AdolescentsandEmergingAdultsin
FamilyRelationships
⚫ Q: Compared to childhood: Is adolescence rather conflict period in
terms of relationships between children and parents?
⚫ Adolescents may see their parents as having turned harsh,
controlling, and irrational.
⚫ Parents may wonder why their formerly cooperative and
responsible children now seem hostile and destructive.
⚫ These perspectives often feed on one another, increasing
misunderstanding on both sides. Many parents and
adolescents report a decrease in closeness during this time.
Children versus parents in adolescence :
Problems on both sides
Adolescents versus parents :
Problems on both sides
Adolescents change greatly as they make the transition from childhood to adulthood,
but their parents also change
• In one study, 40 percent of parents of adolescent children reported two or more of the
following difficulties during a child's transition to adolescence: lowered self-esteem,
decreased life satisfaction, increased depression, increased anxiety, and more frequent
negative thoughts about middle age (Steinberg, 2001).
• The parents of adolescents are usually in midlife, when they face the prospect that their
future lives may not get a lot better than the present. Just as their children are bursting
with idealism, they may feel increasingly pessimistic.
• Similarly, middle age can bring declines in physical vigor and attractiveness, which can
seem all the harder to bear when one's children are blooming.
• More difficulties for both sides, however, they want to see it?
Myths about....
• Adolescents’ myth about adulthood:
Adults are totally „free“ , they can do anything (drinking
alcohol, driving car, travelling, indenpendent decision making
etc...)
• Adults’ myth about adolescence:
Adolescence is the best period of life, without any serious
worries.Adolescents are happy/should to be/must be happy.
Teenagers prefer leisure and entertainment only.
Adolescents versus parents
⚫ Traditional view – adolescent protest against authorities is
necessary for development to autonomy
⚫ Positive relations with parents, mutual trust and mutual
respect to psychological needs of both improve autonomy and
decision making in adolescents
⚫ Parents – if they want to understand their children, they have
to take seriously their opinions, wishes, and problems.
⚫ Task: When you was 13 years old,
- what did you like /dislike by your parents
- (which their characteristics in regard to you)
Parent-Child Conflict
in Transition to Adulthood
• Parent-child conflict
– Highest during early adolescence (more frequent
conflicts regarding everyday life experience and
activities)
– Somewhat smaller but still intense during middle
adolescence (but sometimes more serious –
drinking, drugs, sex etc.)
– Diminish substantially during late adolescence
and emerging adulthood (but, if not...).
TheAmount of Family Activities
in Transition toAdulthood
• Mothers and fathers each averaged
about 1 hour/day spent in shared
activities with their adolescents (Larson
et al., 1996).
– Mostly watching TV
The Amount of Family Activities
in Transition to Adulthood
• Adolescents must stay at home, whereas emerging
adults can leave home.
• Girls spend more time and more activities with
their mothers than with their fathers
• However, girls report negative feeling toward their
mother.
– Close feeling: 68% in 5th grade -> 28% in 9th grade
• Fathers are “shadowy presence.”
– One data show that only 12 minutes/day spending with
adolescents
– 40% of this time watching TV together
– Fathers still report good feeling during spending time together
with their adolescents.
– However, adolescents tend to resent fathers’ dominant ways of
communications.
Cultural Differences
in Transition toAdulthood
• West
– In the U.S., leaving home typically around ages 18
to 19.
– In EU, emerging adults are more likely to stay at
home.
• Financial difficulty (e.g., affording apartment)
• European culture emphasizes mutual support within families
• Concluding that “young Europeans find that they can enjoy a
higher standard of living by staying at home rather than living
independently, and at the same time enjoy substantial autonomy.”
• East
– Levels of conflict are low
• High cultural beliefs about parental authority
• low appropriate degree of adolescent independence
Youth in Family Relationships
Three theoretical approaches to understanding
family
interactions
• Family Systems Approach
• Attachment Theory
• Parenting Styles
– Focusing on differences of families
• Across cultures
• Across developmental periods
• Across types of families
– (e.g., divorced vs. non-divorced families )
Approach # 1: Family SystemsApproach
Each relationship within a particular family influences
the family as a whole.
– Mother-child, father-child, mother-father, etc.
– E.g., mother-father -> mother-child
– E.g., mother-child -> mother-father
mother-father
father-childmother-child
Approach # 1: Family Systems Approach
2. Families need to keep balance
– Adolescents become more cognitively and physically mature.
