7 Aliens Eating Reese's
DOI: 10.4324/9781003055648-7
Media Influence and Advertising
J. David Cohen
Source: Image by Kirsten L from Shuersto
In is Chapter
• Introduction
• Behaviorism and John B. Watson
• Social Identity eory
• Social Cognitive eory
• Brand Psyology
• Narrative in Advertising
• Persuasion in Advertising
• Elaboration Likelihood Model
• Robert Cialdini on Influence
• Neuromarketing
• Web 2.0 Marketing
• Conclusion
Introduction
It was never going to work. at seemed to be what those at Hershey’s home
office thought aer fellow executive Ja Dowd unveiled a plan to use the new
and then still-unpopular Reese’s Pieces in an upcoming movie about an alien who
befriends a 9-year-old boy in suburban California. Director Steven Spielberg had
intended to follow the script and use M&Ms. However, the Mars company got cold
feet aer hearing of the $1 million compulsory promotion agreement coupled with
no ability to screen the film or approve shots before release.
Dowd’s plan worked beer than anyone could have imagined. Hershey
company historian Joël Glenn Brenner (1999) reported:
e movie set all-time box office records, and the publicity was incredible. Sales of Reese’s
Pieces took off, tripling within two weeks of the film’s release. Distributors reordered as many
as ten times in that fourteen-day period. It was the biggest marketing coup in history. We got
immediate recognition for our product, the kind of recognition we would normally have to pay
fieen to twenty million bus for. It ended up as a eap ride.
(pp. 277–278)
Figure 7.1ET was a popular film that was used to market Reese’s Pieces.
Source: www.shuersto.com/image-photo/istanbul-turkey-december-
19-2017-wax-778338964
Although in use prior to the 1982 film E. T. the Extra-Terrestrial, product
placement (PP) for Reese’s Pieces seen in the movie became a watershed event
in advertising, launing new opportunities for relationships between
entertainment products and consumer brands (Newell, Salmon, & Chang,
2006).
Advertising is not an incidental, haphazard landscape but, rather, a wellmapped
territory distinctly marked with unique signs and traffic paerns that
guide savvy companies to marketing success. e superhighway of advertising is
the field of consumer psyology that came to prominence with the resear of
academic psyologist John B. Watson in the 1920s. Modern advertising recognizes
that an effective ad campaign identifies consumer motivations, constructs realistic
buyer personas and brand aretypes, creates a narrative that facilitates
transportation, and utilizes social influences across multiple forms of media. is
apter outlines the co-evolution of consumer and brand psyology with
emerging tenologies and demonstrates how that alliance has revolutionized the
way people make purases and think about brands. In addition, we examine the
overaring field of the psyology of motivation.
As the science of consumer psyology grew, a variety of topics were studied
su as what made a product more appealing or memorable. In addition,
researers studied how consumers oose brands and products in order to meet
intrinsic human needs (Jansson-Boyd, 2010). What emerged was “individual buyer
personas” or “fictional purasers” that manifested the necessities, urges, and
objectives of real consumers (Revella, 2015). Using personas, advertisers have been
able to create meaningful, targeted brand messages that are readily understood,
remembered, and acted on by consumers.
Narrative is a main vehicle of mediated advertising. Visual and auditory cues
invite consumers to become cognitively transported into an ad’s story (Escalas,
2004). Once a viewer enters the marketing narrative, the ad connects to identity
cues that cast the buyer as a player in the tale (Green & Bro, 2013). Effective
marketing follows a storied framework, resolved with the consumer being
persuaded to act according to the ad’s intent. Companies coordinate with media
producers, creating product placements that embed brands into television
programs and films. e narrative then passively promotes the brand to
preoccupied viewers (Gillespie & Joireman, 2016).
Moreover, companies have adopted the use of media celebrities and influencers
to enhance the brand narrative. Studying media’s capacity to facilitate behavioral
ange, Bandura (2009) found that self-efficacy and agency could be conveyed
using mediated models. Advertisers have learned to utilize brand messages and
the corresponding mediums to promote self-efficacy and agency, resulting in
higher sales and positive brand associations. For example, celebrity endorsements
are effective and highly sought aer because mediated personae used in ads are
familiar to the consumer and/or may be aspirational figures (Trivedi, 2018).
As media has become more pervasive, personal, and social with the rise of Web
2.0 and mobile phones, the capacity of advertisers to rea and influence
consumers has soared, making it easier to impact buying decisions. Cialdini (2004)
delineated six social influences observed to drive behavioral ange: reciprocity,
scarcity, authority, consistency, liking, and consensus. ese have been adopted by
advertisers and are used in growing frequency (Cial-dini, 2008).
Behaviorism and John B. Watson
In a 2007 episode of Mad Men, advertising wunderkind Don Draper addressed
executives of Luy Strike cigaree brand about how to sell cigarees in the new
era of government oversight in whi the public was becoming increasingly
health-conscious. Draper declared,
Advertising is based on one thing—happiness. And you know what happiness is? Happiness is
the smell of a new car. It’s freedom from fear. It’s a billboard on the side of the road that
screams reassurance that whatever you are doing is okay. You are okay.
(Weiner & Taylor, 2007, 31:54)
Figure 7.2Advertising for cigarettes used to be commonplace.
Source: www.shuersto.com/image-photo/november-2013-berlin-
logo-electronic-sign-170445089
Modern media persuasion in advertising began with behaviorism, introduced in
1913 by John B. Watson (Jansson-Boyd, 2010; Kreshel, 1990). In 1920, Watson le
academic psyology to pursue a career in advertising. He became a pioneer in the
process of aaing meaning to products and brands designed to satisfy the
impulses of the human id, ego, and superego, conditioning consumers to buy
(Watson, 1913, 1919; Watson & Rayner, 1920). Responsible for several successful
print and radio ad campaigns (D. Cohen, 1979), Watson proposed a dramatic shi
in psyological inquiry. His vision was that scientific measurement would yield
findings that could be applied in a variety of practical contexts.
Behaviorism grew and was bolstered through extensive resear in animal
psyology (Tolman, 1922). Russian researer Ivan Pavlov’s series of experiments
habituated dogs to salivate by ringing a bell, referred to as classical conditioning
(CC). In the CC, a neutral stimulus (NS) or an inactive motivational cue su as a
bell is selected. e NS is presented to the dog just prior to an unconditioned
stimulus (UCS), or a naturally occurring motivational cue. For Pavlov’s dogs, this
was meat-flavored powder, whi produced an unconditional response (UCR)—the
dogs salivating. What Pavlov found was that through multiple pairings of the NS
with the UCS, eventually the dogs would salivate (UCR) at the sound of the bell
without the meat powder being used. us, the salivating became a conditioned
response (CR).
Animal studies conducted by Edward orndike and B. F. Skinner (Catania,
1999) in the early to mid-1900s were key in the formulation of operant
conditioning (OC). OC asserts that a behavior is more likely to occur again when
reinforced or strengthened. Skinner was able to show, with both rats and birds,
that behavior can be conditioned by adding a reinforcer or stimulus just aer a
desired response. Infomercials provide great examples of OC. In these ads, viewers
are positively reinforced to purase the product by enticements su as “If you
buy now, we’ll double your order for free!” and negatively reinforced by
statements su as “No shipping if you call today.”
Watson became the vice president of the J. Walter ompson advertising firm
and ushered in a new era in advertising and sales (MacGowan, 1928; Winkler &
Bromberg, 1939). He introduced advertising to observational science, used to study
consumerism, salesmanship teniques, and influence. In addition, Watson is
credited for inventing the use of testimonials in modern advertising (Buley,
1989). Watson’s only goal in pushing for ange, as recorded by biographer David
Cohen (1979), was “We want the man to rea in his poet and go down and
purase. is is the reaction. What we are struggling with is the finding of the
stimulus whi will produce that reaction” (p. 187).
Watson believed that the most effective way to persuade customers to buy was
to manipulate their emotions, using the three primary emotions most exploitable:
rage, fear, and love. He devised a successful ad campaign for Penn Railroad that
played on the anger of travelers at congested railway stations. Commuters were
portrayed as cale being herded into overcrowded cars on the New York subway.
is scene, designed to produce an angry response in consumers, persuaded them
to travel with Penn. Watson combined his emotional manipulation tactics with
three basic human needs: food, shelter, and sex. us, according to Watson,
“[g]ood copy had to harp on fear, love and rage and be linked to food, shelter and
sex” (D. Cohen, 1979, p. 188).
Two contemporaries of Watson who made major contributions to advertising
and motivational resear were Edward Bernays and Ernest Diter. Edward
Bernays, an American nephew of Sigmund Freud, took his uncle’s theories and
devised an understanding of human motivation that was far less logical than
previously conceived and applied that approa to the mind of the crowd. Noting
the way Nazi propaganda was able to persuade the masses, Bernays conceived of a
similar tenique for those living in a democracy. To remove the harsh overtones
of Nazism, Bernays coined the term “public relations” as a euphemism for
propaganda and successfully employed the “new” field by advising presidents and
other politicians and large corporations on how to influence large swaths of
people. Bernays argued that people were not governed by logic but by
unconscious irrational forces. Bernays “showed American corporations for the
first time how they could make people want things they didn’t need by linking
massed produced goods to their unconscious desire” (Curtis, 2002 as cited in
Lessig, 2015, 0:57). Bernays is credited for creating the American consumer culture
that largely exists today.
