Covenant and continuity:
ethno-symbolism and the myth
of divine election
BRUCE CAUTHEN
Department of Political Science, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
ABSTRACT. Throughout history the myth of divine election ­ a community's
collective belief in its nomination by the deity for a special destiny ­ has provided a
supremely potent catalyst for social solidarity and political mobilization. Yet this
sublime stimulator of ethnogenesis, comprehensive demarcator of ethnic identity, and
durable guarantor of ethno-cultural preservation has been largely neglected by many of
the most prominent scholars of nationalism who have often discounted the relevance of
the myth of divine election with regard to modern nationalist movements. However,
Anthony D. Smith has afforded considerable attention to the concept of chosenness and
its significance for the nationalist project. This article will assess Smith's contribution to
the subject and will examine how his ethno-symbolic approach has illuminated the ways
in which ethnic groups have been infused by the myth of divine election. And, utilizing
the ethno-symbolic perspective, this article will explore how this ineffable and persistent
sense of providential destiny continues to influence modern communities and hence
international politics.
Religion and politics
The tragic events of September 11, 2001 have caused many analysts to
reconsider the influence of religion on politics. Indeed, in the words of Karen
Armstrong, `In the middle of the twentieth century, it was generally assumed
by pundits and commentators that secularism was the coming ideology and
that religion would never again become a force in international affairs. But the
fundamentalists have reversed this trend and gradually, in both the United
States and the Muslim world, religion has become a force that every
government has been forced to take seriously' (Armstrong 2001: vii­viii).
Yet, although the devastating assault on New York and Washington
horrifically drove home this reality, countless and varied events, including
the rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan and the BJP in India, the continuing
failure to reach a peace settlement in the Israeli­Palestinian conflict due to the
growing influence of religious revivalist rejectionists on each side, numerous
episodes of ethno-confessional violence in Africa and Asia, controversies
Nations and Nationalism 10 (1/2), 2004, 19­33. r ASEN 2004
concerning the teaching of evolution and creationism in US public schools,
and, of course, the preliminary terrorist attacks orchestrated by al-Qaeda
during the preceding decade, must have surely signaled the political resurgence
of religion ­ if indeed it had actually ever completely retreated from the public
sphere. In any event, especially after 9/11, it is impossible to dismiss religion's
profound imprint on world politics. Indeed, after contemplating the disorder
of the global system following the attacks, Christopher Catherwood, correctly
concludes, `one thing can perhaps be said for certain: religion will be a major
player in international affairs. The religious dimension of questions cannot
now be safely ignored' (Catherwood 2002: 165).
The myth of divine election
However, it remains to be seen if this renewed analytical awareness of the role of
religion in politics will also extend to a concept which has been at the core of
many modern nationalists movements ­ the myth of divine election. Indeed, the
concept of chosenness, that is of a particular people especially anointed by the
Deity to discharge a providentially-ordained mission, to fulfill a holy and
cosmologically-determined destiny, or who collectively possess a divine warrant
to subdue, and propagate the faith in, a heathen land, has been throughout
history a uniquely potent catalyst for social mobilization and national
coherence.1
When the cause of a people is conceived to be the very will of
God, the collectivity is infused with a powerful sense of purpose which transcends
the more mundane considerations of socio-political organization. Theirs is a
charge which defies human contemplation and a calling to which all members of
the community must respond. Failure to promote and realize the collective
vocation may incur the wrath of the Creator, lead to the dismemberment of the
people, and ­ for its individual members ­ the prospect of eternal damnation.
The classic example of a chosen people is, of course, the ancient Hebrews
whose epic narrative of election, exodus, exile in the wilderness and ultimate
redemption has been related to successive generations through the Old
Testament.2
Although myths of ethnic election are hardly confined within the
Judeo-Christian tradition, many Christian communities have seen themselves as
successors to biblical Israel as collective recipients of divine favor and therefore as
the new Chosen People (O'Brien 1988, chs 1­2). Adrian Hastings argues that the
first proto-typical nation, England, originated during the Middle Ages and arose
from the biblical model of the ancient Hebrews. Hasting reveals that Bede, an
eminent authority on the Bible, recognized parallels between his English nation ­
with its single language and collective allegiance to God ­ and the Israelites of the
Old Testament (Hastings 1997: ch. 2). Although there are other examples of pre-
Reformation collectivities who were self-assured of a distinct and sublime
communion with the Almighty, Conor Cruise O'Brien shows that Protestant
communities ­ which interpreted the Scriptures, especially, the Old Testament
literally ­ were particularly susceptible to self-conceptions of chosenness as an
20 Bruce Cauthen
increasingly powerful identification with the ancient Israelites produced an
irresistible and infinitely formidable fusion of religion and nationalism (O'Brien
1988: 19­25). Hartmut Lehmann and William R. Hutchinson reveal: `Nothing
inspired this symbiosis of nationalism and Christianity more than the chosen
people model as it was derived, accurately or not, from the Hebrew scriptures.
Indeed, without such symbols as the ``Old Testament'' account of a chosen
people, a people united under God, the frequently powerful union of nationalism
and Christianity might have been less feasible in nations like Great Britain,
Germany, or the United States' (Lehmann and Hutchinson 1994: 288). Certainly
it seems difficult to adequately comprehend nationalism as an ideology without
acknowledging its religious concomitant from which it so often draws its fervor.
