1
Report of a thematic study using transnational
comparisons to analyse and identify cultural polices
and programmes that contribute to preventing and
reducing poverty and social exclusion
A report undertaken for the European Commission by:
The Centre for Public Policy, Northumbria University,
Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
Professor Roberta Woods, Lynn Dobbs,
Christopher Gordon, Craig Moore, Glen Simpson
2004
2
Contents
Title Page
Executive summary 3
Part 1
Section 1 The Scope of the Research 8
Section 2 Addressing Culture in Social Inclusion Policy
at European levels 12
Section 3 European Cultural Policy 16
Section 4 Using European funding streams to
promote culture and inclusion 21
Section 5 Discussion - theme 1 43
Section 6 Discussion - theme 2 46
Section 7 Discussion - theme 3 51
Section 8 Discussion - theme 4 53
Section 9 Recommendations 57
Part 2
Country profiles
Section 10 - Case Study Denmark 60
Section 11 - Case Study Germany 83
Section 12 - Case Study Spain 96
Section 13 - Case Study France 120
Section 14 - Case Study Sweden 127
Section 15 - Case Study Finland 142
Section 16 - Case Study Italy 153
Section 17 - Case Study United Kingdom 164
Section 18 - New Member States 178
Appendices
Appendix 1 A review of relevant academic literature 191
Appendix 2 EU data 199
Appendix 3 Report from the additional culture seminar 212
Bibliography 224
3
Executive Summary
1. Project Focus
The brief for this project set out key tasks for the project team as follows:
1. Identifying the ways in which poor access to and participation in
cultural activities can deepen and intensify poverty and social exclusion
and the groups most likely to be affected and why.
2. Identifying the different barriers that prevent those at risk of poverty
and social exclusion accessing cultural services and opportunities and
expressing their own cultural identity.
3. Documenting the contribution that increased access to and
participation in cultural activities can make to combating poverty and
social exclusion and increasing social inclusion.
4. Analysing and drawing conclusions as to the different mix of cultural
policies and programmes which are necessary to increase equality of
access and remove barriers to participation in cultural activities.
2. Project Methodology
The project research team carried out a review of policy and academic
literature in Europe relating to culture and social inclusion. The literature
search was supplemented by a visit to eight case study countries (Denmark,
Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom).
The visits enabled the project team to collect relevant documentation, to
interview staff in central government ministries and at the regional and local
tiers of government. The project team also visited specific localities and met
with local people and project workers in each country to gather examples of
projects that demonstrated best practice in terms of employing culture to
reduce or prevent social exclusion.
A review of relevant European funding programmes was undertaken and an
analysis of current monitoring mechanisms was also carried out.
3. The Scope of the research
The scope of our research for the European Commission is potentially
massive, and the topic itself difficult. Furthermore the joint Social Policy and
Cultural Policy research team were aware from the very outset of the
mismatch between expectations, professional practice and available relevant
data in the two professional spheres.
It was also apparent that both at the national and local levels, the concept of
social exclusion tends to be related primarily to employment and related
socio-economic factors. Nevertheless, there are clear signs of growing
awareness of the broader possibilities in a number of countries and the
development of policies that promote a positive role for culture in social
4
inclusion and neighbourhood renewal by improving the `performance' of
communities.
4. Main Project Findings
4.1 The concept of social exclusion adopted by the project team and backed
by relevant academic literature makes it clear that the experience of poverty
and exclusion is multi-dimensional and includes lack of access to goods and
services as well as more economic measures of exclusion. The fact that a
multi-dimensional understanding of exclusion is accepted was reflected in the
widespread recognition at local level in Member States that inclusion in
cultural activities was often an important stepping stone in preventing or
addressing social exclusion.
The focus of projects varied from those providing language classes for
immigrants to using drama or dance in schools to celebrate different cultures
or projects specifically aimed at encouraging employment in the creative
industries. This could include drama workshops, training in digital media, the
creation of rap music centres and local history groups for older people. All
countries were of course extending access to the Internet with libraries
playing a key role. The project team discovered a huge range of initiatives in
existence. These were often unknown outside the geographical area in which
they were operating and there were few opportunities for the sharing of good
practice or for evaluations of broadly similar projects to be compared. This
sometimes reflected a lack of drive at central government levels to actively
promote engagement in cultural activities as an important tool for addressing
social exclusion.
4.2 Much of the focus particularly of the National Action Plans (incl) is on
specific groups and specific institutions.