Like Watson, Ernest Diter advocated for employing scientific psyological
resear in advertising. He would assemble a group of random consumers and ask
them to explain what was happening in various pictures or finish sentences that
he provided them. He was a Vienna-born psyologist trained in the Freudian
psyoanalytic sool of thought and believed that “all roads led ba to the
consumer and, specifically, his or her unconscious” (Samuel, 2010, p. 56). His
methods centered on mining the inner motivations of consumers su as those
gleaned from his picture and story exercises (Williams, 1957).
In 1939, Diter conducted 100 interviews for Ivory Soap, receiving $2 an
interview from the Compton Advertising Agency. In these interviews, he
purposely did not mention the brand but rather queried consumers on their
bathing habits. rough insightful questioning, people would reveal how they felt
about a product, whi according to Freudian concepts was mu more valuable
in assessing motivation than questioning directly. is methodology revealed that
consumers’ oice of soap was based on more than basic customer concerns of
price, appearance, and lather; rather, it hinged on what Diter (1960) referred to
as personality. He discovered that it was how a soap made a consumer feel that
motivated buying. is led to the successful tagline “Wash your troubles away”
(Stern, 2004, p. 166).
Social Identity eory
e world inhabited by persuasion practitioners su as Watson, Bernays, and
Diter was based on Freudian psyoanalysis and behaviorism. Although
effective at engineering consumer demand for mass-produced goods, this approa
was aracterized primarily by finding and exploiting deficits in consumer
identities. In examining the accepted social constructs of identity posited by Hogg
and Abrams (1988), Vignoles, Regalia, Manzi, Golledge, and Scabini (2006) asserted
that individual identity necessarily involves constant self-appraisal. Indeed, the
human condition is one of perpetual judgment about where one belongs or fits in
it. It follows that identity is angeable (Brewer, 2001; Lewis, 1990), and people
have the capacity to inhabit more than one identity at a time. e never-ending
desire to harmonize one’s identity with life events and groups one belongs to
produces constant social categorization and comparison (Tajfel, 1981).
Categorizing involves classifying those around us to discover sameness or
contrast. is informs our overall identity as we perceive that we are either in the
in-group or the out-group; those perceptions may ange based on life experience
or group dynamics (Hogg & Abrams, 1988; Stets & Burke, 2000). Moreover, one’s
impression of others tends to be impacted by the physical objects people possess
and the recognition of physical possessions is profoundly influenced by how they
are marketed. For example, in 1959, VW Beetle launed its “ink Small”
campaign that was positioned in stark contrast to the commercials for the massive
automobiles of the day (Hamilton, 2015). e VW ad appealed to consumers who
felt marginalized by the dominant “bigger is beer” mindset and instead were
ready to embrace the small price tag, running costs, and size of a compact car. In
addition, thinking small resonated with the burgeoning counterculture movement
of the late 1950s and early 1960s. us, VW’s campaign was successful because it
impacted how consumers viewed themselves and how others saw them.
Fueled by the innate desire to maintain positive self-esteem, social comparison
is a method of learning about oneself through examining differences and
similarities with others (Festinger, 1954). Humans may make downward social
comparisons, whereby they evaluate themselves with people who are perceived to
be laing, or upward social comparison, whi refers to measuring oneself
against others who are thought to be beer. Downward comparison tends to raise
self-appraisal while upward comparison oen leads to diminished self-esteem.
Figure 7.3Vintage 1959 Volkswagen Type 1 Sedan.
Source: www.shuersto.com/image-photo/adelaide-australia-
september-25-2016-vintage-550451389
Apple demonstrated a capacity for both downward and upward social
comparison in their iconic “ink Different” campaign ad launed in 1997
(Renesi, 2018). By juxtaposing the Apple brand with recognized luminaries, the
commercial primed consumers to compare themselves to revolutionary thinkers
and leaders. Consumers who did not own an Apple product evaluated themselves
negatively in comparison to the icons portrayed. is dissonance was aimed at
prompting people to become Apple owners and thereby remove the unfavorable
comparison. Conversely, those who had already bought Apple products were
inclined to make downward social comparisons because they identified with the
brilliance and noble rebellion of the visionaries shown in the ad. us, Apple
owners were persuaded to have positive brand associations and to think and
behave according to brand aributes (Fitzsimons, Chartrand, & Fitzsimons, 2008).
In short, the Apple campaign made people feel good by either buying a new
product or owning one already.
Figure 7.4Apple: ink different.
source: www.shuersto.com/image-photo/january-2017-berlin-logo-
brand-apple-609423551
Social Cognitive eory
From his resear on how ildren behave aer wating both the physical world
and mediated models, Albert Bandura posited that viewing others establishes a
blueprint for human motivation and learning (Krcmar, 2020). Anowledging that
one’s identity and beliefs are socially derived, Bandura (2004) argued that anges
in one’s identity can be facilitated through socially mediated pathways. Social
cognitive theory (SCT) asserts that the basis of human motivation is to build and
maintain a sense of self-efficacy or the perception of control over one’s personal
actions and life events. Life has many hurdles and setbas to goal aainment.
us, the persistent sense of competence to meet allenges is necessary for selfesteem.
SCT recognizes the power of social modeling, observing persistence and
goal aainment in others who are perceived to be similar to oneself (Bandura,
2004). is produces a transfer of confidence from the model to the viewer.
Advertising persuades consumers to buy using a mediated socially constructed
view of self-efficacy. For example, products oen employ social models in ads to
portray a version of the consumer who must use the product to master a problem.
In 2017, Clorox debuted a commercial for their Scrubstastic Power Scrubber. e
ad portrayed a woman on hands and knees hopelessly trying to clean her dirty
bathroom as a voiceover questioned, “Are you tired of the babreaking scrub,
scrub, scrub to clean your messy bathroom toilet and tub?” (Huon Miller, 2017,
0:01). Aer the leading question, the ad abruptly segued to a spotless bathroom,
and the voice-over began listing the benefits of the device. e commercial’s
primary appeal was that the device would dramatically increase a user’s selfefficacy
in cleaning the bathroom.
In recent years, using social models in advertising has expanded. While early
advertising aracterized consumers as somehow incomplete without a product,
this contrasting approa persuades consumers by imbuing self-efficacy through
mediated models. In 2014, popular athletic apparel brand Under Armour (2014)
launed a female empowerment marketing campaign that featured several
prominent female athletes with the tagline “I will what I want.” Under Armour’s
objective for the campaign was to appeal to female consumers in hopes of tearing
them away from activewear brand powerhouse, Nike.
Figure 7.5Under Armour logo shown on a baseball cap.
Source: www.shuersto.com/image-photo/nakhon-pathom-
thailandseptember-2-2017-under-708698476
Under Armour casts the buyer as powerful and perseverant. Misty Copeland, an
accomplished ballerina featured in one of the campaign s ads, is observed
practicing ballet movements to music. A youthful voice-over reads a rej ection
leer to a ballerina academy Copeland had received, outlining reasons why she
would never be a worthy ballerina. Once the voice-over is finished, Copeland,
instantly transported to a concert hall, executes a series of breathtaking ballet
maneuvers. e commercial finishes with an epilogue composed of Copeland s
ballerina credentials: “MISTY COPELAND/BALLERINA SOLOIST AMERICAN
BALLET THEATRE.”
Nike had been first to position themselves in the women’s market for athletic
shoes and apparel (Grow, 2008). Recognizing a new opportunity, Under Armour
sought to distance itself from traditional woman’s athletic apparel advertising. In
an article that praised the campaign and named Under Armour as Ad Age’s
marketer of the year, Leanne Fremar, Under Armour’s senior vice president and
creative director for the campaign, was interviewed. e article explained,
While Under Armour women’s line had progressed from its early “shrink it and pink it” days,
the brand had yet to laun a global woman’s line. Ms. Fremar calls the campaign strategy a
“woman-a-festo.” e goal was to celebrate women “who had the physical and mental strength
to tune out the external pressures and turn inward and art their own course.”
(Sultz, 2014, para. 11)
Bandura’s social model approa to motivation demonstrates how an
empowerment marketing message of self-efficacy persuades the consumer.
Copeland, a social model, overcame difficulties with determination and the belief
that she was good enough to be a star ballerina. Viewers are invited to treat
Copeland’s story as illustrative of their own struggles with her triumph
representative of their future victories. Under Armour used Copeland as a
vicarious motivator associating female empowerment with its brand (Bandura,
2004).
Brand Psyology
In a 2009 TED Talk, advertising and branding expert Rory Sutherland shared a
story that demonstrated the power of branding. Ba in the 18th century, Frederi
the Great of Prussia sought to introduce potatoes to his nation’s diet. is ange
was designed to add another quality star to daily food intake and reduce the
cost of wheat; both outcomes were aimed at reducing the ance of famine. ere
was widescale resistance to the idea, and Fredri enacted laws to force his
subjects to participate. Most still refused to grow potatoes, and a few were even
executed. Frederi then declared the potato a royal vegetable that could only be
eaten by members of the royal family. A potato garden was put in on the royal
estate, and guards wated over the sovereign spuds. However, the guards were
instructed only to appear to defend the plants. e people who once scorned the
potato would remove the noble vegetables because anything worth guarding is
worth stealing. e plan paid off. Subjects routinely came and spirited away the
potatoes and began gardens of their own. Frederi successfully rebranded the
potato.