Indeed, Anthony D. Smith claims that even the first use of the term `nationalism'
­ interestingly not until 1836 ­ in English `appears to be theological, the doctrine
that some nations are divinely elected' (Smith 2001: 5).
Although there have been contemporary studies which have examined the
identification with the ancient Hebrews of various communities and the ways in
which this self-conception as a latter day Israel shaped their socio-political
development,3
considering the profound influence of the myth of divine election
on so many modern nationalists projects, the subject has hardly attracted
pervasive scholarly attention. Clifford Longley explains, `At first glance (at least
to my modern eye) the concept sounds utterly outdated, or something confined
to fundamentalist extremists. That is doubtless one reason why researchers
have left it alone' (Longley 2002: x). Moreover, much of the contemporary
research has been of a decidedly deconstructionist approach which attempts to
analytically dissect and ultimately dismiss the historical myth of divine election ­
as it relates to a particular people ­ as slightly more than a quasi-religious
subterfuge, fabricated and manipulated by a nationalist elite, and imposed on
the masses as a vehicle for political mobilization. In this regard, the concept of
chosenness is often interpreted as merely a sanctimoniously-contrived ideology ­
retroactively interjected into history ­ to justify a dubious record of
ethnocentrism, racism, colonialism, warfare, enslavement or worse.4
And, to be sure there has been a rather conspicuous lack of analysis of the
myth of divine election from a comparative perspective.5
Furthermore, with
the exception of Smith, the subject has been largely neglected by many of the
most prominent theorists of nationalism. Smith points out that myths of ethnic
election are often overlooked by other scholars of nationalism who subscribe to
the `modernist' paradigm with its emphasis on more recent variables in the
creation of nations such as the state, economic determinants, and the
intelligentsia (Smith 1992: 440; 1993: 9; 1998).
Smith's ethno-symbolic approach
Smith's interest in the myth of divine election is multi-faceted and his extensive
research in this regard has shed very valuable light on the concept.6
Smith's
Covenant and continuity 21
ethno-symbolic approach which contemplates the subjective scope of the
myths, symbols, and memories which in themselves constitute ethno-national
identity has proven a most instructive perspective from which to analyze the
communal conviction of chosenness.7
Smith assesses the ways in which myths
of ethnic election serve as a mechanism for socio-cultural survival and a
stimulus for ethno-political mobilization. He also indicates how the concept of
the chosen people intensifies the identification of the community with its
homeland. Moreover, Smith seeks to demonstrate the extent to which the
properties of modern secular nationalism are analogous to the characteristics
of antecedent myths of ethnic election and how the persistent power of this
underlying idea of chosenness continues to influence communities even today.
Two Types of Election
Walbert BuĻ hlmann argues, `Most peoples, on all continents, nourish and foster
a marked ethnocentrism, generally accentuated and supported by religion y.
They see themselves as an altogether special people ­ as the people of God, and
hence explicitly or implicitly, a chosen people' (BuĻ hlmann 1982: 187). However
Smith cautions:
A myth of divine election should not be equated with mere ethnocentrism. Ethnic
communities have quite commonly regarded themselves as the moral centre of the
universe and as far as possible affected to ignore or despise those around them. A myth
of ethnic election is more demanding. To be chosen is to be placed under moral
obligations. One is chosen on condition that one observes certain moral, ritual, and legal
codes, and only for as long as one continues to do so. The privilege of election is
accorded only to those who are sanctified, whose life-style is an expression of sacred
values. The benefits of election are reserved for those who fulfill the required
observances. (Smith 1992: 441)
Yet, Smith does distinguish between two different types of ethnic election
which he describes as `missionary' and `covenantal'. Smith relates, `missionary
election myths exalt their ethnie by assigning them god-given tasks or missions
of warfare or conversion or overlordshipy'(Smith: 1999b: 15) In the
`missionary' myth the community believes itself to be divinely anointed to
preserve and promote the true faith and to champion the ecclesiastical
establishment which sustains it. Moreover the community feels itself compelled
to assiduously deliver new congregants to the religion through a vigorous
campaign of proselytism which may often entail conquest. Smith argues that
this is the most common variety of chosenness and that myths of this sort of
ethnic election infused Armenians, the Franks, the Orthodox Byzantines and
Russians, Catalans, medieval Magyars who resisted the Ottoman expansion,
and Catholic Poles. And, according to Smith, non-Christian peoples such as
the Arabs during and after the time of the Prophet and Shi'ite Persians during
the Safavid period were also inspired by the myth of missionary election (Smith
2000a: 67; 2000b: 804).
22 Bruce Cauthen
However, the covenantal form of divine election is far more demanding.
Like that of biblical Israel which provides the model for this kind of
chosenness, the election of the people which subscribes to this contractual myth
is conditional upon the strict compliance with divine, moral commandments,
the scrupulous adherence to the holy ordinances, the faithful commemoration
of sacred rituals, and the conscientious discharge of the consecrated and
collective vocation ­ to dutifully fulfill that which is seen to be the will of God.
Smith notes that the covenantal myth has been less evident historically and
primarily attached to certain Protestant communities which have seen
themselves as the theological heirs and trans-historical successors of the
ancient Israelites such as the Puritan settlers of New England, the Ulster Scots,
and Afrikaners (Smith 2000a: 67; 2000b: 804­5).