• E.g., Explanation about adoption.
– Interesting empirical findings about “midlife crisis”:
• Empty-nest syndrome – parents need to make adjustments when their
youngest child leaves home.
• When parents typically have adolescents, parents report their lives are
happier and more satisfying (Feldman, 2003; Galhagher, 1993).
– Better job status and more power -> fìnancial stability
– More tolerance in family
– Marital problems decline and marital satisfaction increases
• When emerging adults leave home, their relationships with parents
become better (Arnett, 2003; Garber & Dubas, 1996).
• Are these positive transitions true in your family?
• How did your family adapt to your developmental changes?
Approach # 1: Family Systems Approach
2. Parental conflict – when is destructive for adolescents
- when adolescents perceive and interpret this conflict as a danger
for them
- when this conflict is perceived without any solution for parents
- when conflict produce agressive behavior of parents
- when they feel guilty for it
Approach #2:Attachment Theory
John Bowlby
Secure vs. Insecure attachment
• When parents are sensitive and responsive to
their children’s emotional needs, the children
develop secure attachment with their parents.
• Secure children trust their parent’s availability
when
children need them.
– “My parents are always there and I feel I can always go to them
and they always say something that will make me feel better.”
(17-year-old girl)
Secure vs. Insecure
attachment• Because insecure children have not met their
needs when needed, they do not trust their
parents.
• Insecure children tend to avoid seeking help from
others and/or hostile toward others.
– Avoidant style
– Resistant style
• If children are physically/emotionally/sexually
abused by their parents, they feel frightened and
show dissociate behavior.
– disorganized style
Attachment security in adolescence
• Research indicates that a secure
attachment to parents in adolescence is
related to a variety of favorable outcomes.
– High self-esteem
– Low psychological problems
– Closer relationships with friends and romantic
partners
– High educational and occupational attainment
– Better physical health
– Low drug use problems
Approach #3: Parenting Styles
• 2 dimensions of parenting
– Demandingness (control)
• The degree to which parents set down rules and
expectations for behavior and require their children to
comply with them.
– Responsiveness (warmth)
• The degree to which parents are sensitive to their
children’s needs and the extent to which they express
love, warmth, and concern for their children.
Parenting Styles
• Dianna Baumrind’s 4 patterns of parenting
styles
Demandingness (Control)
Responsiveness
(Warmth)
High Low
High Authoritative Indulgent
Low Authoritarian Indifferent
Parenting Styles
• Authoritative Parenting Style
– Parents are willing to answer questions.
• They are more democratic in the way they deal with their children.
• They are assertive but not restrictive.
• They are more forgiving, less punishing than the authoritarian
parent.
– If the child does not meet parents’goals, it is not the end of
the world.
• Parents will have a conversation.
• Parents and the child will work together to have their successes.
Parenting Styles
• Authoritarian Parenting Style
– Parents have very strict, rigid rules.
• They're not very interested in what the child thinks or feels.
• No conversation.
– No warmth and nurturance.
• They expect the child to be mature.
– Parents want compliance.
• They want to control over their children.
Parenting Styles
• Indulgent Parenting Style (permissive)
– Parents have an excessive amount of warmth and
nurturance.
– They are lighter on the rules and regulations.
• Parents allow for a considerable amount of self-regulation.
– No rules.
• Parents are more reactive in terms of placing demands on their
children.
• It's really more "parenting when necessary."
– Parents have lower expectations for maturity and selfcontrol
in the child.
Parenting Styles
• Indifferent Parenting style
– Parents are somewhat neglectful.
• They are not aware of the child's needs.
• There is very little communication.
• Parents place few demands on the child.
• They are not involved in their life.
– Parents are relatively detached from the child's
mental/emotional needs.
• They will provide the basic needs.
• But after that, there is not much connection there.
Parenting Styles
• Identify the following parenting styles.
– My parents are never home. They are off on a trip or away
at work. They don’t show up at my games or band concerts.
– My father is so strict. If I look at him funny, he knocks me
under the table.
– My mother told me I could not go with a guy in a car until I
was in my senior year of high school. I argued with her
about that. We ended up compromising, and she said I
could ride with someone as along as she knew who the
person was.
– My parents usually let me do whatever I want, but I know
they love me. I really love my parents, too.