Most countries identified the following groups as being at particular risk of
exclusion ­ disabled people, refugees and immigrants, long-term
unemployed, lone parent families, homeless people, young unemployed,
disadvantaged elderly, disadvantaged families. Some countries extended the
list to include -people who are mentally ill, victims of domestic violence,
families where there is alcohol misuse, drug misusers, prostitutes and people
lacking social and cultural skills. NAPs did not mention groups at particular
risk of cultural exclusion. The case study research undertaken for this project
would suggest that the groups most seen as at risk if cultural exclusion are
those who are financially and socially disadvantaged, young people, disabled
people, immigrants and refugees.
4.3 The common lack of systematic connection or coherent policy between
Ministries at national levels has been noted in the course of this research.
Since `culture' - despite its importance in national identity and the growing
recognition of its role as an economic driver ­ frequently has a relatively low
political priority. The policies of the ministries of Culture still tend to start out
from the twin agendas of cultural (and heritage) institutions and their attendant
financial problems. This means that the human and social capital dimensions
5
are often missing or underrepresented in policy and priorities, particularly at
the national level.
4.4 In a number of the countries visited there were no cohesive programmes
at National level aimed at linking social inclusion with culture. However, all
countries were able to point to specific projects at local level that brought the
two agendas together
4.5 Limited funding and short-term targets and initiatives were perceived to
act as barriers to mainstream consideration of the role culture can play
tackling social exclusion. Where limited or reducing funding for public services
was taking place, priorities for social inclusion programmes concentrated on
whether current social welfare systems could be made sustainable.
Maintaining funding of health, social services and pensions was often a
priority sometimes alongside measures to reduce the take-up of benefits.
4.6 Most `high level' cultural policies are primarily directed at existing
institutions such as protecting heritage, art galleries, the performing arts,
libraries, museums and the general population rather than being targeted at
particular sections, although the tradition in the Nordic countries has on the
whole been more inclusive with regard to social provision and participation.
4.7 Crude monitoring programmes that concentrate on visitor or user
numbers may only disguise the lack of access to cultural services and
activities by those who are particularly disadvantaged. This may also have the
effect of misdirecting funds from projects that seek to work with excluded
groups to support the achievement of national participation targets.
4.8 Lack of awareness of the positive role culture can play in addressing
social exclusion seems to be more of a national than a local problem.
However local actors may be reliant upon resources from the Centre in order
to ensure progress and sustainability. The funding of particular initiatives may
also rely on formal time-limited protocols which may not be renewed, or
simply be overtaken by other immediate priorities before they can be
consolidated (e.g. drama work with young offenders in Italy).
4.9 Finance is often an important barrier and where a charge is incurred, for
example in museums or at sports clubs, socially excluded people may not be
able to access those services.
4.10 More emphasis needs to be placed on embracing cultural diversities.
The underlying approach of countries within the EU varies enormously. The
project team noted that in some countries a great deal of emphasis is placed
on providing language tuition for immigrants, refugees or asylum seekers to
facilitate integration into the host country. Whilst this is necessary to help
counteract exclusion it is also necessary to develop programmes to
encourage cultural diversity to flourish.
4.11 Recognition of the role that culture can play in attacking social exclusion
is being undermined by a lack of quantifiable evidence. The project team
6
would suggest that where European funding is used (such as URBAN, ESF,
GRUNTVIG) to support cultural projects that piloting of indicators to measure
the impact of the participation in cultural activities on social exclusion should
take place. (Appendix 3 ­ seminar report ­ suggests appropriate ways in
which this could be undertaken).
4.12 The project team saw many examples of local agencies working
together to address the multi-dimensional nature of social exclusion. This led
to a combination of programmes being available that included social
protection measures and access to health care and housing as well as
encouraging participation in local cultural projects, sports activities and
education, training and employment. Germany's Social City programme and
the United Kingdom's urban renewal programme provided good examples of
this.
4.13 Urban and rural regeneration programmes were often the vehicle for
bringing local agencies together to tackle social exclusion
4.14 A number of countries were developing initiatives to encourage the take
up of increased employment opportunities in the creative industries and the
tourism sector. European funding programmes such as ESF were frequently
imaginatively used to support increased training opportunities.
4.15 National policy should provide clear recognition of the role that
involvement in cultural activities can play in preventing and ameliorating social
exclusion.
4.16 Local agencies in all countries are aware of the importance of culture as
a means of building personal confidence, consolidating identity, preventing
social exclusion and providing routes for a number of people into employment
in both the creative industries and other sectors.
4.17 All countries included in the study were extending access to the internet
and were using libraries and other local community venues to provide access
to ICT facilities. This was often particularly important for elderly people who
were less likely than others to have access to a computer or the internet at
home, as well as a lack of technical competence to deal with new technology.
5. Recommendations
5.1 National policies including National Action Plans for inclusion need to
address the role that cultural policy and practices have in addressing the
needs of people who are socially excluded.