Smith observes:
To see oneself as potentially `an holy nation' is to link chosenness indissolubly with
collective sanctification. Salvation is accessible only through redemption which in turn
requires a return to former ways and beliefs, which are the means of sanctification.
Hence the recurrent note of `return' in many ethno-religious traditions which inspire
movements of both religious reform and cultural restoration. Given the ineluctable
subjectivity of ethnic identification, this moral summons to re-sanctify the potential
elect provides a powerful mechanism for ethnic self-renewal and long-term ethnic
survival (Smith 1991: 37).
Indeed, Smith emphasizes that the myth of divine election sustains the
continuity of cultural identity, and, in that regard, has enabled certain pre-
modern communities such as the Jews, Armenians, and Greeks to survive and
persist over centuries and millennia (Smith 1993: 15­20). Moreover, myths of
divine election have empowered a number of ethnies even to prevail against
patently catastrophic corporate reversals as the loss of political independence
and exile from the ancestral homeland (Smith 1992: 440).
`Patterns of Ethnic Survival'
Chosenness is the supreme guarantor of ethnic durability and Smith links
myths of divine election to four different `patterns of ethnic survival' which he
describes as imperial-dynastic, communal-demotic, emigrant colonist, and
diaspora-restoration (Smith 1992: 446­8).
As Smith points out, in the imperial-dynastic pattern, it is the monarch or
royal family which espouses the myth of election. Yet, the conception of
chosenness is eventually transmitted to their subjects as well through the
people's identification with the regnal emblems and customs. Ultimately the
election myth is sustained by this formidable `conjunction of dynasty, land and
people'. And, with the recession of royal supremacy, the myth of election is
evenly more intimately invested in the people who now become the principal
locus of corporate sanctification (Smith 1992: 446­7). Yet it is the people itself
which provides the repository for the election myth in the communal-demotic
pattern ­ particularly an ethnie which attempts to maintain its traditional
Covenant and continuity 23
culture in the midst of alien invasion and occupation in a homeland which is
thought to retain a sacred character (Smith 1992: 447). As is suggested by the
name of the third pattern, the emigrant-colonist, the myth of divine election is
invested in an immigrant community which seeks to establish a new moral
order in the wilderness, or at least in an unfamiliar territory, to which they
believe they have been delivered by the deity (Smith 1992: 447­8). And, finally,
it is the reclamation ­ or the emotive corporate longing to do so ­ of an
abandoned homeland from which the community originated in the distant past
which vehiculates the myth in the final model of ethnic survival which Smith
calls the diaspora-restoration pattern. He explains, `The return of the
community to its ancestral home from which it had been exiled became the
precondition of collective redemption' (Smith 1992: 448). And, historically,
such myths have provided an irresistible stimulus for territorial aggrandize-
ment, mass insurrection, collective translocation, and struggles for the
communal recovery of the lost homeland (Smith: 1992: 448).
The Sacred Homeland
The idea of the homeland is central to the four configurations of ethnic
persistence which Smith describes. And, indeed, Smith has consistently
maintained that a collective identification with a particular territory is an
essential foundation of ethnic identity (See Smith 1986: 28­29; 1995: 56). Yet
the homeland is far more than simply the site of physical habitation, it is
invested with a psychological dimension of symbiotic belonging. Smith
clarifies, `we find many groups of people endowing with a particular collective
emotion a specific terrain which they occupy, whether it be a local district, a
region or a wider ethnic territory. What is at stake is the idea of an historic and
poetic landscape, one imbued with the culture and history of a group, and vice
versa, a group part of whose character is felt by themselves and outsiders to
derive from the particular landscape they inhabit, and commemorated as such
in song and verse' (Smith 1997: 11).
Smith employs the term, ethnoscape, to describe the mystical affinity of the
people for its homeland; and, as might be expected, the dynamic is especially
coherent in a community which is infused by a collective self-concept of divine
election. Indeed, Smith observes, `Myths of ethnic chosenness not only
underpin peoples and cultures; they also provide charters and title deeds of
sacred homelands (Smith 1992: 450) And, indeed, what impetus could more
profoundly unite the consecrated community with its homeland than the belief
that it was ceded to them by the deity as a sacred parcel signifying the people's
election? For a ` ``holy people'' adhering to a single sacred life-style, repeated
performance of sacred acts in fulfillment of the mission with which the
community is entrusted sanctifies the land and turns it into a reward for faithful
observance of a ``covenant'' ' (Smith 1997: 14). Yet, the homeland is also
consecrated as it encompasses the terrain on which heroic ethnic forebears led
the community in the collective realization of its providential destiny and
24 Bruce Cauthen
contains the soil in which they now rest. Smith relates, `These legendary or
historical figures are venerated by the people for the benefits, material and
spiritual, that they bestow on the community, and for the divine blessings they
bring on the people. So the places where holy men and heroes walked and
taught, fought and judged, prayed and died, are felt to be holy themselves; their
tombs and monuments become places of veneration and pilgrimage, testifying
to the glorious and sacred past of the ethnic community' (Smith 1997: 14)
And, even if modernity and rationalism should ultimately dilute the
collective religious conviction of the elect community, the homeland will likely
retain its sacred character. Smith explains:
Indeed, as secularization becomes more common, ancestral homelands acquire greater
sanctity. This is partly the result of displacement of effect: the transfer of awe and
reverence from the deity and his or her `church' to the location of the shrine and its
worshippers, for here all of the members participate equally by virtue of being
ancestrally related to the territory in question. In this case, to have been hallowed
suffices; once blessed, the land becomes even more sacred, because it attracts to itself
much of the exaltation and holy love that was formerly accorded the deity. Thus
`religion', or in this case religious sentiments, permeates the secular forms and hence
penetrates the realm of worldly politics (Smith 2000b: 807).
