Memory Wars Russia, Estonia, Czech Republiiic Housekeeping •Topics today •Uploaded Slides for Monday and Tuesday •Added a couple of readings to syllabus—Just if you want to write about memory wars. Today: •Memory Wars: Theory •Ontological Security •Linking the individual to the state •Conflict-Supporting Narratives •Persistent Victimhood •Securitization •Mnemonic Security Dilemmas •Securitiziing the Russian Narratiive •Memory Wars in Central and Eastern Europe •TOMORROW: Ukraine • • Review : •Ontological Security: Sovereign states are willing to suffer political, military and economic harm if necessary to maintain identity •Why? Identity is a key source of legitimacy, but also framework for decision making •Narratives/memories are key foundation to identities: identify what state role is in international context, how it got there •Institutionalized memory narratives as sources of state/national identity • Three Post Cold War Narratives in Europe •The “Western Narrative”— •Search for identity after cold war and EU expansion: Peace, Human Rights •“Negative” Narrative emphasizes World War II over Nazism and Holocaust •The Central and Eastern Narrative— •Creating or reframing a national identity •World War II not a victory but dual occupation •Focus on Stalinism as communist regime •Holocaust not uniquely important •TODAY: Continue on this point, then the Russian narrative, then look at memory wars between Russia and Estonia and Russia and Czechia • Memory Wars: Theoretical Concepts: Ontological Security •Ontological Security •Zarakol: “Ontological Security (Zarakol, 6): ”Ontological security first and formost entails having a consistent sense of self and having that self affirmed by others. •What does it mean for a state? •Collective Identity and Narrative Engagement •Individual sense of self within community depends on external role •So the ontological insecurity confronts individuals as part of collective • • Memory Wars: Theoretical Concepts Conflictive Narratives and Persistent Victimhookd •Content: Causes of Conflict, its nature, image of rival, what needed to win •Functions: Justifies conflict, delineates dangers, delegitimizes opponents, creates glorified image of in-group, in-group as victim, patriotism, unity, desire to live in peace •Social function: Prepares people for privations of conflict, Provides explanation, certainty; prepares for violent acts against rival, mobilizes in-group; gain international support • Victimization •Victimization • Individual • Injury occurs, perceived to be unjust • Recognized by others • Investment in victim status • Collective aspect of victimization • Become a part of community of memory • Institutionalization Memory War Theory: Securitization •Securitization (Gustafson, 74):“means to present an issue as urgent and existential, as so important that it should not be exposed to the normal haggling of politics but should be dealt with decisively by top leaders prior to other issues” (Buzan et al., 1998, p. 29). •Depoliticize something is to place it unpolitical, not open for discussion •Politicize means to bring it up to public debate, procedural issues on how to decide •Beyond Politics • • • • Memory Wars: Theoretical Conflicts: Mnemonic Security Dilemma •Two sides have contradictory narratives, such that efforts to assert narrative of one side to improve ontological security necessarily threatens ontological secuirity of the other RUSSIA: Key Events •Conversion to Orthodox Christianity (988) •Vassalage to Mongol Horde (1247-1380) •1400s: “The Third Rome” after 1453 •Not fully part of international society until Peter I •Napoleonic Invasion of 1812 •Crimean War 1856 •World War I and the Bolshevik Revolution •Stalin’s Revolution from Above •The Collapse of the USSR and the 1990s Persistent elements of Russian national Identity •The role of the state (at least since peter the great) •GREAT POWER •The tie with Orthodoxy •Feeling of relative weakness and backwardness towards Europe •Change from above •Peter the Great Tries to Copy Europe •Also seen as threat •A struggle between Russian and European Identity •Westernizers and Slavophiles •What does Europe represent? •What does Russia represent? RUSSIA’S ONTOLOGICAL INSECURITY SEEKING GREATNESS, NEVER A FULL MEMBER OF THE CLUB •Sergei Lavrov, 2016: •“There are different opinions, and doubts too, as to whether Russia assesses the international situation and its position in the world soberly enough. This is an echo of never-ending disputes between pro-Western liberals and the advocates of one’s own unique path. There are also people, both inside and outside the country, who believe that Russia is doomed to constantly fall behind and catch up, or adapt to the rules invented by others, and therefore cannot claim a rightful role in international affairs." • Russia After Soviet Collapse: Debate over National Identity Particularly Important •A New State: New Borders; • 14 New Neighbors •A Superpower in Decline •New Demographics: • 51% Ethnic Russians in USSR • 81% Ethnic Russians in Russia • Millions of Ethnic Russians in • former Soviet Republics Political, Economic, Social Upheaval Putin’s Entry The productive and constructive work that our Fatherland needs is impossible in a society finding itself in a condition of factionalism, domestic disunity.… In the past century Russia twice found itself in such conditions: after October 1917 and in the ’90s.