5.2 Stakeholders and groups contributing to the NAPs (incl) could be asked
their views about the importance of participation in cultural activities as a
means of reducing social exclusion.
7
5.3 Consideration needs to be given to mainstreaming support for cultural
activities where they are able to demonstrate that they have a positive impact
on reducing social exclusion.
5.4 Greater effort needs to be made to align the agendas of Ministries
responsible for culture with those that are responsible for social inclusion so
that policies can be developed and implemented that recognise and value the
contribution access to cultural services and activities can play in tackling
social exclusion.
5.5 Culture needs to be broadly defined; it goes further than the remit of
cultural policy (the arts, sports, media, theatre, museums, libraries) to
embrace opportunities to enhance the quality of life for everyone and to
provide access routes out of marginalisation and unemployment.
5.6 Education polices should provide an important mechanism in terms of
celebrating a variety of cultures and introducing children and young people to
a range of cultural services and activities.
5.7 Further information about the role culture can play in reducing social
exclusion and the support that is provided by the European Commission could
be gathered from a sample audit of the current European funding
programmes outlined in section four of this report.
5.8 The project team would suggest that where European funding is used
(such as URBAN, ESF, GRUNTVIG) to support cultural projects that piloting
of indicators to measure the impact of the participation in cultural activities on
social exclusion should take place.
8
Part 1
Section 1
The Scope of the Research
1.1 Introduction
The brief for this project set out key tasks for the project team as follows:
1. Identifying the ways in which poor access to and participation in cultural
activities can deepen and intensify poverty and social exclusion and
document which groups and individuals are particularly at risk of
inadequate services and why.
2. Identifying the different barriers that prevent those at risk of poverty and
social exclusion accessing cultural services and opportunities and
expressing their own cultural identity.
3. Documenting the contribution that increased access to and participation
in cultural activities can make to combating poverty and social exclusion
and increasing social inclusion, in particular through enhancing the
integration of those individuals and groups who are excluded in society
through contributing to the regeneration of disadvantaged communities
4. Analysing and drawing conclusions as to the different mix of cultural
policies and programmes which are necessary to:
(a) Increase the equality of access and remove barriers to
participation in cultural activities and programmes by those
experiencing poverty and social exclusion;
(b) Enhance the contribution that cultural activities and programmes
can make to combating poverty and social inclusion.
The findings recorded in this report are therefore structured around the
questions and themes outlined above supplemented by a review of policy and
academic literature in Europe relating to culture and social inclusion.
1.2 Methodology
In carrying out research for this report the project team undertook a literature
search of relevant social inclusion and culture material. This included local
and national government reports and policy documents as well as academic
texts.
The literature search was supplemented by a visit to eight case study
countries - Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden, United
Kingdom (some preparatory work also took place with The Netherlands).
Visits lasted between two and five days and were undertaken by two or three
members of the project team to reflect a range of appropriate expertise.
9
The visits enabled the project team to collect relevant documentation, to
interview staff in central government ministries and at the regional and local
tiers of government. The project team also visited specific localities and met
with local people and project workers in each country to gather examples of
projects that demonstrated best practice in terms of employing culture to
reduce or prevent social exclusion.
A review of relevant European funding programmes was also undertaken as
well as an analysis of current monitoring mechanisms.
The bid for this project stated that an additional seminar would be held in the
UK, funded from other sources, during the course of this project to consider
preliminary findings from the research. The report of this seminar is included
here and can be found in Appendix 5.
Part one of this report summarises the main findings of the project. Part two
provides detailed information about the case study countries.
1.3 The scope of the research
The scope of our research for the European Commission is potentially
massive, and the topic itself difficult. Furthermore the joint Social Policy and
Cultural Policy research team were aware from the very outset of the
mismatch between expectations, professional practice and available relevant
data in the two professional spheres. Even the relatively straightforward
literature search early on demonstrated a fundamental definitional problem.
At the local, regional, national and European levels there are widely differing
current understandings and interpretations around the key topic ­ with
`poverty', `social exclusion' and `social cohesion' sometimes being used
almost interchangeably, sometimes very precisely and rather differently. Both
at the national and local levels, the concept of social exclusion tends to be
related primarily to employment and related socio-economic factors, which of
course was our starting point deriving from the member states' NAPs which
largely mirror this. Nevertheless, there are clear signs of growing awareness
of the broader possibilities, for example in the UK model which now
recognises a positive role for culture in social inclusion and neighbourhood
renewal by improving the `performance' of communities through four key
indicators identified by government ­ health, crime, employment and
education.