Yet, Smith is skeptical about the extent to which the present-day forces of
rationalism and materialism have succeeded in consigning the myths of ethnic
election to the pre-modern past, and he observes that traditional religion
remains a pervasive influence in the modern world (Smith 1992: 449)
Moreover, according to Smith, the secular ideology of modern nationalism
itself appropriates the sacred character of religious antecedents. Indeed, Smith
asserts, `Nationalism is the secular, modern equivalent of the pre-modern,
sacred myth of ethnic election' (Smith 1991: 84).
Ethnic election and modern nationalism
Smith explains `that nationalism, as an ideological movement that seeks
autonomy, unity and identity for a population deemed to be a nation, draws
much of its passion, conviction and intensity from the belief in a national
mission and destiny; and this belief in turn owes much to a powerful religious
myth of ethnic election. Modern nationalism can be seen in part as deriving
from powerful, external and pre-modern traditions, symbols and myths which
are then taken up and recast in the nationalist ideologies of national mission
and destiny as these emerge in the crucible of modernization' (Smith 1999a:
332). Yet, this does not necessarily mean that the myth of divine election has
been entirely supplanted by modern nationalism. It is a durable collective
mind-set and Smith reminds, `The profound consequences of the concept of a
chosen people, the passionate attachment to sacred lands and centers y
proved to be an enduring legacy for many peoples from late antiquity to
modern times, sustaining their sense of uniqueness and nurturing their hopes of
regeneration' (Smith 1991: 50). And, consequently, Smith clarifies that even
Covenant and continuity 25
today, `We sometimes find examples of a symbiosis and even a fusion between
the earlier religious myths and the nationalist ideal. Here the old religious
myths, particularly where they are associated with the idea of a `covenant'
between a people and its god, have survived intact, and are more or less con-
sciously fused with a modern ethno-political nationalism' (Smith 1999a: 332).
Smith maintains that there is an affinity and indeed an `ideological kinship
between religious myths of ethnic election and nationalist ideals of mission and
destiny' (Smith 1999a: 335). Just as a myth of ethnic election infused the elect
people with a sense of moral ascendancy over outsiders, the ideology of
nationalism also morally elevates the members of the nation above those who
are not a part of the ethno-national community. Nationalism also entails the
promise of the eventual triumph of the nation in a similar manner to which the
myth of chosenness assured an ultimate providential rescue from degradation
and oppression. The myth of divine election erected a formidable barrier
between the sanctified community and others whom the deity did not favor.
Nationalism too establishes socio-cultural criteria which distinguishes
members from non-members in the demarcation of an exclusive ethno-
national boundary. And, as all members of the elect ethnie were expected to
faithfully discharge the duties required to maintain their collective election,
nationalism also commands of its adherents a common responsibility of
popular participation in the various national tasks which ensure the survival
and success of the nation (Smith 1999a: 334­9).
Smith also advises that in some cases there is a covariance between an
intense nationalist project and the ethnic myth of election which preceded it.
He states, `in both Holland and England in the late sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, there was a strong affirmation of both religious and national
chosenness. In these cases, the two were inseparable: their nationalist ideals
and sense of mission were a consequence of their belief in the divine election of
their ethnies, and that belief was reinforced by their territorial national ideals'
(Smith 1999a: 340).
The Example of the USA
According to Smith, this same covariance between ethnic chosenness and
intense nationalism is also evident in the example of the USA `despite the fact
that religious fervor had declined, even in New England, by the end of the
eighteenth century. Nevertheless, a strong case can be made that early Puritan
beliefs in divine Providence and ethno-religious election helped to shape the
central national myths of mission and destiny in the War of Independence and
the foundation of the Republic' (Smith 1999a: 340). And, as Smith also points
out, it was this same collective conception of religious and national chosenness
which incubated the transcendent and irresistible article of America's sanctified
national mission ­ manifest destiny.
Much has been written on the self-conception of the USA as a latter-day
Israel and how the myth of chosenness defined the character of an American
26 Bruce Cauthen
ethos, mandated the establishment of a just and upright nation, infused the
citizens of a fledgling republic with an overarching sense of purpose, and
prescribed the promotion of republican institutions through territorial
expansion (Hudson 1970: ch. 1; Johnson 1986: 6; Tuveson 1968; Grosby
2002: ch. 9). Furthermore, the myth of divine election encouraged Americans
to interpret their history through a religious prism and, in this regard, provided
a stimulus for socio-political mobilization (Cherry 1997: 19). Ernest Lee
Tuveson argues, `confidence in the ideal of America as the new chosen people
reached a peak of enthusiasm in the years immediately preceding 1860'
(Tuveson 1968: 187). Certainly both antagonists in the Civil War were utterly
convinced that the conflict was the fulfillment of biblical prophecy and that the
Almighty was certainly on their side (see Beringer et al. 1986: ch. 5).