A brand is a angeable collection of meanings that consumers are invited to
cognitively unpa (Batey, 2016). In this way, companies and consumers are cocreators
of every brand. e company provides the brand meaning, aretype, and
story, while customers naturally investigate and acclimate to brands that fit their
identities (Mirzaee & George, 2016).
On a trip to ailand in the 1980s, Austrian Dietri Mateshitz came up with
the idea for Red Bull energy drink and co-founded the company with ai
business mogul Chaleo Yoovidhya (BeerMarketing, 2020). Since selling its first
can in 1987, Red Bull has captured 43% of the $61 billion 2020 market share (T4,
2021). A large part of Red Bull’s success has been superb branding.
Brand meaning involves both primary and implicit meanings (Batey, 2016).
Primary brand meanings involve foundational connections consumers make with
brands. For example, Red Bull primarily means energy drink. Implicit brand
meanings refer to latent emotional and cognitive values that prompt consumers to
unearth significance. While Red Bull’s primary brand meaning is energy drink, its
implicit brand meaning is empowerment, liberating consumers by supplying them
with energy to boost their bodies and morale. Media brands that are not given
context and meaning get lost in a storm of competing brands. One way to do this
is to use aretypes, embodied meanings that companies use to symbolize and
give form to their brands (Mark & Pearson, 2001; Mirzaee & George, 2016). Swiss
psyiatrist Carl Jung proposed aretypes as a universal set of paerns and
symbols that come from the unconscious human imagination. ese serve as
universal symbols (Poon, 2016).
In his study of mythology and religion, Joseph Campbell identified common
motifs and aretypes among differing groups. is led Campbell (1968) to
produce his seminal book The Hero With a Thousand Faces, whi discusses how
ea culture has an embodiment of the hero and versions of the transformative
and transcendent journey heroes take. In referring to Freud and Jung, Campbell
(1968) affirmed that “the logic, the heroes, and the deeds of myth survive into
modern times” (p. 4).
How do ancient aretypes inform brand decisions today? Marketing and
branding experts Mark and Pearson (2001) declared,
Aretypal psyology helps us understand the intrinsic meaning of product categories and
consequently helps marketers create enduring brand identities that establish market
dominance, evoke, and deliver meaning to customers, and inspire customer loyalty—all,
potentially, in socially responsible ways.
(p. 12)
e heart and soul of a company’s brand are their meanings. However, to be
effective at persuading customers, these meanings are best expressed in aretypal
symbols. Aretypes need
129 stories to come alive (Adi, Crisan, & Dinca, 2015). For example, in 2021,
Apple beat out Amazon and Google to become the world’s most valuable brand at
more than $260 billion (Dailey, 2021). e te giant’s brand was constructed
around the ancient Gnostic narrative that cast the serpent in the Garden of Eden
as the benevolent liberator who offered Adam and Eve a oice versus the
tyrannical corrupt god who only wanted to enslave and ultimately destroy the
humans. Campbell pointed out that contrary to Western depictions of the serpent
as a subtle deceiver, many ancient religious belief systems worldwide identified
the serpent as an agent for good. e decision to “think different” was symbolized
by taking a bite of the apple. us, the company’s logo of an apple with a bite
taken out succinctly conveys the brand’s meaning (empowerment and autonomy),
aretype (magician), and narrative (break free from tyranny).
Figure 7.6Race cars are oen used to market brands and products.
Source: www.shuersto.com/image-photo/sepang-malaysia-
september-30-2017-max-793909036
“Aretypal images signal the fulfillment of basic human desires and
motivations and release deep emotions and yearnings” (Mark & Pearson, 2001, p.
14). Similar to Apple, Red Bull (2020) embodies the magician aretype. Just like
the portrayal of an ancient magician offering the hero (consumer) a potion to rise
above circumstances, overcome the villain, and save the kingdom, Red Bull “gives
you wiiings” or energizes the consumer to do superhuman things. us, brand
meaning oen comes wrapped in an aretype situated in a story. Young men who
make up most of Red Bull’s consumer base are unconsciously motivated by this
three-part dynamic. e best brands insightfully convey meaning, aretypes, and
story across media.
In 2004, Red Bull established its own Formula One racing team that integrated
the product into all facets of the high-performance competition. In addition, the
brand sponsored a variety of extreme sporting events that corresponded to the
energy-boost adventure narrative. is strategy situated the brand in front of the
drink’s target audience with multiple media impressions simultaneously
generating opportunities for fans to talk about Red Bull on social media (Jankovic
& Jaksic-Stojanovic, 2019).
Narrative in Advertising
Life Is Story
Strong brands tell stories that maer to the consumer. is is because narrative
has been evolutionarily engineered into the human psye as a primary way of
processing, storing, and retrieving information (Adi et al., 2015; Bruner, 1991).
Master storyteller and narrative researer Kendell Haven declared that story has
transcended the capacity to merely transmit information and is now “literally
woven into our DNA” (Stanford, 2015, 23:52). is view corresponds to cognitive
psyologist Jerome Bruner (1991, 2004), who asserted that humans unconsciously
construct information in an autobiographical framework through two
meanisms: cognition and culture. e elements of cognition fuel the story of self
with constant information that informs a person’s reality. If data are taken in that
contradicts our personal narrative, cognitive dissonance is generated and we either
must ange our story or our thinking (Aronson, 1969; Festinger, 1957).
Bruner (2004) outlined three components of culture that add to one’s
autobiography: theme, discourse, and genre. ese refer to the shared morals,
language, and angeableness of human intention and behavior. Identity, as one of
the most basic elements of human psyology, has been observed to be organized
and conceptualized in the framework of story (McAdams, 2001). us, ea person
is the author, editor, and protagonist of an autobiographical narrative that brings
order and meaning to life events.
How does the human penant for story help marketers influence people for
brands? In every society, there is an endless struggle for what stories are told
(Sas, 2012). News, entertainment, propaganda outlets, activism, and brands all
vie for the public’s aention. In the past, only those who had access to massive
distribution networks (e.g., owned a major television network) aieved success at
persuasion. However, Web 2.0 tenology has democratized persuasion, allowing
people to tell stories without conceding to corporate gatekeepers.
Story at Work in Branding and Advertising
Despite the conventional wisdom that people are mostly persuaded by logical
arguments, consumer psyology asserts that emotional heuristics or shortcuts
oen inform one’s logical decision-making. e best way to deliver an
emotionally persuasive appeal is through story. As mentioned earlier, humans are
evolutionarily wired for story so that it is the most universally recognized
persuasive language. Moreover, an immersive narrative will invite consumers into
a brand’s story. is is referred to as narrative transportation (Green & Bro,
2000, 2013).
Several factors must be present for narrative transportation to take place.
First, mental simulation, or one imagining themselves engaging with the
product, is a crucial component (Escalas, 2004). e details of an advertising
appeal must invite the audience to mentally simulate brand interaction. For
example, online retailer TOMS (2015) launed the One Day Without Shoes
Campaign during whi the brand asked followers on social media to post pictures
of their bare feet using the #withoutshoes hashtag. ousands of followers posted
their bare feet to Instagram, whi invited followers to engage in the brand’s
social message and highlight the one-for-one business model. For every pair of
shoes the company sold, it donated a pair to nonprofit groups in developing
countries.
Another factor involved in transportation is narrative self-referencing (Escalas,
2007). is is when consumers convey their own personal stories and include the
brand (Ching, Tong, Ja-Shen, & Hung-Yen, 2013). For example, Frank’s Red Hot
Dipping Dance allenge asked social media users to record themselves doing a
unique interpretation of a Super Bowl dance while dipping a favorite sna into
the brand’s product (Shorty Awards, n.d.b). is fun allenge facilitated a
narrative self-reference of consumers using the product. In addition, posting the
videos online created almost 5 million impressions, helping convince others to use
the product.
Imagery and absorption are the final factors in narrative transportation.
Imagery involves all the visual elements that draw consumers into an ad (Green &
Bro, 2013). For example, car commercials oen feature the dynamic movement
of vehicles. is is to capture the aention of viewers so that they may imagine
themselves driving the vehicles. Absorption refers to the loss of self in favor of the
story world. In the 2020 Super Bowl ad for Amazon Alexa, featuring Ellen
DeGeneres and wife Portia De Rossi, the ad invited viewers to imagine
entertainment, news, information searing, communication, and house functions
through the ages before modern tenology and media (e Ellen Show, 2020).
When our imagination is engaged for a few seconds for most ads, we get lost in
the story.
Elaboration Likelihood Model
When a consumer takes in a piece of persuasive media su as a television
commercial, the brain processes the individual elements of the ad. e Elaboration
Likelihood Model (ELM) asserts two avenues of persuasion that messages may
take: central and peripheral (Cacioppo & Pey, 1984). e central route of
persuasion refers to a higher likelihood of elaboration in whi the consumer
tends to devote more cognitive resources to the ad. ese commercials are more
fact-oriented, relying on audiences to logically derive meanings from the
arguments made. In addition, consumers are invited to engage their memories for
appeal-relevant information that would justify the claims being made. Central
route persuasion demands the aention of the audience. Indeed, Berger (2007)
asserted that persuasive advertising must grab aention to be effective.