The literature review did however reveal (see Atkinson and da Voudi, 2000) a
widespread understanding and acceptance of the multi-dimensional definition
of social exclusion. Such definitions accept that social exclusion is as much
about processes of exclusion as well as experiences and outcomes. It is seen
to embrace the following aspects:
the `excluded' consumer, lack of access to ICT / information society;
poverty;
exclusion from `social life', `cultural life' and `active citizenship';
10
health inequalities;
exclusion from employment opportunities and the labour market in
general;
homelessness,
geographical ­ covering all spatial scales
it can refer to an individual / micro-level or be a `community'1
focused
experience;
social exclusion is linked to issues of social solidarity and social or
`national' cohesion.
The Project Team employed this multi-faceted understanding of the concept
of social inclusion in carrying out research for this report. The use of a broad
definition of social exclusion was seen to be particularly helpful in enabling the
team to link with the range of understandings of social exclusion used in the
member states. It also allowed for an exploration into the nature of exclusion
from cultural life.
Mayes (2001) emphasises the multidimensional concept that is currently used
in Europe involving poverty, unemployment, disability, poor health, lack of
rights etc. In terms of this study the work of de Haan (1999) seems
particularly useful in defining social exclusion as `recurring patterns of social
relationships in which groups are denied access to goods, services and
resources that are associated with citizenship' as it allows for an
understanding of exclusion that goes beyond monetary exclusion to
encompass all aspects of citizenship.
This research project is then able to build upon the work of those arguing for a
recognition of the concept of `cultural citizenship' whereby satisfying cultural
needs is necessary for inclusion into the social community (Pakulski, 1997).
Stevenson (2001: 3) argues that the rights associated with cultural citizenship
should go beyond the rights of welfare protection and political representation
to encompass the right to enjoy a cultural identity or lifestyle. This would mean
acknowledging the potential cultural creativity within everyone and requiring a
cultural policy that fosters the social conditions to enable that creativity to
flourish. Turner (2001: 12) highlights the importance of participation in a
national culture as an aspect of citizenship but the changing nature of culture
within modern societies is also recognised. The complication he outlines is
that societies are no longer monocultural they will instead have diverse
cultural forms and membership. The exact nature of cultural citizenship is a
contested concept but for the purposes of this project the underlying premise
behind it in terms of promoting active participation in culture is important.
Bloomfield and Bianchini (2001: 108) draw on the work of Habermas to argue
that public authorities have a role to play in ensuring the effective participation
of citizens and this is likely to mean help for those who are poorly
1
Community is understood in its widest sense to cover ethnic groups, class and other socio-economic
groupings.
11
represented. They argue that cultural rights are an intrinsic aspect of the
equal opportunities agenda:
Cultural rights thus come to be orientated to equal opportunity to participate in the society
as a whole and to engage with the public culture, and, in the process transform it.
This implies having an understanding of citizenship that is active with the state
taking a role in assisting the participation of those citizens who would
otherwise find it difficult to do so.
12
Section 2
Addressing Culture in Social Inclusion Policy at European
Levels
2.1 European Union
European Union common policy objectives in relation to the `fight against
poverty and social exclusion' were finalised in October 2000 and were
adopted at the Nice European Council in December 2000. At the Nice Summit
the European Council adopted four key objectives for overcoming poverty and
social exclusion, one of which was `facilitating access to resources, rights,
goods and services for all'2
. These objectives formed the basis for the
development by member states of the first round of two-yearly National Action
Plans (2001-2003). These in turn contributed to the Joint Council /
Commission Report on Social Inclusion that was submitted to the Laeken
European Council in December 2001.
Member states agreed that action was needed in `facilitating access' to
excluded people in the field of culture and cultural activities. This objective
was reinforced following the publication of the `Draft Joint Report on Social
Inclusion' in October 2001, which stated that:
Access to and participation in cultural activity is a core part of human
existence. Such participation is important for fostering a positive sense
of identity and encouraging and stimulating creativity, self-expression
and self-confidence. Involvement in the arts and creative activity is thus
a very important tool in the activation and reintegration of those
individuals and groups who are most distant from the labour market
and who have the lowest levels of participation in society. Community
arts projects can also play an important role in the regeneration of local
communities and in the work of neighbourhood groups (p.47)3
.
The report also conducted an analysis of the contents of National government
Action Plans for Social Inclusion (NAP/incl). It found that these action plans do
not present coherent plans for fostering the participation of those who are
excluded in the creation of culture and in cultural activities' (p.47). Indeed the
report states that a major policy challenge facing member states is
guaranteeing access to quality services. In particular there are particular
problems facing some states in that: `... legal, cultural, sporting and
recreational dimensions remain undeveloped in many NAP/incl' (p.20).
2
The EU adopted four common objectives in total, the other three being ­ to prevent the risks of
exclusion; to help the most vulnerable; to mobilise all relevant bodies. European Commission, 2000:
Fight against poverty and social exclusion ­ definition of appropriate objectives'. Brussels: European
Commission.