And, although James Moorhead advises that there were often contradictory
visions of American destiny, he demonstrates that the myth of election
continued to influence the public debate surrounding such events as the
acquisition of colonial possessions in 1898, the entry of the USA into the First
World War, and the passage of the anti-immigration National Origins Act of
1924 (Moorhead 1994). Yet, Winthrop S. Hudson suggests that the `theological
language, religious metaphors, and biblical allusions' which so powerfully
informed the political dialogue of the USA declined after the First World War
with the collective national confidence `in a living God (judging, correcting,
disciplining, guiding, and directing the American people) being slowly eroded
and reduced to the pale affirmations of twentieth century ``civil religion'' '
(Hudson 1970: xi). And, to be sure, only a very few studies have examined how
the American myth of divine election has functioned in the more contemporary
period.
However Smith argues that the older myth of religious chosenness continues
to inspire contemporary America's sense of national mission and has exerted
an enduring influence on US foreign policy even throughout the 1980s (Smith
1999a: 348). Indeed, in his impressive study of US global interventionism
during the early days of the Cold War, John Fousek persuasively argues that
the `traditional nationalist ideologies of American chosenness, mission, and
destiny' created a powerful anticommunist consensus which electrified
Washington's determination to confront Soviet expansionism (Fousek 2000:
7). Conrad Cherry notes that the influence of the Protestant religious revival in
the USA during the 1950s could be felt in even the highest offices of the land
and patriotic Americans believed it to be their religious duty to defend
democracy from the scourge of atheistic communism (Cherry 1998: 303­5).
This concept of a providential mission to combat communism was very clearly
articulated in Barry Goldwater's historic and controversial speech in 1964 in
which he accepted the nomination of the Republican Party for President.
Disillusioned by what he saw as the failure of the Kennedy and Johnson
administrations to beat back the communist advance in Southeast Asia and
elsewhere, the redoubtable Senator from Arizona declared: `The good Lord
raised this mighty Republic to be a home for the brave to flourish as the land of
Covenant and continuity 27
the free ­ not to stagnate in the swampland of collectivism, not to cringe before
the bully of communism'.
William W. Cobb points out that the Puritan myth of Americans as a chosen
people indeed figured prominently in the formulation of US policy toward
Vietnam. However, Cobb recognizes an inherent tension in terms of the historical
interpretation of the foundation myth among those who believe that America's
elect status and national mission compels the active promotion of its lofty ideals
of democracy and freedom abroad and those who feel that the providential
destiny of the USA should only provide the model which other nations should
seek to follow. Cobb demonstrates that the first interpretation often influenced
policymakers to escalate American involvement in the conflict while the latter
version of the myth sometimes reinforced the apprehension of critics of the war.
In any event, despite the traumatic failure of the USA to accomplish its `mission'
in Vietnam, Cobb concludes that the myth of a providential destiny so deeply
ingrained in the national consciousness survived the defeat in Southeast Asia and
would subsequently continue to provide a justification for American inter-
ventionism abroad (Cobb 1998). Cherry, however, is not nearly so certain and
argues that following the US reversal in Vietnam, `the rhetoric of an aggressively
pursued national destiny abroad seemed to connect less and less with the
American experience. The failure of that long and costly war to deliver on
several presidential administrations' promises to preserve democratic interests
in the world rendered the rhetoric suspect' (Cherry 1998:307).
Yet, the `rhetoric' would return in a most robust, unalloyed, and
unapologetic manner when Ronald Reagan entered the White House in 1981
and it seemed to strike a responsive chord among an American people which
had again been aroused by the spirit of religious revivalism.8
At his
inauguration Reagan read aloud from II Chronicles 7:14: `If my people,
which are called by my name, shall humble themselves, pray and seek my face,
and turn from their wicked ways; then will I hear from heaven, and will forgive
their sin, and will heal their land' (cited in Schweizer 2002: 129). As if the
messenger of the Almighty, Reagan indeed reminded his countrymen that they
were an elect nation and that the covenant sealed by their Puritan forebears
was still in force and that Americans must fulfill their providential destiny.
Professing a vision of national renewal and collective redemption, Reagan
promoted a project which was both political and religious to recover the golden
age of American stability and prosperity and to reclaim the national greatness
of the USA which was the holy birthright of the American people. And,
amplifying Goldwater's cosmic summons, Reagan preached that a vigilant
prosecution of the campaign against the godless communist menace was
inextricably linked to America's providential mission (Edel 1987: ch. 9;
Erickson 1985: ch. 5; Combs 1993, ch. 4). According to a recent biographer,
following the assassination attempt in 1981, the un-reconstructed Cold
Warrior became firmly convinced that God had rescued him so that he as
president could combat the fiendish nemesis which he would ultimately
denounce as the `evil empire' (Schweizer 2002: 133­7). As Wilbur Edel
28 Bruce Cauthen
reiterates, `more than any other aspect of the Reagan program, the battle
against Soviet communism took on the character of a crusade of good against
evil' (Edel 1987: 149). And, of course, Reagan's vice-president and successor,
George Bush was quick to invoke a divine blessing when he triumphantly
heralded the end of the Cold War and he also employed the language of
religious election to justify the intervention in Somalia and Desert Storm
(Cobb 1998: 197­8, Cherry 1998: 307, Lehman and Hutchinson 1994: 285­6).