Television pharmaceutical ads are likely to persuade viewers by delivering
logical arguments. For example, in 2017, the blood sugar–lowering drug Trulicity
began airing a commercial aimed at diabetics. e commercial used actors to
portray diabetics that became empowered to lower their A1C with the drug. e
ad presented a steady stream of logical arguments. It is important to note that
centrally persuasive communication offers information from the perspective of the
influencer aimed to lead the audience to an intended conclusion. ese ads need
not be factual in the sense they are completely true but simply accurate as the
advertiser sees them. Political ads steeped in rhetoric are good examples of this.
e peripheral route of ELM asserts that even when persuasive communication
does not
e peripheral route of ELM asserts that even when persuasive communication
does not engage the logical cognitive processes of the brain, persuasion still occurs
through a low likelihood of elaboration. In short, during conditions of low
aention, persuasive teniques may be employed to influence audiences. Two
popular examples of this are celebrity endorsements (CEs) and product placements
(PP).
Celebrity Endorsements
Celebrity inhabits mediated space. Without conversations about celebrities (some would call it
“gossip”), there is no fame or celebrity, and without a medium within whi to hold the
conversations, celebrity simply does not exist. Celebrity is a social thing. It does not exist in
isolation.
(Stever, 2019, p. 1)
As Stever (2019) asserted, celebrity and media have always coexisted, even in early
America. For example, author and traveling orator Mark Twain (1835–1910)
successfully endorsed two separate cigar brands, a flour brand, and a whiskey
brand, all the while being paid to help publicize the introduction of railroads in
the United States (Goyal, 2018). Celebrity ad appearances and endorsements work
because they leverage the popularity of the celebrity to influence audiences
toward brand likability and buying intentions. ELM asserts that peripheral
persuasion is conveyed by elements other than the message itself su as who
delivers the idea (Pey & Cacioppo, 1986). erefore, the influence of a celebrity is
a superb example of peripheral persuasion.
In 2012, celebrity ef Paula Deen agreed to appear in commercials for the
diabetes medication Victoza for $6 million (Moskin & Polla, 2013). Deen had
recently announced that she had been diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes, whi
oen affects older adults. As a celebrity endorser, Deen seemed ideal, having
cultivated parasocial relationships among her TV audience (Hung, 2014). Ongoing
broadcasts on the Food Network implied Deen was a trusted influential friend to
many of her fans. Moreover, Deen had a history of marketing and branding
successes involving her personal brand in retail outlets su as Sears, Target, J.C.
Penney, Kmart, and QVC (Moskin & Polla, 2013). Despite the promising aspects
of Deen’s endorsement, the campaign was a colossal failure. Several months in, all
ads were removed from media outlets, and Victoza dissolved the brand’s
relationship with Paula Deen. Both Deen and Victoza endured scathing rebuke
from consumers who viewed the ads as patronizing. Fans of the celebrity ef
were outraged and contended that Deen, who was known for her unhealthy
cooking style, was just cashing in on her diagnosis.
Simply using a celebrity and a mediated advertisement does not guarantee
success. ere are specific components to celebrity endorsement effectiveness.
Axiomatic in marketing is the notion that people prefer to buy from those whom
they know and trust. Celebrity endorsements expand on that idea by offering the
public a living, breathing embodiment of trust. Citing the many tenological and
media anges that have impacted CEs, Bergkvist and Zhou (2016) presented an
updated explanation of the term from McCraen’s (1989) still widely accepted
definition: “A celebrity endorsement is an agreement between an individual who
enjoys public recognition (a celebrity) and an entity (e. g., a brand) to use the
celebrity for the purpose of promoting the entity” (p. 644).
Four principal theories are used to explain the effectiveness of celebrity brand
endorsement: the source credibility model, the source aractiveness model, the
mat-up hypothesis, and the meaning transfer model (Seiler & Kucza, 2017). e
source credibility model, first posited by Hovland and Weiss (1951), asserts that
celebrities who are perceived as credible or trustworthy will have a favorable
impact on brand appraisals and intentions. As we witnessed with Paula Deen,
some celebrities are not considered credible.
An example of credibility is wireless provider Mint Mobile’s owner, actor Ryan
Reynolds (2020). Reynolds delivers a signature sarcastic pit for his brand that
fans appreciate and expect. Another example of credibility in celebrity brand
endorsement is the 2020 Corona ad featuring Snoop Dogg (Sultz, 2020). Both
celebrities delivered an authenticity in their commercials that rings true to
audiences.
Figure 7.7Snoop Dog, July 2007.
Source: www.shuersto.com/image-photo/snoop-dogg-comedy-
central-roast-flavor-112665878
Figure 7.8Jennifer Aniston, June 2019.
Source: www.shuersto.com/image-photo/los-angeles-jun-10-
jennifer-aniston-1425930359
Audiences are persuaded by celebrities who may possess not only physical
beauty but also similarity to the consumer, familiarity with the consumer, and are
liked by the consumer (McGuire, 1985). Jennifer Aniston has been the
spokesperson for the antiaging brand Aveeno since 2013, when the actress was 44
years old. Since Aveeno is piting to the target market of middle-aged women
hoping to stave off the effects of aging on the skin, presenting an aractive model,
similar in age, was crucial to their success. Aniston may also engender support
from audiences because of her public divorce from Brad Pi aer he had an affair
with Angelina Jolie (Booth, 2020). Aniston is a highly visible and aractive
celebrity and fans of her hit TV series Friends may view the star multiple times a
week, streaming or wating the show on syndicated TV.
e beauty Aniston displays might be aieved through Aveeno, but Aniston
would not be a typical Aveeno user. e celebrity reportedly has had plastic
surgery and spends around $20,000 a month on various health and beauty
products, treatments, and experts to maintain her appearance (Currid-Halke,
2010). Nevertheless, Aniston’s aractiveness continues to influence consumers.
Beauty brands are not the only ones to capitalize on endorsements by aractive
celebrities. Tennis star Naomi Osaka appeared in an ad for Beats by Dre (2020).
e young athlete presents an appealing aspirational model for viewers not only
for her aievements on the court but for the stand she takes for social justice as
well.
e mat-up hypothesis declares that for an endorsement to be persuasive, the
product brand and the celebrity persona or a aracter the celebrity plays must
agree (Choi & Rifon, 2012; Kamins, 1990). One might assume from the oenrepeated
mantra “sex sells” that an aractive celebrity is all that is needed to
market goods to consumers. Advertisers have oen succumbed to the
misunderstanding that “beautiful is good” (Kamins, 1990, p. 4). However, the
mat-up hypothesis argues that although aractiveness is a key element, it is
more important that the celebrity’s appearance and persona mat the presented
image of the brand.
Furthermore, the celebrity/brand mat must be congruent with the celebrity/
consumer mat for an effective endorsement (Choi & Rifon, 2012). For example,
actor Jim Parsons who played the part of Dr. Sheldon Cooper, a brilliant, eccentric
scientist on the sitcom The Big Bang Theory (TBBT), was selected to advertise for
the tenology company Intel. Parsons was given a similar persona to his
television role so that fans would make the connection. TBBT costar Mayim Bialik
used her show persona as a neuroscientist coupled with the actress’s real
baground in neuroscience when she appeared in an ad for Nectar Sleep called
“Real Science for Mayim Bialik” (e Drum, n.d.). Contrasting Paula Deen’s
failure with Victoza, Parsons’s and Bialik’s advertising successes using both
aracter personas and real identities demonstrate how compelling the correct
brand–celebrity mat up can be.
Figure 7.9Naomi Osaka of Japan celebrate victory in U.S. Open 2018.
Source: www.shuersto.com/image-photo/new-york-ny-september-6-
2018-1173727003
e meaning transfer model asserts that a celebrity imports meaning into the
endorsement via their other roles su as athlete, entertainer, or internet
personality. ese associations may be positive or negative (Halonen-Knight &
Hurmerinta, 2010; McCraen, 1989). For example, in 2015, Derri Rose, a
professional basketball player, appeared in a Powerade commercial that depicted
his bleak, oppressive upbringing in Englewood, Chicago, and his rise to NBA
greatness (Miael Boamah, 2015). In addition, a voice narration from edited
excerpts of the poem “A Rose from Concrete” by late rapper Tupac Shakur played
throughout the commercial. e ad presented a powerful mosaic of meanings
drawn from Rose’s life that were aimed at associating the star player’s persistence
and hard work to overcome adversity with Powerade (Roy, 2018). e implicit
invitation was for those who wished to be like Rose—drink Powerade.
Parasocial Relationships and Celebrity Endorsements
Miael Jordan is considered by some to be the most successful celebrity endorser
in history, paving the way for the bevy of lucrative athletic endorsements today
(Shuart, 2007). is is because Jordan was able to leverage his celebrity persona
with fans countless times with an established parasocial relationship. Parasocial
interaction, first identified by Horton and Wohl (1956), refers to the one-sided
relationship a celebrity has with an audience. People build connective relational
bonds with a celebrity persona or a mediated aracter (Shaleford, 2020). As
Stever (2020) asserted, people form parasocial bonds to celebrities, whi is part of
normative development and informs one’s self-concept throughout the life span.