3
COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES, 2001: COMMUNICATION FROM THE
COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE ECONOMIC AND
SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS, Draft Joint Report on Social
Inclusion, COM(2001) 565 final. Brussels: European Commission.
13
The report does not articulate a specific European level policy response to
social exclusion / inclusion, rather it confines itself to:
a review and analysis of member states' policies and actions in this
field;
urges greater co-operation and an `open method of co-ordination'
on social exclusion / inclusion;
the `mobilisation' of key actors;
the development of common indicators that `will allow policy
outcomes to be compared and which will contribute to the
identification of good practice' (p.8).
On the latter point, in October 2001 the EU through its Social Protection
Committee developed and agreed a list of eighteen comparable indicators for
social exclusion (see appendix one). However no specific indicator was
prescribed for `cultural exclusion'4
, suggesting that the primary focus of the
European Union's `anti-social exclusion agenda is on the traditional areas of
concern such as poverty, employment and housing.
The common objectives for addressing social exclusion were reviewed and
revised at the Employment, Social Policy, Health and Consumer Affairs
Council in December 2002. The existing common objectives agreed at Nice
were deemed to be still relevant and consequently no major changes to the
objectives were made. It was felt that the best way forward was to consolidate
and build on the progress that had been made since the Lisbon Summit in
March 20005
. These revised objectives are now being used to inform the
second round of National Action Plans (NAPs incl), which were submitted to
the EU in July 2003. When drawing up new NAPs (incl) the Social Policy
Committee recommended that member states ensure `a better integration of
areas such as health and culture with other policy domains'6
. In turn these
revised objectives will underpin the publication of a new Joint Report on
Social Exclusion in time for the Spring European Council of 2004. This
European-wide co-operation on social exclusion is supported by the new a
five-year 75 million social exclusion programme agreed between European
Council, the Parliament and the Commission.
It is also worth noting at this point that guidance issued in the form of
`Objectives for the fight against poverty and social exclusion' set a framework
for the structure and content of NAPs (incl). This specifically draws attention in
section 1.2 (d) to the role that services, including culture, can play in
alleviating the risk of exclusion
4
Council of the EU, Social Protection Committee, 2001: Report on indicators in the field of poverty
and social inclusion. Brussels: EU.
5
Council of the EU, Social Protection Committee, 2002: Fight against poverty and social exclusion:
common objectives for the second round of National Action Plans ­ Endorsement, REV 1, SOC 508.
Brussels: EU.
6
Council of the EU, Social Protection Committee, 2002: COMMON OUTLINE FOR THE 2003/2005
NAPs/inclusion. Brussels: EU.
14
To develop, for the benefit of people at risk of exclusion, services and
accompanying measures which will allow them effective access to
education, justice and other public and private services, such as
culture, sport and leisure.
So far as any explicit cultural function of the European Union is concerned,
this is legitimated but somewhat restricted in its policy and operational
potential by the Treaty of Rome Article 151. Clause 4 of the article states:
`The Union shall take cultural aspects into account in its action under
other provisions of the Constitution, in particular in order to respect and
to promote the diversity of its cultures.'
Whilst this does offer the relevant Directorate General some competence to
try to influence policy elsewhere within the European Commission this has
tended to be rather limited. The Article is preserved more or less intact in the
new draft treaty (Article III ­ 118), which looks set to restrict future actions to
`cooperation and supportive' measures only.
2.2 Council of Europe
The Council of Europe (COE) documentation does to a degree highlight the
importance of the role that culture or cultural policy can play in addressing
social exclusion. Current COE policy is based on a policy of `social cohesion',
a concept that `includes values and principles which aim to ensure that all
citizens, without discrimination and on an equal footing, have access to
fundamental social and economic rights'7
. This concept is seen as a means to
promote the principle of a `Europe of social rights', which are seen as
equivalent to fundamental human rights. According to the COE there should
be a `social right of access' for every European citizen covering five key areas
of policy:
Health - stressing prevention and ensuring universal cover;
Housing - building more homes, setting up better emergency
responses and taking alternative lifestyles into account;
Employment - ensuring equal opportunities, workable job creation
schemes and a fair share-out of existing work;
Social protection - changing social security systems to fit the times and
turning social workers into `human rights mediators';
Education - combating school failure by acknowledging psychological
and social hurdles and promoting life long civic education.