Parenting Styles across Cultures
America
• Over 4,000American adolescents aged 14 to 18
(Lamborn et al., 1991)
– Working class and middle class
– Urban, suburban & rural communities
– EuropeanAmerican (65%),AfricanAmerican (9%),
AsianAmerican (14%), and Latinos (12%).
• Authoritative style (37%)
• Indifferent style (32%)
• Authoritarian style (15%)
• Indulgent style (15%)
Outcomes of Parenting Styles
• Why does authoritative parenting promote adolescents’autonomy
and independence?
– What are your ideas?
Authoritative Authoritarian Indulgent Indifferent
Independent Dependent Irresponsible Impulsive
Creative Passive Conforming Delinquent
Self-assured Conforming Immature Early sex, drugs
Socially-skilled
Outcomes of Parenting Styles
• Why does authoritative parenting promote adolescents’autonomy
and independence?
– “Abalance between allowing enough autonomy for adolescents to
develop their capacities and at the same time requiring them to exercise
their autonomy in a responsible way.”
Authoritative Authoritarian Indulgent Indifferent
Independent Dependent Irresponsible Impulsive
Creative Passive Conforming Delinquent
Self-assured Conforming Immature Early sex, drugs
Socially-skilled
Parenting Styles across Cultures
Asia
• Authoritative parenting has been considered rare in
Asian cultures such as China, Japan, Vietnam, and
South Korea.
– “Filial piety” – children are expected to respect and obey
their parents throughout life.
Think and discuss with your classmates about what are a
common parenting style in your culture and why.
Parenting Styles across Cultures
• Think and discuss with your classmates about
what are a common parenting style in your
culture and why.
Parenting Styles across Cultures
America
• Over 4,000American adolescents aged 14 to 18
(Lamborn et al., 1991)
– Working class and middle class
– Urban, suburban & rural communities
– EuropeanAmerican (65%),AfricanAmerican (9%),
AsianAmerican (14%), and Latinos (12%).
• Authoritative style (37%)
• Indifferent style (32%)
• Authoritarian style (15%)
• Indulgent style (15%)
Parenting Styles across Cultures
Asia
• Authoritative parenting has been considered rare in
Asian cultures such as China, Japan, Vietnam, and
South Korea.
– “Filial piety” – children are expected to respect and obey
their parents throughout life.
• Low explanations
• High academic achievement
Think and discuss with your classmates about what are a common
parenting style in your culture and why.
The role of parents and family in
adolescents' self-development
Generally, the process of separation and striving for
autonomy of young individuals is strongly based on the
negotiation with their parents.
As many current studies show, parents remain significant
others not only in adolescence but also in the third decade
of life
The importance of parents is related to adolescent self-
development
Girls, in particular, bear the brunt of parental restrictions in early adolescence.
Unlike boys, they are given greater responsibility for household chores.
Also, parents exert more control of them;
(the parents' message is "Be careful nothing bad happens to you").
The change of status from child to young adult brings more advantages
than disadvantages for boys. If parents exert any pressure on boys,
it is usually about their behavior,
and for the need to be more determined and more assertive with their peers
(in other words, the parents' message in this case is, "Show what you can do").
Differences of importance of self-representations
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Self acc. to
Parents
Actualself
Idealself
Unwanted
self
Self acc. to
friends
Idealacc. toparents
Idealacc. to
friends
Self acc. to
authority
Idealacc. toauthority
Post-communistic
Contemporary
adolescents
Self-concept – cognitive aspect of self-reflection
Self-concept or self-representations:
It is everything individuals/adolescents know and believe about
themselves
This includes characteristics related to:
-one’s physical appearance and attractiveness (physical self-concept)
-one’s performance and competencies (competence self-concept,
academic or professional self-concept),
-social relationships both in the wider meaning (social self-concept) and
in specific social settings (e.g. family self-concept) or specific
interpersonal relationship or role (partnership self-concept, parental
self-concept).
An another important aspect of self includes traits (e.g. true-heartedness,
responsibility) through which we define ourselves in the context of moral
rules, norms and values (moral self-concept).
Self-esteem
It is global self-evaluation, one’s evaluations of one’s worth as a
person or human being.
The level of self-esteem is to a high extent related to the global
emotional disposition and the overall wellbeing.
Amongst other things, this feeling also depends on how competent
and successful we consider ourselves.