For example, fans of Miael Jordan who wated him play basketball, followed
his career, and consumed the mediated narratives over time cultivated a parasocial
relationship with the superstar.
Figure 7.10Miael Jordan in 2014.
Source: www.shuersto.com/image-photo/new-york-ny-august-26-
miael-213473086
Figure 7.11Taylor Swi in 2015.
Source: www.shuersto.com/image-photo/las-vegas-may-17-taylor-
swi-280165400
Advertisers use celebrities as aspirational figures in commercials and on social
media to influence consumer brand decisions. Moreover, Chung and Cho (2017)
found that social media presents a more profound sense of intimacy with
celebrities than do traditional endorsements. is is because the communicative
functions of social media heighten the depth of the parasocial connections fans
feel with celebrities, an example of parasocial aament. Fans seek proximity to
target celebrities in order to feel beer about themselves (Stever, 2021). Marketers
use this dynamic to aract aention and create favorable impressions of their
brands (Aw & Labrecque, 2020). In addition, parasocial relationships facilitate a
friend-to-friend communication dynamic between celebrities and followers
(Escalas & Beman, 2017). A recommendation from Taylor Swi about what
brand of jeans to buy resonates to fans as the recommendation of a trusted friend.
e Rise of Social Media Influencers
Celebrities win favor with the public typically by exposure through their
occupations su as actor, athlete, musician, or politician (De Veirman, Cauberghe,
& Hudders, 2017). Social media has given rise to non-traditional celebrities called
social media influencers (SMIs) or micro-celebrities (Jin, Muqaddam, & Ryu, 2019)
that appeal to others without an alternate media presence. SMI marketing is
expected to rea $15 billion by 2022 (Insider Intelligence, 2021). Kylie Jenner, who
has been at or near the top SMI in the world for the last several years with
currently 144 million followers on Instagram, receives around $1.2 million per post
(BBC, 2019). What is the araction to SMIs?
According to Khamis, Ang, and Welling (2017), SMIs sprang from self-branding
(Peters, 1997) through multiple internet annels su as social media, blogs, and
video-sharing sites. Labrecque, Markos, and Milne (2011) explained that “personal
branding entails capturing and promoting an individual’s strengths and
uniqueness to a target audience” (p. 39). Moreover, omson’s (2006) human brand
theory (HBT) asserts that consumers may develop a strong aament to a unique
influencer persona if that human brand imbues a sense of self-determination
through competence, relatedness, and autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2000). us,
followers may feel empowered and emotionally connected to human brand
influencers. Influencers leverage those feelings when they endorse products to
their audiences (Cuevas, Chong, & Lim, 2020).
e communication functions of Web 2.0 invited users to share intimate details
of their lives online. In return, followers pay aention, whi then becomes
monetized by influencers and brand endorsement specialists. Jin and Feenberg
(2015) refer to this dynamic as the attention economy where the masses of
would-be influencers and traditional celebrities constantly creating and posting
vie for aention online. Aention is a scarce resource online. erefore, for SMIs—
aention is money and drives influencer–branding partnerships. From the
aention economy marketplace, there has emerged influence- and status-
measuring
Figure 7.12Vloggers receive money to promote various brands on their vlogs.
Source: www.shuersto.com/image-photo/professional-camera-
device-shooting-african-american-1481307245
Table 7.1 Types of Social Media Influencers
SMI Type
# of
Followers
SMI Description
Celebrity
Influencer
Over 1
million
Recognized for occupation (e.g.,
entertainer, athlete); established brand;
endorsement deals; Beyoncé, Patri
Mahomes, Dwayne Johnson
Megainfluencer
Over 1
million
No celebrity status before; created celebrity
status by demonstrating expertise; Hudda
Kaan, Zoë Sugg, Za King
Macroinfluencer
100k - 1
million
Have a particular subject domain; not
celebrities; Mahew Rosenweig, Jean Lee,
this_girl_is_a_squirrel
Microinfluencer 10k-100k
Localized audience; partner with many
companies to provide enough revenue
Nanoinfluencer
Less than
10k
Followers are comprised of friends, family,
acquaintances, and others in a localized
region
Source: Campbell and Farrell (2020).
companies, su as Klout, that apply complex algorithms to assess the raw
influence a potential SMI may assert in the form of a score (Saefer, 2012). SMIs
use these scores in negotiations with brands. As the SMI market has grown, there
has been fragmentation and several forms are now recognized. See Table 7.1.
ere are several reasons why SMI marketing continues to grow. First, the
public has shied their media consumption to online annels and specifically to
social media. us, SMIs simply follow the followers in the sense they follow the
aention economy to where the aention is being paid (Campbell & Farrell, 2020).
Second, younger consumers have become fatigued by overt advertising, whi is a
big reason why many migrated to the internet in the first place. Situating a
product in a piece of SMI created content or simply having a micro-celebrity
mention a brand in an Instagram post feels more authentic and less contrived.
ird, social media segmentation allows for a variety of groups to gather
around common interests. It follows that SMIs may have small, medium, or large
followings based on how popular a shared interest is on a particular platform.
Fourth, the communication environment of social media has anged the way
consumers buy. Online word of mouth (OWOM) begins with the SMI but then
continues into ea follower’s bank of followers as consumers share marketing
messages to gather information to make a buying decision (Gruen, Osmonbekov,
& Czaplewski, 2006; Lindsey-Mullikin & Borin, 2017). Similar to traditionally
mediated celebrity brand endorsements, effective SMIs must project an aretypal
meaning to followers, share stories that facilitate parasocial engagement, and
always endorse products that are consistent with their self-brand.
Finally, SMIs benefit from the application of social comparison theory (SCT).
SCT, first posited by Festinger (1954), asserts that people have an innate desire to
measure themselves using others as a gauge. Followers go online to compare
themselves to influencers who reap the benefits of a public that is always looking
for social models for comparison. Jiang and Ngien (2020) reported that increased
usage of Instagram correlated to an elevated level of social comparison that tends
to raise social anxiety and lower self-esteem. Given the popularity of SMIs among
young people, it is concerning that too mu exposure to a self-edited online SMI
may diminish their self-concept. For marketers, however, SCT means that young
followers will sense the urge to buy whatever their favorite influencer presents.
Product Placement (PP)
PP historian Kerry Segrave (2004) noted the sentiment of famed American film
producer Darryl Zanu (1902–1979), who believed that “you could sell almost
anything but politics or religion by way of motion pictures” (p. 85). PP or brand
integration began with silent film and radio and progressed into TV and movies
and is now used extensively in video games and social media marketing (Guo et
al., 2019). In 2019, PP accounted for $20.57 billion in advertising spent, 14.5% over
the previous year (PQ Media, 2020). Although the delivery has anged the
definition, PP is the same: the addition of a paid brand placement or message in
mediated communication (Balasubramanian, Karrh, & Patwardhan, 2006).
e peripheral path of persuasion is the ideal conduit for PP in media. For
example, in films and television, audiences are focused on cognitively unpaing
the story and being physically and/or emotionally aroused while brand messaging
embedded in the content surreptitiously primes them for positive brand aitudes
and later recall. It is important to note that although many studies have been
conducted on PP and explicit memory, the critical area in whi brand integration
functions most optimally is ones implicit memory (Law & Braun, 2000).is is
because, as ELM asserts, there is a lower likelihood of elaboration because
audiences are focused on the story.
A superb example of creative brand integration in a television series is the hit
1990s’ sitcom Seinfeld. Sitcoms are ideal showcases for PP because most
companies prefer their products to be associated with positive emotions (Güdüm,
2017). e objective of humor in a comedy series is to make people laugh, whi is
compatible with happiness (Sternthal & Craig, 1973). Moreover, humorous
television shows have been shown to elicit a lower likelihood of elaboration,
whi makes them optimal for PP messaging (Zhang, 1996). In short, media that
does not make the viewer think a lot is perfect for PP.
Figure 7.13Jerry Seinfeld in 2007.
Source: www.shuersto.com/image-photo/jerry-seinfeld-bee-movie-
premiere-amc-181658873
Seinfeld displayed several different types of PP throughout the nine-season run
of the show. For example, some products su as Dawn and Sunlight dishwashing
soaps were displayed in the baground of certain scenes. Other brands su as
Rold Gold pretzels were used as props in scenes and given a catphrase su as
“ese pretzels are making me thirsty.” Many of these unofficial taglines live on
today, displayed on mugs and other merandise available online. Still other
products, Twix and Junior Mints, were embedded in an episode’s story line and
were seen and referred to throughout the program.
Figure 7.14Morgan Spurlo, documentarian, 2011.
Source: www.shuersto.com/image-photo/morgan-spurlo-l-
premiere-pom-wonderful-92120402
Integrating brands into new media has garnered aention from industry
leaders, solars, and consumer watdogs all wanting to know exactly what
effect this strategy has on younger audiences. Martí-Parreño, Bermejo-Berros, and
Aldás-Manzano (2017) reported a large spike in PP in video games in recent years.
