U3O8 is converted into uranium hexafluoride (UF6), which is normally in a gaseous state. ̶ Uranium hexafluoride is then pumped into large metal cylinders, where it solidifies, and transported to the enrichment plants. Department of International Relations and European Studies33 Conversion (and Reconversion) Source: Euratom Supply Agency China´s capacity is expected to grow considerably in 2025 and beyond Plan to develop Ulba plant in Kazakhstan in 2020 (6,000 tU) Department of International Relations and European Studies34 Enrichment Source: Euratom Supply Agency; WNA SWU calculator: http://www.wise- uranium.org/nfcue.html Department of International Relations and European Studies35 Enrichment Department of International Relations and European Studies36 Enrichment Department of International Relations and European Studies37 Enrichment SWU calculator: http://www.wise-uranium.org/nfcue.html Nuclear Fuel Cost Calculator: http://www.wise-uranium.org/nfcc.html Department of International Relations and European Studies38 Department of International Relations and European Studies39 Department of International Relations and European Studies40 Fabrication Difference to every other step: 1) Fabrication is a highly specialised service rather than commodity (barrier for newcomers enetring the market) 2) TVEL offers full front end process as a product (i.e. fuel) vs. steps in the fuel cycle 3) Main technology (NPP) suppliers are also main fuel producers 4) Fuel is manufactured according to public tenders specifing the product in details 5) VVER technology was developed paralelly with western technology (legacy of cold war) 6) Markets were opened 25 years ago with no experience on both sides 7) The nuclear fuel quality is critical for NPP production. The financial implications of reduced plant performance would quickly outweigh any benefit from potentially lower fuel prices Department of International Relations and European Studies41 Fabrication Department of International Relations and European Studies42 Fabrication Department of International Relations and European Studies43 Department of International Relations and European Studies44 Department of International Relations and European Studies45 Department of International Relations and European Studies46 Department of International Relations and European Studies47 Department of International Relations and European Studies48 Department of International Relations and European Studies49 Department of International Relations and European Studies50 Department of International Relations and European Studies51 Department of International Relations and European Studies52 Fabrication Department of International Relations and European Studies53 Department of International Relations and European Studies54 Fabrication Department of International Relations and European Studies55 Nuclear Fuel Cycle Department of International Relations and European Studies56 History When and where took the first chain reactions in nuclear reactor place? When and where was the first nuclear reactor connected to the electricity grid? When and where was the world's first privately owned commercial power plant opened? Department of International Relations and European Studies57 History When and where took the first chain reactions in nuclear reactor place? ̶ December 20, 1951; Experimental Breeder Reactor EBR-I, Arco, Idaho, USA (0.2 Mwe, 14% efficiency) When and where was the first nuclear reactor connected to the electricity grid? ̶ June 26, 1954; Obninsk, USSR, APS-1 (5 MWe, 17% efficiency) When and where was the world's first privately owned commercial power plant opened? ̶ October 17, 1956; Calder Hall, Sellafield, UK (46 MWe, 23% efficiency) Department of International Relations and European Studies58 History Department of International Relations and European Studies59 World Reactor Fleet Department of International Relations and European Studies60 World Reactor Fleet Department of International Relations and European Studies61 World Reactor Fleet Department of International Relations and European Studies62 World Reactor Fleet Department of International Relations and European Studies63 World Reactor Fleet Nuclear Reactors "Under Construction" as of July 2019 Department of International Relations and European Studies64 World Reactor Fleet Department of International Relations and European Studies65 Service part Source: IAEA Department of International Relations and European Studies66 PWR Reactors Department of International Relations and European Studies67 PWR Reactors Department of International Relations and European Studies68 PWR Reactors Department of International Relations and European Studies69 PWR Reactors Department of International Relations and European Studies70 BWR Reactors Department of International Relations and European Studies71 PHW Reactor ̶ Generally the same structure as PWR ̶ Heavy water (not radioactive, but posionous) absorbs less neutrons, thus is able both to moderate nuclear reaction and secure criticality = non-enriched fuel can be used Department of International Relations and European Studies72 Back End ̶ Fission chain reaction consumes only uranium isotope 235U. ̶ Used fuel contains approximately a quarter of the original value of this isotope, thus still remains enriched to about 1% 235U. ̶ The fuel consists of more than 96% uranium dioxide (UO2) and newly developed plutonium dioxide (PuO2) in an amount of about 1%, and other compounds (3%), while most of the fission products are radioactive isotopes. Department of International Relations and European Studies73 Department of International Relations and European Studies74 MOX Fuel ̶ Mixed oxide (MOX) fuel provides almost 5% of the new nuclear fuel used today. ̶ MOX fuel is manufactured from plutonium recovered from used reactor fuel, mixed with depleted uranium. ̶ MOX fuel also provides a means of burning weaponsgrade plutonium (from military sources) to produce electricity. ̶ Mixed uranium oxide + plutonium oxide (MOX) fuel has been used in about 30 light-water power reactors in Europe and about ten in Japan. World mixed oxide fuel fabrication capacities (t/yr) 2017 France, Marcoule 195 Japan, Tokai-Mura 5 Japan, Rokkasho-Mura (from 2022) 130 Russia, Zheleznogorsk 60 India, Tarapur 50 Total for LWR 440 Department of International Relations and European Studies75 MOX Fuel Department of International Relations and European Studies76 Fast Neutron Reactors ̶ About 400 reactor-years of operating experience have been accumulated to the end of 2010. ̶ A fast neutron reactor or simply a fast reactor is a category of nuclear reactor in which the fission chain reaction is sustained by fast neutrons. ̶ Such a reactor needs no neutron moderator, but must use fuel that is relatively rich in fissile material when compared to that required for a thermal reactor. ̶ Fuel consists of U-235, Pu-239 (products of fission with higher radiation) that produce more fast neutrons = waste from Gen II and III reactors is used Department of International Relations and European Studies77 Department of International Relations and European Studies78 Back End ̶ In the first phase, the fuel is actively cooled in a pool next to the reactor. After five-ten years they are put into dry containers and passively cooled in interim storages. ̶ The dry interim storage facility is constructed to store fuel for about 80 years. ̶ The second phase, i.e. transport phase, is/will be provided by rail. ̶ The third phase is the underground geological repository Department of International Relations and European Studies79 Back End Department of International Relations and European Studies80 Is it safe to swim in the spent fuel? Department of International Relations and European Studies81 Is it safe to swim in the spent fuel? https://what-if.xkcd.com/29/ Department of International Relations and European Studies82 Back End Department of International Relations and European Studies83 Department of International Relations and European Studies84 Department of International Relations and European Studies85 Back End ̶ Surface storage is needed for at least 40-50 years, after which the temperature and the radioactivity drops to a level that is acceptable for underground geological repository with limited or no access of cooling. ̶ Geological surveys and technical plans are fairly advanced in Sweden and Finland, which have a defined location. U.S. repository should be built at Yucca Mountain in Nevada, but the decision was postponed. ̶ Variants of Storage - Underground - Space - Long-term surface storage Department of International Relations and European Studies86 Thank you for your attention.