Interestingly there is not any specific social right of access to cultural
resources and services or inclusion in `cultural life'. The COE approach to
social exclusion does not appear to make direct linkages to cultural policy as
a means to achieve social inclusion and promote social cohesion. However
indirect linkages are made between culture and social exclusion are alluded to
7
Council of Europe, 2001: Trends in social cohesion, No.1 ­ Promoting the policy debate on social
cohesion from a comparative perspective. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
15
by the COE8
, in respect to `cultural barriers' (e.g. linguistic, socio-economic,
religious, racial or ethnic) that prevent individuals and / or communities fully
participating in social life and society.
However, the Council of Europe makes a practical ongoing contribution to
assessing the role of cultural policy in addressing social exclusion through its
`national cultural policy review programme', which evaluates current
developments in cultural policy of member states. The programme considers
issues such as cultural diversity and interdepartmental cooperation, creativity,
identity and most importantly in respect to this research project, `participation
in cultural life'.
Research
The COE has produced a number of documents and strategies sometimes
the result of extended action-research projects. These include:
- `The Human Dignity and Social Exclusion Project' run from 1994-98.
- `Strategy for Social Cohesion', launched in May 2000.
- `Access to social rights in Europe' report (for the European Committee for
Social Cohesion).
- Council of Europe's national cultural policy review programme. There is a
website (found at: http://www.culturalpolicies.net/), which includes reviews
and profiles of 28 countries.
- The Council of Europe also publishes an electronic newsletter `Social
cohesion developments' three times a year. It provides information for the
interested public about the progress made and the activities carried out in the
field of social cohesion. A special issue of the newsletter is planned once a
year to offer an in-depth analysis of a specific aspect of social cohesion.
Links to other European organisations
The COE has a number of links and relationships to other European
organisations in the fields of cultural and social exclusion policy. These
include: member governments; regional and local authorities; the European
Union; research bodies / think tanks such as Cultural Information and
Research Centres Liaison in Europe (CIRCLE), the European Cultural
Foundation9
, European Research Institute for Comparative Cultural Policy
and the Arts (ERICarts)10
.
8
Council of Europe: The human dignity and social exclusion project, final report.
http://www.social.coe.int/en/cohesion/strategy/discuss/HDSE/chapter1.htm. Date accessed 23/01/03.
9
The European Cultural Foundation was founded in 1954 by Denis de Rougemont whose aim was to
add a human dimension to the economic, technical and legal initiatives of the new Europe to create: `a
Europe of the spirit and of the heart'. The statutes of the ECF state: `The Foundation shall have as its
aims to promote cultural and educational activities and research of a multinational nature and of a
European character'. It is based in the Netherlands.
10
Website can be found at: http://www.ericarts.org/.
16
Section 3
European Cultural Policy
3.1 Cultural Policy in Europe
The European Parliament adopted a Resolution in September 2001 on
Cultural Co-operation stressing the importance of "cultural exchange and co-
operation substantially contributing to Europe's capacity for integration and
cohesion." The European Union under the new European Convention will not
obtain the legal competence to pursue a `European' cultural policy as such but
will continue to use the key enabling text in the Treaty of Rome's Cultural
Article 151(4):
"The Community shall take cultural aspects into account in its actions
under other provisions of this Treaty"
as a means of developing community programmes with a cultural dimension.
The Ruffolo Report
In November 2001, the Parliamentary Group of the PSE, European
Parliament released a publication `The Unity of Diversities: Cultural Co-
operation in the European Union'. This report, otherwise known as the
"Ruffolo Report", published the EP Resolution on cultural co-operation in the
European Union (2000/2323 (INI)), which recommended, among other things
to set up `a European Observatory to monitor cultural co-operation, with the
aim of promoting the exchange of information and co-ordination between the
cultural policies of the Member States and Community cultural policy' (excerpt
from Article 10)
3.2 European Cultural Policy Background
Debate and analysis concerning cultural policy within Europe following the
end of the Second World War tends to assume a broad trend of increasing
`welfare state' support for over forty years (epitomised by André Malraux's ten
year reign as Minister of Cultural Affairs of the Fifth French Republic from
1958) punctuated from time to time by governments that challenged an ever
increasing rise in public involvement.
European temporal and spiritual rulers have always understood the value of
state investment in culture, but it was probably not until the spread of social
idealism which followed the end of the Second World War (if we ignore the
benevolent self-interest and political ambitions of certain Nineteenth century
industrialists with mayoral aspirations in their own cities) that politicians and
strategists in the West began seriously to consider the potential role of culture
as a contributor to stable democratic society, and to social (as opposed to
`state') policy.