It also works the other way around: someone who accepts
himself/herself and is aware of his/her value is usually more
satisfied in life, healthier and more successful.
On the other hand, someone who sees himself/herself negatively
experiences more often failure, anxiety, depression and his/her
view of the future is pessimistic.
No doubts, the adolescent self-esteem is related to perceptions and
evaluations of parents.
Self-esteem scale
(Rosenberg, 1974)
STATEMENT
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
1
. I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an
equal plane with others.
2
. I feel that I have a number of good qualities..
3
. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.
4
.
I am able to do things as well as most other
people.
5
. I feel I do not have much to be proud of.
6
. I take a positive attitude toward myself.
7
. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.
8
. I wish I could have more respect for myself.
9
. I certainly feel useless at times.
1
0
.
At times I think I am no good at all.
Self-esteem: comparison two generations
1,00
1,50
2,00
2,50
3,00
3,50
girls boys girls boys
post-totalitarian contemporary1992 01
Study I: Perceived parenting and self-esteem
First results: Parental love supports self-esteem
Baumrid (1971) proposed two dimensions of parenting behavior which
can have specific influences on child and adolescent self:
- parental responsiveness (warmth)
- parental demandingness (control)
Question:
Reported
parental
behavior
at the age of 11
Adolescent´s
self-esteem
at the age of 13
Reported
parental
behavior
at the age of 13
Is there relationship between reported mother’s and
father’s parental rearing practices and self-esteem of
young adolescents?
Sample
We use data from Czech part of longitudinal study
ELSPAC (European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy
and Childhood).
In regard to purpose of this study, our sample consists
of 148 boys and 136 girls with their parents. We
respected these two criteria:
-both parents are present in a family,
-both children and their parents completed all
questionnaires.
Instruments and data collection
Parental rearing practices were measured by using Parent style
questionnaire (Čáp & Boschek, 1994).
Two factors were extracted – Parental Warmth and Parental
Control.
This instrument was completed repeatedly by both children and
their parents. Mothers and fathers assessed their rearing parental
practices when their children were 11 and 13 years old.
In regard to children, they completed this questionnaire
separately for perceived mother’s and father’s parental behaviour
at the age of 11 and 13.
Adolescents´ self-esteem (at the age of 13) was measured by the
Czech version of the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (CSEI,
Coopersmith, 1981).
The CSEI includes 50 items that concern attitudes toward the self
in the areas of social, academic, family, and personal experience.
Respecting psychometric criteria, we used only two subscales for
next analyses:
-Self-Confidence
-Perceived acceptance from others ( Social Self)
Instruments and data collection
Self-confidence:
Can be seen as more general aspect of self-esteem. To
have high level of self-confidence means to have positive
attitudes towards one’s own self, to be stable in selfevaluation,
to like one’s own self, and also to believe in own
skills and abilities
Acceptance from others (Social Self):
Adolescent sees himself/herself as a person who has a
social prestige and who is an attractive person, especially
for peers
Results
When analysing the models based on data obtained from parents, we did not found
acceptable fit – in all cases, the free regression weights were close to zero.
We can state that there are no significant relations between parents’ report about
their parental behaviour and self-esteem of the child
More results proved models with data based on the child’s report about behaviour of
parents.
Results
It is evident, that perceived warmth of mother is a good
predictor of adolescent’s self-confidence for both girls and
boys. The mother’s warmth, represented by her interest,
her emotional support and presentation of positive feelings
is related to high positive self-feeling.
On the other hand, when mother is perceived as a person
who expresses often negative feelings, who reproaches and
talks often about child’s mistakes and insufficiencies, then
child’s self-confidence is lower.
Regarding the perceived father´s warmth, we identified it as
a significant predictor for boys only; we did not find direct
influence of fathers on girls´ self-confidence.
Results
Perceived mother’s control is another significant
predictor of girls´ self-confidence. More concretely,
self-confidence is higher when demands, expectations are
going parallel with the warm, responsive, and supportive
behavior.
We can suppose, that the control is in this case perceived
as mother’s not only emotional but also “cognitive
support” by which we mean the help to find and to see
some structure or to differentiate, what is important and
what is not.
Results
However, why is this result valid for girls only?
This result can be also considered in the context of different
parental stereotypes about young adolescent girls and boys.
Transition from childhood to a period of early adolescence is
traditionally connected with a higher differentiation of gender
stereotypes, with imagination what is “correct” and what “is not
correct” for each sex.