And, his son, the current President George W. Bush reminded Americans that
theirs remained a special destiny when, in his inaugural address, he proclaimed
`an angel still rides in the whirlwind and directs' the progress of the nation
(Longley 2002: 9­10).9
But, does the idea of a providential destiny continue to resonate in the
American people in a world made more complicated and less secure by
the events of 9/11? Conrad Cherry remains skeptical. Writing in the late 1990s,
he emphasizes the lack of stability in the post-Cold War era and concludes,
`The new disordered situation would mute considerably any bold, self-
confident claims about American destiny under God in the world at large'
(Cherry 1998: 308). However, Longley argues that the attacks on New York
and Washington have actually reinforced both an American sense of destiny
and chosenness (Longley 2002: 69). There is much to substantiate Longley's
assertion and, in a way, his claim should come as no surprise. Indeed, O'Brien
reminds us that notions of chosenness ­ although they may remain dormant for
years ­ usually reappear during times of crisis (O'Brien 1994: 144). It should be
remembered that shortly after the planes crashed into the World Trade Center
and the Pentagon, Pat Robertson and Jerry Falwell warned their countrymen
that God was chastising an increasingly apostate American nation for
permitting abortion and homosexuality. Although most Americans would
hardly subscribe to this view of extreme covenantal logic ­ and, indeed both
conservative churchmen ultimately retracted their callous and insensitive
commentary, it does seem that Longley's observation is correct. Americans
have certainly seemed to rediscover a sense of national mission to preserve their
`city on the hill' against the insidious threats which seek to undermine
American democracy and prosperity. And, did not President Bush ­ at least
initially and, in this case, most unwisely ­ employ the term `crusade' to describe
the War on Terror which his administration announced that it would
vigorously prosecute against the enemies of freedom? And, even though the
Bush White House has scrupulously reiterated its stance that the military
campaign is in no way directed against Muslims per se, a number of prominent
evangelical Protestant leaders ­ some of whom with close political connections
­ have made extremely offensive and provocative denunciations of Islam and
its founder which inevitably suggests that the American people are engaged in a
holy war against the infidel. Yet, in any event, the official rhetoric which has
trumpeted the strike on Afghanistan and the invasion of Iraq is hardly devoid
of religious fervor and emphasizes the righteous cause of a civilized, moral, and
democratic society against the forces of evil and darkness.
Covenant and continuity 29
It is also interesting to note that a number of polls conducted after 9/11
indicated that many Americans were re-embracing organized religion.
Certainly evangelical Protestantism seems to be flourishing as evidenced by
the commercial success of contemporary Christian music, the rapid growth of
religious movements such as Young Life, and the vigorous expansion of
foreign missions ­ especially it seems into Muslim lands. Writing after the
upheaval of the World War I, Edward Frank Humphrey observed that
Americans were reevaluating `the elements of our nationalism; we are asking
ourselves, `What is Americanism?'' (Humphrey 1924: 8). Humphrey seemed to
suggest that religion, which had been such an integral determinant of US
history might well exert a remedial and restorative influence. And, today, it
seems that religion is equally readily available to fill the void. As the recent
controversy surrounding the removal of a monument to the Ten Command-
ments from an Alabama courthouse illustrates, religion in the USA has never
completely retreated from the public square and ­ particularly in these
uncertain times ­ it surely seems to resonate in the national consciousness and
to remind Americans of a sense of providential destiny. Smith is indeed quite
correct to emphasize the continuity of the myth of national election in the
American experience.
Clash of the Elect?
And there is yet another intellectually intriguing observation in Smith's
research which may also shed light on another aspect of international politics
in the post 9/11 period. Smith notes that a politically powerful `sense of
national mission and destiny' is not only characteristic of the USA but also of
contemporary France. Smith reveals, `The Gaullist belief in France's national
civilizing mission and her separate cultural destiny has had profound
consequences for both the creation of European unity vis-a`-vis the Anglo-
Saxons and for France's leadership of her former colonies in Africa' (Smith:
1999a: 348). Could it be that the current atmosphere of estrangement in
Franco-American relations represents far more than merely a disagreement
over intervention in Iraq and the attendant issues relating to oil and
reconstruction contracts? Might it be that the dispute between Washington
and Paris is symptomatic of an increasing collision of the competing national
missions of two nations which are powerfully infused with a sense of
providential mission? It is a question which certainly warrants further
attention. And, surely no one could provide a more compelling analysis in
this regard than Anthony D. Smith.
Notes
1 This passage is taken from Cauthen (1999: 17).
2 There are a number of studies of the concept of election as it applied to biblical Israel from
historical, theological, and philosophical perspectives. See Booth (1959); Pythian-Adams (1934);
30 Bruce Cauthen
Rowley (1950); Danell (1953); Jocz (1958); Heller [n.d.]; Sohn (1991); Wells (2000); Novak (1995);
and Eisen (1995).
3 For studies of the English and British, see Hastings (1997); Greenfeld (1992), ch. 2; McLeod
(1999). For the Welsh, see Llywelyn (1999) and Davies (2002). For the Afrikaners, see Templin
(1984) and Cauthen (1997). And, for antebellum Southerners and Confederates, see Peterson
(1978) and Faust (1988).