17
Europe ­ at the risk of considerable over-simplification ­ has encompassed
three definable threads in the development of post-war cultural policy. First,
was the Soviet use of cultural policy as an ideological tool and engine for
social control in Central and Eastern Europe. Second, was the `Malraux'
model of building up cultural institutions, and creating them where they were
lacking, allied to what is often described as `democratising' culture. Third was
the `cultural democracy' strand, regarded with suspicion by some as counter-
cultural, since it focused on the unrealised creative potential of the individual
(and communities), on human rights and cultural rights, rather than on an
inherited corpus of `Great Art' requiring paternalistic interpretation and
`democratisation' for the benefit of the masses. These latter two approaches
are not, of course, mutually exclusive ­ but they were often competing on a
very uneven playing field for a share of the same government resources,
which often made for strange alliances and polarisations. One might add a
fourth thread, which has actually evolved from the previous two. This is the
gradual convergence ­ particularly over the past ten years ­ of `national'
policy systems and those of the international agencies around certain key
principles, a development which has largely been driven by economic
stringency and political upheavals. Because of the context, this is beginning
to have some policy impact through bringing about a rapprochement between
`culture' and `society', or at least putting the question much higher up the
political agenda.
3.3 The Council of Europe and Evolving Professional Attitudes
The lively and important cultural policy debate `whose culture?' goes back well
over thirty-five years within Western Europe. The growth around Europe,
from the late 1960s onwards, of the movement which came to be identified by
the French term animation socio-culturelle, soziokultur in German (see section
9) and community arts in English, led to a degree of spontaneous networking
across land and political boundaries involving like-minded activists. In
response to this the Council of Europe instituted a number of action research
programmes and pilot projects which documented what was happening and
disseminated good and emerging practice. Much of this research, as it
happens, was led by British academic sociologists and urban planners ­ who
were completely ignored by the cultural establishment and public funding
system in the UK which regarded this whole movement (slogan `process not
product') with scepticism.
Over this period, activists working from a cultural base who shared similar
beliefs and vision were, in their own countries, coming together to draw up
manifestoes and attempting to change to `official' attitudes, often with growing
support from local authorities. Many local authorities, with social and political
concerns closer to the ground, were already embracing some of these
agendas, but were hampered through the fact that in Britain, central
government's redistributive formula for funding local government cultural
services only recognises library provision as a statutory legal duty with money
earmarked accordingly. Any other `cultural' policy or programme is in
18
competition for funding from discretionary allocations with more powerful
educational, social and environmental lobbies.
As a sign of positive change in attitudes, one can cite the growing willingness
of the cultural sector and local and regional authorities in EU member states
to accept a more holistic view of the role of cultural policy and action.
3.4 Cultural policy research
Cultural policy research in the countries of Europe is still very much driven by
accumulated national practice. In some cases (with France and Sweden as
the shining examples of a significant and long-standing professional
investment) this is intelligently linked to the public policy development and
evaluation systems. Elsewhere, it can virtually be an abstracted area of
academic enquiry, feeling free to analyse and comment upon what is
happening in the public arena, but with no real expectation or chance of
influencing it. In Italy cultural research is a substantial and recognised sector,
largely operating in independent institutes, or in `Cultural Observatories' -
NGOs heavily supported by local and regional government, and often by
private foundations. Finland has recently established this important national
function in an independent agency, but which has close university and
Ministry links. In the Netherlands and UK there is a mixture of NGO,
foundation and government or quasi-governmental research capacity,
alongside independent academic units living within an extremely competitive
culture which can make sharing and co-operation difficult.
Post 1989, the inherited traditions of serious cultural research and analysis in
the new democracies of Eastern, Central and South East Europe have been
evolving on a variety of different models. At `European' level, CIRCLE , is a
live network of individuals and institutions concerned with research into
cultural policy, which has this year mounted its sixteenth annual Round Table
in Zagreb.
It is perhaps ironic that whilst, as an obvious consequence of the post-Soviet
emphasis on democracy and individual rights, much of the debate in Central
and Eastern Europe about cultural policy (apart from the crisis in institutions
because of lack of money) focuses on participation and empowerment
(equivalent to the old `Western' community arts agendas), governments in the
current EU are tending to move culture higher up on the political agenda, but
for economic development and social control reasons. Culture is perhaps
therefore finding its rightful place again as a contributory agent for change and
improvement within a broader spectrum of social policies, but is almost
invariably there for `instrumental' rather than intrinsic reasons, and is rarely
the dominant partner. For many within established cultural institutions, who
may wish to play their part in this process in a broader range of social
settings, it is frequently difficult for them to argue a convincing case to the
doubters about what precisely the artistic justification or `value added' is.
19
It is clear from all the evidence that cultural participation can have a directly
beneficial effect on the individual and communities, and therefore an indirect
one on the whole of society (see Stevenson, 2001; Ilczuk, 2001). The intrinsic
and extrinsic factors at work in this are by no means mutually exclusive.