Consistent with other entertainment media, video games provide a low likelihood
of elaboration and therefore are excellent vehicles for PP (Kim, Lloyd, &
Cervellon, 2016; Terluer & Capella, 2013). As a player’s aention is directed at
making game decisions, a stream of embedded brands may present themselves
vying for implicit memory space. Moreover, recurring exposure to PP in games
may lead to what Spielvogel, Naderer, and Mahes (2020) referred to as persuasion
knowledge (PK) through implicit priming. However, it is debated whether
continued play increases or reduces overall susceptibility to brand messaging.
As a part of his 2011 film on PP in films, documentarian Morgan Spurlo
interviewed Robert Weisman, president of the consumer advocacy group Public
Citizen, on the possible dangers of inserting brands in media entertainment:
Spurlo: With product placement what do you think should be done in films and television?
Weissman: e most important thing especially for television is to have simultaneous labeling
when people are being hit with an advertisement—at the moment they are. ere should be
some lile pop up that comes on and says, ‘Advertisement.’ Could be a scroll at the boom or a
pop up whatever. At the moment people are being advertised to, they should know they are
being advertised to.
(Spurlo, 2011, 32:38)
Brands are not likely to be labeled per Weissman’s recommendation or to
disappear completely from television, movies, and video games anytime soon.
Indeed, PP has evolved on social media to just a few clis to a point of sale. is
means that followers may see an influencer on social media and immediately buy
the brands they see. is also includes fan merandise.
Robert Cialdini on Influence
Similar to other persuasion researers, Robert Cialdini began his career in
academia and transitioned to outside roles in whi he has consulted with large
companies and government organizations. rough scientific resear, Cialdini
studied the ways in whi people would say yes to persuasive influence. From his
resear, Cialdini developed six fundamental principles of influence based on
universal cognitive shortcuts people take when we process information. Cialdini
found that these principles may be applied across contexts from business to
personal life.
Reciprocity works because of the social sense of obligation that is ingrained in
most cultures (Cialdini, 2009). Once someone is given a gi or help in some way,
the brain reacts instinctively by keeping an unconscious score that must be made
equal. For example, the food and beverage industry oen offers consumers free
samples of new products to aract new customers (Basari & Shamsudin, 2020).
When walking through a supermarket, shoppers may be offered a light sna or
small serving of a new drink ostensibly to introduce customers to a new product.
However, the larger invisible effect is inducing an unconscious feeling of
obligation to buy.
Figure 7.15ere are many ways to market products including offering something
free in order to invoke reciprocity.
Source: www.shuersto.com/image-photo/salesman-offering-eese-
samples-customers-shop-414153787
Scarcity refers to the human desire to want what is in small supply (Cialdini,
2009). Although curtailed in recent years, retailers have used the unofficial Bla
Friday holiday that marks the beginning of the Christmas shopping season to
create a sense of scarcity. Bla Friday deals are oen too good to pass up and are
available for only a limited time. Online retailers have followed suit and use Bla
Friday and Cyber Monday to offer one-of-a-kind deals. e public is oen shoed
when violence erupts at a Bla Friday event. However, scarcity, even if it is
contrived for a sale, is a powerful motivator (Morales, McFerran, Dahl, &
Kristofferson, 2014). In January 2020, as news of the novel coronavirus pandemic
spread around the world, consumer behavior shied sharply as many
communities saw widescale hoarding of basic items su as toilet paper. is
demonstrates that while scarcity may be employed routinely by companies to
invite consumers to spend, it may present localized and national threats in the
future during times of prolonged disaster (Kirk & Riin, 2020).
Figure 7.16Mar 9, 2020: Empty toilet paper shelves in a supermarket amid
coronavirus fears, shoppers panic buying and stopiling toilet paper preparing
for a pandemic.
Source: www.shuersto.com/image-photo/gold-coast-australia-mar-
9-2020-1667895181
Cialdini (2009) described the authority principle as the natural human penant
to follow experts. Expertise is expressed through titles, clothes, and trappings
(Coombs-Hoar, 2020). For example, supplement commercials usually include a
quote and/or a cameo appearance of a doctor assuring consumers that the product
is safe and that it works. is is referred to as the white coat effect. Prospective
influencers who wish to use the authority principle should display authority cues
before trying to persuade. For example, doctors hang diplomas on the walls of
their practice as a way of latently influencing patients to follow their advice. It is
important to note that the authority domain has been expanded in the advent of
social media influencers. For example, with more than 31 million Instagram
followers, beauty blogger Huda Kaan is considered “one of the most influential
women in the Middle East” (Riardson, 2021, para. 4). e former makeup artist
built a billion-dollar beauty brand and continues to rea out to followers on
social media who regard Kaan as an expert.
People dislike disagreeing with their own past beliefs and behavior. Aronson
(1969) pointed out that this creates cognitive dissonance whereby one is driven to
reduce the discrepancy. is is because humans strive to maintain a consistent
self-concept. Cialdini s consistency principle utilizes the human desire to avoid or
reduce dissonance, asserting that by offering small oices that are easy to agree to
early in the persuasion process, an individual may be led to a larger yes decision
later. is is because psyologically the individual wants to remain consistent
with past oices to maintain a congruent identity (Bern, 1972).
Brands have followed the example of social media influencers in asking
followers to like, follow, and share content. Although seemingly insignificant,
engaging in small positive social media behaviors encourages followers to become
favorably entangled with the brand and to buy. When a brand or influencer
invites light engagement, they are helping inform the user’s identity. e further a
brand aaes to one’s identity, the more difficult it is to say no. In 2020, Bomb
Pop novelty treat brand launed a campaign on TikTok that streted across
social media su as Twit, SoundCloud, YouTube, and Instagram appealing to
the Tween (aged 9–14) demographic. e company’s stated goal was to “make
Bomb Pop synonymous with Tween culture by puing the brand at the center of
their universe, with content that celebrated them for all that they are—Not One
ing” (Shorty Awards, n.d.a, para. 2). To rea this objective Bomb Pop invited
Tweens on social media to create and post user-generated content (UGC) su as
memes and interact with paid influencers online. Ea small action was designed
to influence users to say yes to the brand later. Since early connection to a brand
only builds a stronger desire to remain consistent, it follows that the Bomb Pop
campaign was aimed at cultivating extended brand loyalty into adulthood.
It is not unreasonable to assume that people prefer to say yes to those they like.
Cialdini’s liking principle anowledges this universal human aracteristic and
presents three factors that determine whether someone is likable: similarity,
compliments, and cooperation. In the previous example, Bomb Pop’s mission was
to show tweens how similar they were to the brand using the tagline “Not One
ing” to demonstrate how diversity aracterizes both tweens and Bomb Pop.
Indeed, brands that endure take time to show consumers that they know them. For
example, Apple (2020) launed an almost 7-minute webisode that humorously
portrayed the pitfalls of working from home amid the pandemic, while
showcasing many product functions that met user’s needs. By aligning the brand
with the struggles of adults forced to work from home, Apple endeared its brand
to consumers as likable.
Who does not like compliments? Cialdini persuasion model anowledges that
we all like praise. However, the way in whi compliments are delivered may
determine their effectiveness. People sensing a message that simply panders to
them offering insincere honor will reject the persuasive appeal. Multi–Grammy
Award winner, singer, songwriter, Billie Eilish was selected to appear in a Telekom
Electronic Beats (2020) T-Mobile commercial. e artist provided a moving voiceover
praising young Gen Z tenology users who face the constant stereotyped
refrain that they are screen-obsessed and therefore not connected to the real
world. Eilish’s monologue was a tribute to prominent global values of young
people su as determination, social justice, climate ange, and privacy.
Companies are constantly trying to show that they cooperate with consumers.
For example, Mat.com (2020) released a series of satirical ads that portrayed
Satan finding a perfect partner, a woman that represented the year 2020. e
dating site mirrored popular public sentiment that 2020 was a hellish year and
showed that while the brand agreed with consumers, it was the perfect time to
seek romance. People like brands that agree with them. Mat. com’s ads
anowledged the widespread disappointment felt by consumers and introduced a
humorous spin.
It is important to note that many brands engage the liking principle by selecting
a celebrity or aracter endorser to influence consumers. Celebrity endorsements
were discussed earlier in this apter, however, Cialdini (2009) adds that there is
an association principle at work when stars are linked together with brands. In
2021, a bevy of Hollywood celebrities appeared in a commercial for Netflix,
showcasing the streaming service’s unique lineup of upcoming content. e ad
depicted celebrities led by Dwayne Johnson interacting on a group text ain. In
the final seconds of the ad, Johnson named the text ain “Netflix film fam 2021”
further generating a familial aura to the ad (Netflix Film Club, 2021, 1:41).
Celebrities can take something unfamiliar like Netflix’s new content list and make
it appealing.