4 This passage is taken from Cauthen (1999: 18). This deconstructionist attitude is clearly
reflected in du Toit (1983, 1984, 1985, 1994) who argues that the Afrikaner myth of election was a
fabrication of a nationalist elite which ultimately reinterpreted Afrikaner history through this
sublime prism. Akenson (1992: 56­59) offers a critical appraisal of du Toit's approach. However,
Zangwill (1918: 52­53), also argues `that the British imperial project had already reached the stage
of maturity before intellectuals attempted to invest it with religious significance'. And, Marstin
(1979: 75­78) relates that even though Americans genuinely subscribed to the idea of a divine
covenant during the days of the early republic, the election myth eventually degenerated into a
cynical justification for imperial expansion.
5 Akenson (1992), Hutchinson and Lehman (1994), Cauthen (1999), Jospe, Madsen, and Ward
(2001) and Longley (2002) do however provide comparative studies. See also Elazar (1996).
6 It is indeed unfortunate that the submission deadline for this article precedes the publication
date of, and thus prevents comment on, Smith's most recent work on ethnic election which is
entitled Chosen Peoples: Sacred Sources of National Identity and is forthcoming from Oxford
University Press in November 2003.
7 For a detailed discussion of ethno-symbolism, see Smith (1998: ch. 8).
8 Although Cherry (1998: 307) acknowledges that Reagan appropriated religious themes, he
provides only minimal commentary in this regard. See Combs (1993: 105) and Johnson (1986: 12­
13) for discussions of Reagan's emergence on the heels of the religious revival.
9 Longley (2002) offers an extremely interesting appraisal of how the myth of divine election has
functioned in the USA and persuasively argues that a sense of chosenness continues to infuse
American identity.
References
Akenson, Donald Harman. 1992. God's Peoples: Covenant and Land in South Africa, Israel, and
Ulster. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Armstrong, Karen. 2001. The Battle for God: a History of Fundamentalism. New York: Ballantine.
Beringer, Richard E. et al. 1986. Why the South Lost the Civil War. Athens, GA: University of
Georgia Press.
Booth, Osborne. 1959. The Chosen People: a Narrative History of the Israelites. St. Louis, MO:
Bethany.
Buhlmann, Walbert. 1982. God's Chosen Peoples. [trans.: Robert R. Barr] Maryknoll, NY: Orbis.
Catherwood, Christopher. 2002. Why the Nations Rage: Killing in the Name of God. Lanham, MD:
Rowman & Littlefield.
Cauthen, Bruce. 1997. `The myth of divine election and Afrikaner ethnogenesis' in Geoffrey
Hosking and George SchoĻ pflin (eds.), Myth and Nationhood. London: Macmillan.
Cauthen, Bruce. 1999. Confederate and Afrikaner nationalism: myth, identity and gender in
comparative perspective, unpublished PhD thesis, University of London.
Cherry, Conrad. (ed.) 1997 [1971]. God's New Israel: Religious Interpretations of American Destiny.
Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
Cobb, William W. 1998. The American Foundation Myth in Vietnam: Reigning Paradigms and
Raining Bombs. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
Combs, James. 1993. The Reagan Range: the Nostalgic Myth in American Politics. Bowling Green,
OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press.
Danell, G. A. 1953. `The idea of God's people in the Bible' in Anton Fridrichsen et al. (eds.), The
Root of the Vine: Essays in Biblical Theology. Westminster: Dacre.
Covenant and continuity 31
Davies, Grahame (ed.). 2002. The Chosen People: Wales and the Jews. Bridgend UK: Seren.
Du Toit, Andre. 1983. `No chosen people: the myth of the Calvinist origin of Afrikaner nationalism
and racial ideology', American Historical Review 88: 920­52.
Du Toit, Andre. 1984. `Captive to the nationalist paradigm: Professor F. A. van Jaarsfeld and the
historical evidence for the Afrikaner's ideas on his calling and mission', South African Historical
Journal 16: 49­82.
Du Toit, Andre. 1985. ` `Puritans in Africa?' Afrikaner Calvinism and neo-Kuyperian Calvinism
in late nineteenth century South Africa', Comparative Studies in Society and History 27:
209­40.
Du Toit, Andre. 1994. `The construction of Afrikaner chosenness' in William R. Hutchinson and
Hartmut Lehmann (eds.), Many Are Chosen: Divine Election and Western Nationalism.
Minneapolis, MN: Fortress.
Edel, Wilbur. 1987. Defenders of the Faith: Religion and Politics from the Pilgrim Fathers to Ronald
Reagan. Westport, CN: Praeger.
Eisen, Robert. 1995. Gersonides on Providence, Covenant, and the Chosen People: a Study in
Medieval Jewish Philosophy and Biblical Commentary. Albany, NY: State University of New
York Press.
Elazar, Daniel J. 1996. Covenant and Commonwealth: From Christian Separation through the
Protestant Reformation. London: Transaction.
Erickson, Paul D. 1985. Reagan Speaks: the Making of an American Myth. New York: New York
University Press.
Faust, Drew Gilpin. 1988. The Creation of Confederate Nationalism: Identity and Ideology in the
Civil War South. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press.
Fousek, John. 2000. To Lead the Free World: American Nationalism and the Cultural Roots of the
Cold War. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
Greenfeld, Liah. 1992. Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Grosby, Steven. 2002. Biblical Ideas of Nationality: Ancient and Modern. Winona Lake, IN:
Eisenbrauns.
Hastings, Adrian. 1997. The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Heller, Bernard. (n.d.). The Jewish Concept of the Chosen People. Cincinnati, OH: Tract
Commission.