According to these stereotypes, girls in early adolescence need
more control and more “parental care” then boys. Boys should be
more independent, more assertive and courageous, and they do
not need so much parental control.
Self-esteem, parents and peers during adolescence
-2,0
-1,5
-1,0
-0,5
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
13 15 17 19
z-score
Age
High
Rising
Moderate
Decreasing
Low
Current Czech emerging adults and their parents: a
generation growing up in the time of social change
Petr Macek &
Lenka Lacinová, Stanislav Ježek, Ondřej Bouša, Jan Širůček, Lucie Lomičová
Institute for Research on Children, Youth, and Family
Masaryk University Brno, Czech Republic
Our current study on emerging adults and their parents
Based on data from ongoing longitudinal research “Paths to Adulthood”
2011 – 2016, 1 664 respondents aged 18-23 in Wave 1, 1073 in Wave 4 (2013)
and 690 respondents in Wave 8 (2015)
Sample characteristics:
75% females
16% graduate school; 57% college; 4% community college; 10% grammar
school; 8% specialized secondary school; 10% work (6% study&work); 3%
unemployed
Living with parents (41%), living with partner (15%), living with friends (41%)
The follow-up research of EA respondents´ parents (in June 2015).
This sample consists of 234 mothers and 141 fathers and their data are paired
with the data of their children.
Methods:
Autonomy scale: The 7-item subscale of autonomy from the general version of the Basic
Psychological Needs Scale based on the Self-Determination Theory (Deci, Ryan, 2000). It measures
the general feeling of self-governance or agentic autonomy currently perceived by the respondent.
Items like "I feel like I am free to decide for myself how to live my life." use a 7-point response scale
from not true at all (1) to very true (7). (a = 0.70)
Identity Style Inventory IV, (Berzonsky, 2003). Czech version: Informational style, Normative style,
Diffusion Style.
Subjective developmental status: I feel as: teenager/adolescent, “in-between“ (not adolescent not
adult), adult.
Experiences in Close Relationships (Relationship Structures questionnaire of the Experiences in
Close Relationships—Revised ; Fraley, Waller, & Brennan, 2000). Participants assess their
attachment orientation in close relationships: with mother and with father. They assess two
fundamental dimensions underlying attachment patterns:
Anxiety - it represents the extent to which people tend to worry about attachment-related
concerns, such as the availability and responsiveness of an attachment figure.
Avoidance - this dimension represents the extent to which people are uncomfortable opening up
to others and depending on them.
Decision-making autonomy: How much are parents involved in emerging adult’s everyday
decision-making?
What to wear, eat, read, watch. Whom to go out with…. 18 items,
Options: (a) my parents tend to get very involved (forbid, press), (b) my parents state their
opinion but let me decide, (c) my parents leave the decision up to me, (d) my parents do not care
about this
Method for parents
(separately for mothers and fathers)
Assessment of the level of adulthood (ad hoc inventory inspired by the study of M.
Kloep & L. Hendry (2010). Six items, e.g. „My son/daughter is taking responsibility
for his/her life“ were assesed on four point scale (alpha .83).
Parental perception of subjective developmental status: „I see my son/daughter: as
adolescent, not fully adult, fully adult“
Emotional closeness (adopted for parents according to Aquilino, 1997). Six items
regarding global relationship quality with child (rated from 0 = really bad to 10 =
absolutely perfect, alpha .81) .
Autonomy in decision-making (adopted for parents according to Qin, Pomerantz, &
Wang, 2009), 15 items, alpha .88.
Parental support and assistance (adopted according Fingerman,Miller, Birditt, &
Zarit, 2009). Practical support (household, living situation), financial support, sharing
in communication. Three items for each domain.
Other questions regarding an assitance and support of their children
Which of the following do you think is most important for becoming an adult?
Reports of mothers (n = 225) and fathers (n = 135)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Accepting
responsibility
for yourself
Becaming
financially
independent
Making
independent
decisions
Finishing
education
Finding job Move out of
parents'
household
Getting
married
Having
children
mother father
With the exception of the item „having children“, no significant differences
between mothers and fathers were found
A perception of parental support and assistance
Parents: When you look back over the past year, how would you describe the support
or assistance you provide to your son/daughter?
Children: When you look back over the past year, how much support or assistance
you received from your parents?