Cialdini (2009) demonstrated how celebrities reduce skepticism with the
illustration of Oprah Winfrey’s early endorsement of the then nationally unknown
junior senator from Illinois, Bara Obama. Although President Obama would
make history time and again, he benefited from Winfrey’s star power when he
was not yet recognized by the public. is is also an example of uncertainty
reduction theory, whi posits that brands associate with celebrities in the same
way a friend voues for a blind date (Berger & Calabrese, 1974). e likability of
the star reduces the uncertainty a customer has about a candidate, product, or
brand.
e final persuasion principle Cialdini (2009) described is consensus or social
proof. e actions of others are oen used as toustones for people presented
with persuasive appeals, especially if the decision involves uncertainty. In short,
we want to make sure others have made the same oice before we do. Online
reviews are a superb example of how consensus influences consumer buying
decisions. Information about a product, su as the UGC in online reviews that
originate with the consumer, is perceived as more truthful than brand messaging
(Diinger, 2011). When a product or service has a positive rating with many
reviews, it persuades others to have a favorable aitude (Van Der Heide & Lim,
2016). Even when negative reviews are present, positive reviews may mitigate
their unfavorable views (Dai, Van Der Heide, Mason, & Shin, 2019).
Figure 7.17Oprah Winfrey introduces Mielle and Bara Obama at a campaign
rally, December 9, 2007.
Source: www.shuersto.com/image-photo/mielle-obama-oprah-
winfrey-bara-aending-181470788
Figure 7.18Being asked to rate products is commonplace for smartphone users.
Source: www.shuersto.com/image-photo/consumer-reviews-
concepts-bubble-people-review-1654957381
Neuromarketing
In 2013, Fren neuroscientist Patri Renvoisé gave a TED Talk during whi he
humorously explained, “In neuromarketing you have ‘neuro’ whi means the
brain and ‘marketing’ as in I’m going to try to sell you something that maybe you
don’t even need” (Renvoisé, 2013, 0:33). Renvoisé went on to delineate how the
brain subconsciously responds to advertisements and other persuasions, showing
that influential messages are most effective when certain elements that favor the
brain’s evolutionary aritecture are included. While all segments of persuasion
resear focus on geing consumers to say yes, neuromarketing asserts a
fundamental assumption that separates the field from other approaes—people do
not know what they want (Lee, Broderi, & Chamberlain, 2007; Morin, 2011).
us, traditional market resear su as focus groups where people self-report is
considered flawed because consumers tend not to be aware of why they oose
the way they do.
Figure 7.19Triune brain: reptilian complex (basal ganglia for instinctual
behaviors), mammalian brain (septum, amygdalae, hypothalamus, for feeling),
and neocortex (cognition, language).
Source: www.shuersto.com/image-vector/brain-evolution-triune-
reptilian-complex-basal-1345040750
e reason for consumer blindness may be explained by looking at the dualbrain
model (DBM) first posited by Stanovi and West (2000) whi argues that
humans make oices in two separate regions of the brain. System 1 of the DBM is
situated lower in the brain and is oen referred to as the reptilian brain because it
is older evolutionarily, functions automatically, and is primarily focused on
survival (Zurawii, 2010). In addition to the reptilian brain, System 1 comprises
the midbrain or the mammalian brain whi is responsible for processing
emotions. System 2 of the DBM, the neocortex or the analytical brain, evolved
more recently and is responsible for cognition, language, sensory perception, and
spatial reasoning and thus requires more cognitive engagement to function
(Fugate, 2007). ese systems were outlined in the celebrated book Thinking Fast
and Slow by Daniel Kahneman (2011), who received the Nobel Prize in Economics
for his resear.
145
Figure 7.20e Cola Wars were a form of brand competition that set them up as
the two leading competitors.
Source: www.shuersto.com/image-photo/poznan-pol-feb-13-2020-
two-1646970103
e key to understanding neuromarketing resear and application is knowing
that the reptilian brain governs the analytical brain in what Morin and Renvoisé
(2018) call the “boom-up effect of persuasion” (p. 47). is is the basis of the
neuro map used to understand how people make decisions. Many believe that they
arrive at buying judgments based on logical reasoning. e boom-up neuro map
contradicts this notion and asserts that when a persuasive message appeals to the
reptilian brain, that primal portion of the brain transmits signals of acceptance or
rejection upward to the analytical brain. us, while they may appear logical,
most decisions are made subconsciously and then cloaked in rational cognitions.
ere are two primary domains that neuromarketers study to make
advertisements and branding more effective: aention and emotions (Morin &
Renvoise, 2018). It is crucial to understand that these domains are measured on a
neural level and not just outwardly observed. erefore, resear is conducted
with biometrics and neurometries to discern human buying behaviors. Biometric
data involve reactions from the autonomic nervous system that is acquired
through eye traing, facial coding, and skin conductance. Neurometric data are
collected from electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI).
A classic study conducted by McClure et al. (2004) used fMRI imaging to study
consumer so drink preferences between the megabrands Coca-Cola and Pepsi.
Despite the opinions of diehard fans on both sides, the emical makeup of the
two beverages was observed to be almost indistinguishable. Sixty-seven
participants were divided into four groups—two groups anonymously drank—two
groups were semi anonymous in that they were told they were drinking either
Coca-Cola or Pepsi. Participants were asked to drink the beverage while in an
fMRI maine, whi shows brain activity by way of images that depict blood
flow to various regions of the brain. Results of the study indicated that those who
were informed that they were drinking Coca-Cola had dramatic activation in the
hippocampus and the midbrain. Pepsi drinkers had no su response. is suggests
that participants were emotionally triggered when they knew that they were
drinking Coke. McClure et al. (2004) explain this phenomenon by asserting that
Coca-Cola’s labeling biases consumers because it appeals to the reptilian brain and
emotion-processing midbrain.
Renvoisé (2013) declared that neuromarketing is “really about finding that buy
buon” in the brain (17:39). is involves creating branding and marketing that
appeals primarily to the primal brain whi is activated by certain stimuli (Morin
and Renvoisé, 2018). Branding consultant and author Darryl Weber (2016) declared
that “all advertising is subliminal” (p. 224). By this, Weber was not claiming that
advertisers hide concealed messages in their ads. Rather, as neuromarketing
suggests, effective marketing appeals to one’s subconscious. At $50.3 million, the
global market for neuromarketing is still small but increasing (Sousa, 2020). In the
future, more companies, candidates, and movements may be turning to insights
gleaned from neuro-marketing to give their ads the edge to succeed in an
overcrowded media landscape.
Web 2.0 Marketing
Democratization of Consumer Actions rough Tenology
Tenology has brought anges to the way people are persuaded. e theories
discussed in this apter have not been outmoded by Web 2.0; rather, there has
been a convergence that has seen these theories from psyology and
communications used in tandem across new media. In this section, we discuss the
impact of emerging tenologies on marketing and persuasion. In addition, we
will peer into the future and consider how the media landscape will continue to
evolve. Speaking broadly about the convergence of old and new media Jenkins
(2006) asserted,
is circulation of media content—across different media systems, competing media economies,
and national borders—depends heavily on consumers’ active participation . . . convergence
represents a cultural shi as consumers are encouraged to seek new information and make
connections among dispersed media content.
(p. 3)
e internet facilitated a liberation of information that has empowered consumers
with knowledge to make more informed buying oices (Strauss & Frost, 2016).
is has initiated
Figure 7.21 Source: www.shuersto.com/image-photo/human-robotic-hand-
touing-circuit-board-1805545831
147 a long-term evolution of business aritecture (Pires, Stanton, & Rita, 2006). In
short, the availability and application of big data coupled with the connectivity
that the internet affords are perpetually reshaping buying and selling.
A primary domain that has seen transformation is access. Internet
communication tenologies provide consumers increased and oen real-time
access to information in three avenues. First, the internet has moved products
from bri-and-mortar locations to virtual storefronts. is provides consumers
more oices than in-store locations could ever offer. In addition, the showroom
floor is now wherever the customer is. Buyers may compare brands and prices
from several different online retailers without leaving home.
Second, consumers have access to relevant information about brands, products,
and services from recent buyers via UGC in online review systems on buying
platforms or on social media. As discussed earlier in the apter, social proof is a
compelling motivator to buy or pass on a product or service. e exange of
information may be asynronous, whi refers to when one leaves a review for
another user to view, or synronous, su as instant messaging on social media.
Finally, consumers have increased access to brand managers. Corporate
gatekeepers are no longer tolerated as consumers rea out to companies directly
with compliments, concerns, and complaints.
User/Buyer Personas
e upshot of empowering consumers is that they have been invited to become
co-creators with brands in the buying/persuasion dynamic. By this, companies
accomplish two goals: first, by perpetuating the empowerment condition
consumers are imbued with self-efficacy, whi tends to lead to more sales, and,
second, by advocating for continued freedom, companies can then be the
aritects of the consumer-centric sales experience. Consumer-centric marketing is
marked by three elements: personas, user experience (UX) design, and big data.
Adlin and Prui (2010) explained that “personas are fictitious, specific, concrete
representations of target users” (p. 1). Amazon founder Jeff Bezos pointed to an
obsession with customers as the foundation to his company’s success, disclosing
that in every meeting, a air is le open to remind those present of the customer
(Koetsier, 2018). Personas allow companies to anticipate consumer needs and
preferences. Using either ad hoc information from general resear or big data
distilled from consumer engagement, personas are populated into living, breathing
reflections of target consumers. Although they can be mu more complex, simple
personas usually consist of demographic information su as age, gender, location,
career, annual income, marital status, and number and ages of ildren. In
addition, personas include the overall motivations of the individual. Even data
that may seem irrelevant to how one views the product or service are included.