… A strong [krepkoe] state is not an anomaly for Russian citizens [rossiiane], not something they have to struggle with, but, on the contrary, a source and guarantor of order, the initiator and prime moving force in any transition. Conclusion: Russia needs a strong state and a power vertical Guarantor against internal chaos, external invasion Putin’s Chosen Narrative for Russia •The Chosen Trauma—the 1990s •The weakness of the state •Anarchy, economic despair, factionalism •Global Humiliation •The Chosen Victory—The Great Patriotic War • The Great Patriotic War •A Time of Great Suffering •A Time of Great Unity—Divisions between classes, ideology lessened •A Time of Great Victory •Soviet Union arises as a great power, influence extends from Vladivostok and Pyongyang to Prague and Berlin •USSR saves European civilization •The Soviet Legacy from the 1970s •The Soviet Union gives up on communism, looks back •Creates an infrastructure of memory Putin can use •Differences: Not so much Soviet victory but Russian victory •Not so much a warning against war, a call for preparedness, but rather a trope of Russian Greatness • • • The Evolution of Vladimir Putin The Kremlin’s “Civilizational” Narrative •Massive Demonstrations in Moscow in 2011-12 •Putin very afraid •Jettisons urban liberal idea for Russian nationalism •Relies more heavily on statists, Orthodox Church •Ecosystems of influence •One –Thousand Year History •Russia Empire is separate from Europe: Multiethnic under Russian leadership •Lenin: Represents betrayal of Russian state •The Redemption in the Great Patriotic War •And a curiously ambiguous attitude on Stalin Putin’s Speech at the Wall of Sorrows Monument, Moscow, October 30, 2017 •It is very important that we all and future generations – this is of great significance – know about, and remember this tragic period in our history when entire social groups and entire peoples were cruelly persecuted, including workers, peasants, engineers, military commanders, clergy, government employees, scientists and cultural figures. •Neither talent, nor services to the Motherland, nor sincere devotion to it could help avoid repression, because unwarranted and absolutely absurd charges could be brought against anyone. Millions of people were declared ‘enemies of the people’, shot or mutilated, or suffered in prisons, labour camps or exile. •This terrifying past cannot be deleted from national memory or, all the more so, be justified by any references to the so-called best interests of the people. •The history of our country, like that of any other country, has plenty of difficult and controversial stages. People argue about them, discuss them, offering different approaches to explaining various events. • Putin’s Speech at the “Wall of Sorrows” October 30,2017 •In closing, I would like to ask Ms Natalia Solzhenitsyna permission to quote her, ”To know, to remember, to condemn. And only then to forgive.“ I fully agree with these words. •Indeed, we and our descendants must remember the tragedy of repression and what caused it. However, this does not mean settling scores. We cannot push society to a dangerous line of confrontation yet again. •Now, it is important for all of us to build on the values of trust and stability. Only on this basis will we be able to achieve the goals of our society and our country, which is one for us all. • Securitization •Russia: Securitizes memory •Russian historical society is head of foreign intelligence •Believes in “hybrid warfare” •Threat to foundational beliefs threat to regime as a whole •Making laws makes it worse, because state recognizes it as important • • Memory Wars •Russian Securitization •Central and Eastern Europe efforts to build nation with chosen trauma of repression under Soviet rule •Mnemonic Security Dilemma •The attempt by one regime to shore up its narrative is threat to ontological security of another •Two different visions of how urban spaces should work • • Estonia: 2007 •Specific Sources of Tension •Double Occupation •The Nazis •4300 Jews in Estonia before war, 75% flee to Russia, about 1000 Estonian Jews killed •6000 Estonians and 1000 Ethnic Russians •The Soviets •20,000 deported arrested or executed in 1941 •Large Russian-speaking population •Efforts by Estonians to limit citizenship through language, etc. The Bronze Soldier in Estonia •Monument and Cemetery to Fallen Soviet Soldiers on “Liberators’ Square” in central Talinn •Had been site of controversy after 1991, attempt by city to remove it •Election of nationalist party to power •April, 2007: Statue relocated to cemetery outside the center • Graves also moved • Riots over two nights in Talinn • Estonian Embassy besieged, • Ambassador attached • Site of annual demonstrations •April, 2022: Statue vandalized Securitization on Both Sides •Estonia—Right-wing emphasizes National boundaries—language, etc. • Response to National Identity Issues mentioned before • Presence of Russians seen as potential threat • Proponents of move assume Russians in Estonia the same •Russians—See it as evidence that second-class citizens • Partly true, partly also sense of entitlement •Putin’s Narrative--A denial of Putin’s narrative’s identity of Soviet soldiers as heroes • A desire to claim symbolic state on Estonian territory The Statue Wars in Prague: 2019-2020 •June 2019: Russia passes law naming soldiers in 1968 “war veterans” •Konev Statue Removed in April, 2020 •Head of Řeporyje district announces construction of memorial to members of General Andrei Vlasov’s RLA who participate in Prague Uprising •Mayor Zdeněk Hřib enables square of Russian Embassy to be renamed “Boris Nemtsov Square” •Hřib also invites Beijing’s displeasure with gestures recognizing Taiwan autonomy • THE RESPONSE •RUSSIA: •Accusations that Czechs broke 1993 Friendship Agreement •April 7: Duma passes law criminalizing desecration of monuments to Soviet soldiers •Criminal Investigation of Hřib and Kolár • •Czech National Government: •Pro-Russian President Miloš Zeman supports Russia’s objections in principle, calls the removal “underhanded” and ”morally unjust” •Czech Ministries support legality of removal and criticize Russian interference in internal affairs •Even Zeman critiques Russia’s overreaction to “stupid actions of otherwise insignificant politicians! •