Hudson, Winthrop S. (ed.) 1970. Nationalism and Religion in America: Concepts of American
Identity and Mission. Evanston, IL: Harper & Row.
Humphrey, Edward Frank. 1924. Nationalism and Religion in America 1774­1789. Boston, MA:
Chipman Law.
Hutchinson, William R. 1994. `Introduction' in William R. Hutchinson and Hartmut Lehmann
(eds.), Many Are Chosen: Divine Election and Western Nationalism. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress.
Hutchinson, William R. and Hartmut Lehmann (eds.). 1994. Many Are Chosen: Divine Election and
Western Nationalism. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress.
Jocz, Jakob. 1958. A Theology of Election: Israel and the Church. New York: Macmillan.
Johnson, Paul. 1986. `The almost chosen people: why America is different' in Richard John
Neuhaus (ed.), Unsecular America. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans.
Jospe, Raphael, Truman J. Madsen and Seth Ward (eds.). 2001. Covenant and Chosenness in
Judaism and Mormonism. Teaneck, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press.
Juergensmeyer, Mark. 1993. The New Cold War: Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State.
Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Kepel, Gilles. 1994. The Revenge of God: the Resurgence of Islam, Christianity, and Judaism in the
Modern World [trans. Alan Braley]. Cambridge: Polity.
Lehmann, Hartmut and William R. Hutchinson. 1994. `Concluding reflections ­ and a glance
forward' in William R. Hutchinson and Hartmut Lehmann (eds.), Many Are Chosen: Divine
Election and Western Nationalism. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress.
32 Bruce Cauthen
Longley, Clifford. 2002. Chosen People: the Big Idea that Shaped England and America. London:
Hodder & Stoughton.
Llywelyn, Dorian. 1991. Sacred Place: Chosen People: Land and National Identity in Welsh
Spirituality. Cardiff: University of Wales Press.
Marstin, Ronald. 1979. Beyond Our Tribal Gods: The Maturing of Faith. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis.
McLeod, Hugh. 1999. `Protestantism and British national identity, 1815­1945' in Peter van der
Veer and Hartmut Lehmann (eds.), Nation and Religion: Perspectives on Europe and Asia.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Moorhead, James H. 1994. `The American Israel: protestant tribalism and universal mission' in
William R. Hutchinson and Hartmut Lehmann (eds.), Many Are Chosen: Divine Election and
Western Nationalism. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress.
Novak, David. 1995. The Election of Israel: the Idea of the Chosen People. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
O'Brien, Conor Cruise. 1988. God-land: Reflections on Religion and Nationalism. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
O'Brien, Conor Cruise. 1994. `Response' in William R. Hutchinson and Hartmut Lehmann (eds.),
Many Are Chosen: Divine Election and Western Nationalism. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress.
Peterson, Thomas Virgil. 1978. Ham and Japeth: the Mythic World of Whites in the Antebellum
South. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow.
Pythian-Adams, W. J. 1934. The Call of Israel: An Introduction to the Study of Divine Election.
London: Oxford University Press.
Rowley, H. H. 1950. The Biblical Doctrine of Election. London: Lutterworth.
Schweizer, Peter. 2002. Reagan's War: the Epic Story of His Forty-Year Struggle and Final Triumph
Over Communism. New York: Doubleday.
Smith, Anthony D. 1986. The Ethnic Origins of Nations. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Smith, Anthony D. 1991. National Identity. London: Penguin.
Smith, Anthony D. 1992. `Chosen peoples: why ethnic groups survive', Ethnic and Racial Studies
15(3): 436­56.
Smith, Anthony D. 1993. `Ethnic election and cultural identity', Ethnic Groups: an International
Periodical of Ethnic Studies 10(1­3): 9­25.
Smith, Anthony D. 1995. Nations and Nationalism in a Global Era. Cambridge: Polity.
Smith, Anthony D. 1997. `Nation and ethnoscapes', Oxford International Review 8(2): 11­18.
Smith, Anthony D. 1998. Nationalism and Modernism: a Critical Survey of Recent Theories of
Nations and Nationalism. London: Routledge.
Smith, Anthony D. 1999a. `Ethnic election and national destiny: some religious origins of
nationalist ideals', Nations and Nationalism 5(3): 331­55.
Smith, Anthony D. 1999b. Myths and Memories of the Nation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Smith, Anthony D. 2000a. The Nation in History: Historiographical Debates about Ethnicity and
Nationalism. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England.
Smith, Anthony D. 2000b. `The ``sacred'' dimension of nationalism', Millennium: Journal of
International Studies 29(3): 791­814.
Smith, Anthony D. 2001. Nationalism: Theory, Ideology, History. Cambridge: Polity.
Sohn, Seock-Tae. 1991. The Divine Election of Israel. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans.
Templin, J. Alton. 1984. Ideology on a Frontier: the Theological Foundations of Afrikaner
Nationalism, 1652­1910. Westport, CN: Greenwood.
Tuveson, Ernest Lee. 1968. Redeemer Nation: the Idea of America's Millennial Role. Chicago, IL:
University of Chicago Press.
Wells, Jo Bailey. 2000. God's Holy People: a Theme in Biblical Theology. Sheffield: Sheffield
Academic Press.
Zangwill, Israel. 1918. Chosen Peoples: the Hebraic Ideal Versus the Teutonic. London: George
Allen & Unwin.
Covenant and continuity 33