For example, a persona for a dog food buyer may look like that provided in Table
7.2.
As the table demonstrates, information is organized to create a picture of the
consumer and what motivates her to buy and keep buying. When brands make
purasing their product/s the trigger to self-efficacy or self-direction in the buyer,
brand loyalty is engendered. For example, in the persona provided in Table 7.2,
Jessica is accepting of brand messaging that casts her as Oscar’s mother who
makes sure he gets fed the correct nutrients.
Co-Creation of Brand Narratives and User Interface and
Experiences
Although personas are valuable in anticipating consumer motivations and
behaviors, the next necessary step is platform delivery, whi involves online
retailers who must create an easy, intuitive user interface (UI). In the mediated
marketplace, UI refers to the website features
Table 7.2 Example Ad Hoc Persona
Name Jessica
Age 35
Gender Female
Location Redmond, Washington
Education BS in Communications Miigan State University
Employment Works as an analyst for Microso
Family Male partner; 2 ildren (aged 6 and 4)
Buying
Motivations
Primary consumer buyer in the house; real ingredients;
healthy; mobile shopping on phone; convenient shipping
Relevant
Information
Dog breed/s: Beagle “Oscar” (aged 7); Jessica and her
partner adopted Oscar before their first ild was born;
Oscar is middle-aged; while Oscar has not shown signs
of aging, Jessica is worried about Oscar geing older and
wants to make sure he is geing the nutrition he needs;
Oscar is treated like the family's first ild.
Related
Behaviors
Jessica reads animal food labels for natural versus
artificial ingredients; Jessica is active with Oscar; Jessica
shops online for food and consumer goods; Jessica is
willing to pay more for quality ingredients for her family
— including Oscar; Jessica reads blogs occasionally about
canine health.
and navigation that customers interact with when they visit an online retailer.
Consumer resear has aracterized online purasing as experiences (Grewal,
Levy, & Kumar, 2017). us, it is up to the seller to provide a straightforward,
meaningful mediated UX through UI (Humphreys, 2020). For example, many
retailers have introduced mobile apps that allow users to browse and purase
(Inman & Nikolova, 2017). is marks the transition that many consumers have
made from desktop or laptop buying in one’s home to anywhere on the go
shopping. In addition, mobile shopping encourages using electronic couponing,
self-scanning, and e-eouts. ese engagements bring the empowered
user/buyer and brands closer as they work together to meet the needs of
consumers.
IOT, Big Data, and AI
What is the “Internet of ings” (IOT), and what does it mean for media
psyology? roughout daily life, there are a growing number of objects or
devices that are embedded with various tools of tenology from soware to
sensors, a variety of types of electronics, that connect with ea other and engage
in a sharing of data. Indeed, so ubiquitous are su devices that forensic examiners
are tapping into su data sources when investigating crimes (Chung, Park, & Lee,
2017). Along with these devices, there are corollary devices that are voiceactivated
and engage in voice recognition in order to answer questions from the
user. Users know these as Siri, Cortana, Alexa, and other su monikers. Most of
these are used through either smartphones or embedded speakers within the
home.
Reeves and Naas (1996) observed that when resear participants engaged with
computers during studies, they tended to treat computers as if they were persons,
doing su things as exhibiting polite behavior or avoiding anything that might
“hurt the feelings” of the computer, even though they were able to state very
clearly that the computers had no su feelings. Humans default to a standard of
behavior in interactions that presumes a sentient partner, even where no su
sentience exists. Commenting on the IOT devices that have become ubiquitous in
homes and offices all over the world, Dumaine (2020) revealed,
To consumers, voice-driven gadgets are helpful and sometimes entertaining “assistants.” For
Amazon and other te Giants that make them—and keep them connected to the computers in
their data centers—they’re tiny but extremely efficient data collectors . . . a voice-powered
home accessory can record endless facts about a user’s daily life.
(p. 114)
One must then consider how the tendency to anthropomorphize devices might
affect the way users interact with devices and voice activated assistants like Siri.
In a humorous episode of TBBT, Raj, who had a great deal of difficulty speaking to
women, gets involved in a relationship with his cell phone and Siri, treating her as
if she were the missing woman in his life, mu to both the amusement and
concern of his friends. As voice-activated artificial intelligence (AI) becomes more
nuanced and adept at information collection, one might conclude that Siri or
Alexa knows a person as intimately as a spouse. See Box 7.1 for more on this idea.
Box 7.1 IOT and AI Turn Science Fiction Into Reality
In 1964, the Twilight Zone episode titled “e Brain Center at Whipple’s” aired
for the first time. e show’s plot centered on Wallace V. Whipple, the secondgeneration
owner of a large manufacturing company. Whipple decided to install
a maine that would automate his assembly lines and, in turn, laid off many of
his employees. Whipple was not swayed by the emotional protests of longtime
staff. Over time, the company’s profits grew as the computer-led maine took
over more and more responsibilities and forced more layoffs until only Whipple
remained as president. Near the end of the episode, Whipple himself was let go.
e board of directors inevitably decided to fire Whipple, concluding that an allmaine
workforce and president was more efficient and profitable than humans
could ever be.
We are living on the threshold of the broad application of Rod Serling’s
fantastical 1964 vision driven by AI, big data, and the IOT. Journalist and author
of Bezonomics, Brian Dumain (2020) described the methodology that went into
Amazon’s AI construction,
Amazon. a company full of Star Trek aficionados—and led by a true Trekkie in Bezos— began
dreaming about replicating the talking computer aboard the Starship Enterprise. “We
imagined a future where you could interact with any service through voice,” says Rohit
Prasad, Amazon’s head scientist for Alexa AI, who has published more than a hundred
scientific articles on conversational AI and other topics. What if Amazon’s customers could
order books and other goods, download movies and music, just by talking?
(p. 109)
is description reveals what experts had long ago concluded, Amazon is not just
an online retailer, or a supply ain behemoth, or a media company. Rather, at its
core, Amazon is a tenology company that survives and thrives on collecting UI
through IOT tenology, processing the incoming yoabytes of big data every
day with AI and then employing insights gleaned from the data with AI to
impact consumers in thousands of large and small ways.
Looking to the Future
In 2018, Amazon was unofficially reported to sell more than 600 million goods and
was worth more than any other company in the world at $1 trillion (Dumaine,
2020). Amazon’s model of te-enabled consumer psyology eliminates the
laboratory and the researer. Instead, AI is used to collect, process, and
implement data-driven solutions directly to the consumer. is is referred to as
maine learning (Dove, Halskov, Forlizzi, & Zimmerman, 2017). See Figure 7.22.
As AI applications become faster and need less human guidance, the process of
consumer psyology may flip so that it becomes the domain of maines to
inform humans.
Figure 7.22 Consumer-Focused Maine Learning Model of Consumer Resear.
What does this mean for the future? One consequence has been reported by
te visionaries su as Bill Gates, Mark Zuerberg, and Elon Musk, who have
begun advocating for a universal basic income (Clifford, 2017). e reasoning
behind the argument according to experts is that the rapid advancement and
deployment of AI will eventually lead to wide-scale job loss. e future will be an
exciting time for media psyology solars who continue to study the interface
between humans and maines and the resultant thoughts and behaviors.
Conclusion
In his book Storynomics, author Robert McKee (McKee & Gerace, 2018) predicted,
“Before long, all public and private communication—entertainment, news, music,
sports, social media, online seares—will be ad-free” (p. XV). McKee’s declaration
conveys what experts have been saying: We are on the threshold of a postadvertising
world. is does not mean post-persuasion. Rather, as demand for ad
free media su as paid streaming services continues to grow, companies,
marketers, and influencers must find new ways to tell their stories. As we
observed in this apter, advertising has evolved with media and must continue to
do so. Nonetheless, the methods that work will be centered on a story and will
convey self-efficacy to consumers.
estions for ought and Discussion
1. What brands do you use? Construct a brand collage of the brands you use
employing images from the internet. What are the main meanings these
brands convey? What does that reveal about your identity?
2. Construct a 300-word self-brand story that conveys what you are all
about. You may want to use this on social media account su as
LinkedIn.
3. Pi a persuasion principle from Cialdini. Give a detailed recent example
of how that principle was applied in a media marketing or branding
campaign.
4. Pi a product and brand and then construct an ad hoc persona of
someone you know (could be yourself). What is the best media to target
that individual? Write a one-page strategy to target that person with a
branding message. What are the buyer behaviors that an ad could target?
Recommended Reading
Dumaine, B. (2020). Bezonomics: How Amazon is changing our lives and
what the world’s best companies are learning from it. New York:
Scribner.
Mark, M., & Pearson, C. S. (2001). The hero and the outlaw: Building
extraordinary brands through the power of archetypes. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
McKee, R., & Gerace, T. (2018). Storynomics: Story-driven marketing in the
post-advertising world. New Y ork: Twelve.
Sutherland, R. (2019). Alchemy: The dark art and curious science of
creating magic in brands, business, and life. New York: HarperCollins
Publishers.
Wu, T. (2016). The attention merchants: The epic scramble to get inside our
heads. New York: Alfred A. Knoff.
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