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
no assistance and support occasionally regularly
Mother
Father
Son/daughter
Assessments of parents and children are different
However, no relationship between parent’s view and child’s was found.
A perception of parental support and assistance
It is evident that parents and emerging adults both
perceive high importance of support and assistance.
However, based on the inspection of our data, it seems
these supporting activities of parents are not directly
meant to support to the identity formation and autonomy
of their children (no significant relationsips were found).
To help adult children and to accept such help seems to
be a generally accepted cultural standard in Czech
society.
Summary: Parental support
We found only a few associations between the parent reports
of support and EA reports.
More generally, parents’ assessments and support are not
directly proportional to the youth’s transition to adulthood
and autonomy development.
It appears that the psychosocial development of emerging
adults is more closely related to how they themselves assess
their current situation and parents.
Study 2: Perceived parental characteristics as predictors of
autonomy of emerging adults
We predict the level of autonomy (Autonomy subscale of BPNS, Deci, Ryan,
2000). It measures the general feeling of self-governance or agentic autonomy
currently perceived by the respondent. Items like "I feel like I am free to decide
for myself how to live my life.”
Predictors:
- socio-demographic characteristics (living with parents, financial support
from parents, status of a student, status of an employee)
- relevant psycho-social characteristics (identity styles, subjective
developmental status, attachment to mother/father;
- decision-making autonomy/parental control in everyday life
58
Study 2: Parents as predictors of autonomy
Hierarchical regression analysis was used to predict the subjective
perceived feelings of autonomy in emerging adulthood (age M =
21.4, SD = 1.37).
In the first step, socio-demographic variables (gender, working
status, financial support from parents and living with parents) were
entered into the model.
In the second step, the psychological variables (three identity
styles, attachment (anxiety and avoidance of mother and father)
and subjective status were added.
In the final step three, the decision-making autonomy entered the
model.
59
Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Autonomy
Step and predictor variable B SE B β R2 ΔR2
Step 1 .03**
Living with parents -.28 .07 -.15**
Step 2 .17*** .14***
ISI normative -.23 .07 -.14***
ISI informational .24 .07 .13***
Anxiety - mother -.02 .00 -.19***
Avoidance - mother -.03 .01 -. 11**
Subjective status .17 .07 .10**
Step 3 .24*** .07***
Decision making autonomy .91 .12 .27***
**p < .01. *** p < .001.
Study 2: Parents as predictors of autonomy
60
Study 2: Parents as predictors of autonomy
61
B SE B β
Gender
.46 .082 .020
Living with parents
-.163 .067 -.087**
Financial support
-.042 .100 -.017
Status student
.170 .128 .053
Status working
-.010 .091 -.004
Avoidance - mother
-.016 .004 -.164***
Anxiety - mother
-.026 .012 -.093**
Avoidance - father
-.006 .004 -.058
Avoidance - father
-.013 .009 -.061
Informational oriented
.275 .068 .148***
Normative oriented
-.203 .058 -.125***
Diffusion oriented
-.110 .065 -.063
Subjective status
.147 .063 .083**
Decision-making autonomy
.899 .121 .266***
Study 2: Parents as predictors of autonomy
62
Summary
The degree of autonomy is associated with both socio-demographic
indicators and psychological characteristics.
Financial support and working status do not relate to the degree of
autonomy. A higher degree of autonomy is predicted if the EA does not
live with his/her parents
Relationship to mother (anxiety, avoidance) affects the degree of
autonomy; relationship to father is not a significant indicator.
With respect to the style of self-definition, looking up new information
corresponds with higher autonomy; orientation towards norms and
significant others reduces autonomy.
A higher degree of overall autonomy is supported by self-reliance
(independence from parents) in making decisions about everyday things.
Conclusions
In the Czech society, there is a long tradition of close relationships
between members of the original family and parental support in the
process of transition to adulthood.
It can be said that most parents accept the life style and needs of
current emerging adults.
As is evident also from the results of our research, relationships
between parents and children are more symmetrical and the role of
each parent is becoming more specific.
Direct influence and parental control are decreasing in various
domains of the lives of emerging adults (romantic relationships,
study and work). However, their influence still remains important
for self-development and autonomy development. Perceived
closeness to mother has been a long-time factor affecting
autonomy .
The role of father is rather unclear. As preliminary data inicated,
the basic role plays a perception of trust to father and opened
communication with him.