Building our own critical understanding of the world, and sharing and
understanding positive values has to assist the causes of freedom and
democracy in the reunified Europe of the twenty-first century. However, and
as a counter to some of the simplistic assumptions sometimes made by
lobbyists concerning culture as if it is invariably of positive value, we also
need to be conscious that culture, in its way, was one of the shapers of group
identities in the former Yugoslavia. But to end this section on a positive note,
the social role of culture can often be a starting point for a genuine change in
attitudes at institutional and political levels. It can also lead to greater self
fulfilment of the individual.
3.5 Improved Acknowledgment of Broader Agendas
At the heart of the community arts literature is a recognition that a change in
political and institutional attitude to cultural inclusion was long overdue. It is
indeed ironic that today many `official' cultural systems still seem to operate
as agents which continue unwittingly to generate exclusion, even if they are
not actively aware of this. Social exclusion is not only a problem for its victims
­ but for the whole of society which is affected by the consequences.
Consciousness of one's own roots and identity is a first sep towards
recognising, appreciating and respecting the culture and traditions of others.
The Council of Europe, once again, was surely right to point out in 1998 that
fighting social exclusion through participation in cultural activities and an
improved knowledge of heritage can at the same time be an effective means
of continuing the struggle against intolerance, racism and xenophobia, and
the European Commission is showing wisdom in pressing the case for cultural
factors to be taken more into account in the drafting of the National Action
Plans for social inclusion.
`In from the Margins', the Council of Europe's detailed regional contribution to
UNESCO's World Commission on Culture and Development (1998) has much
to say about culture and ex/inclusion. One pertinent example:
It is to Europe's shame that the resources and talents of so many of its
citizens are not fully utilised: the growing band of elderly people; adults in
their forties and fifties who are made redundant and may never work
again; those facing social exclusion through disability, race, faith, gender
or poverty; those in institutional care (for example in hospitals) or in
custody (for example in prisons or reform centres); and, above all, young
people...
A culture of ignorance all too often excludes whole sections of the
community from cultural policies and the opportunity to contribute to the
cultural development of our societies. The denial of opportunity
impoverishes us all. It should be countered by the adoption of policies of
inclusion. A key priority for the future should be to identify and
20
disseminate good practice as it occurs... The time has come for a new
social ethic to be established which would oblige cultural organisations, as
part of their conditions of subsidy, to adopt policies and codes of practice
aimed at eliminating exclusion, extending cultural democracy and
participation, and promoting equal opportunities for all.
21
Section 4
Using European funding streams to promote culture and
inclusion
4.1 European programmes
One of the key outcomes of the research undertaken by this project was an
identification of the importance that European programmes and funding
streams play in supporting local or regional initiatives that bring culture and
social inclusion agendas together. The use of such programmes varied from
country to country depending on the exact nature of issues being tackled. The
section below highlights those programmes that were consistently mentioned
along with some examples of how they were being used. More detail is
provided in the case study profiles in part 2 of this report.
It should be noted that it extremely difficult to ascertain on an individual
programme basis the precise expenditure levels on culture and to identify
those aspects of culture expenditure that have specific relevance to the social
inclusion. In fact few programmes are primarily devoted to developing
linkages between culture and social inclusion and directly supporting this
policy agenda. Indeed funding and support for culture and social inclusion is
often an indirect by-product of projects and programmes designed to address
other priorities.
4.2 Structural Funds
The development of cultural activity is not in itself an aim of the Structural
Funds. Their aim is regional development and cohesion, using various means.
Cultural and tourist activity represents one of these means, although without it
having a specific place allotted to it.
The various Community operations in the field of culture pursue different
objectives. While Structural Funds focus on regional development, the Culture
2000 programme - the main financial instrument for direct support for cultural
activity developed by the Directorate-General for Education and Culture -
encourages multilateral cultural cooperation in Europe. The aim of operations
is also very different: for the Structural Funds, the main aim is funding for
cultural infrastructure or for heritage conservation; while in the case of the
Culture 2000 programme the accent is on collaboration on a common project
between players in the cultural life of a number of European countries. It is
therefore about supporting cultural cooperation measures, which may take
very different forms. This dimension of cooperation is almost completely
absent from projects funded by the Structural Funds except, up to a point,
those funded by Interreg.
Structural Funds are the funding mechanism employed by the EU to
encourage the development of disadvantaged regions and to promote social
22
and human development. Structural Funds have been allocated a budget of
195 billion for the period 2000-06. Member States have allocated large sums
of money from Structural Funds to support culture and cultural activities in the
Union. In the main it is the southern EU countries and France that have been
most inclined towards funding culture through Structural Funds. Structural
Funds are not distributed equally but concentrated on three objective areas:
Objective 1, Objective 2 and Objective 3. Objective 1 is concerned with
peripheral and underdeveloped or depressed regions of the EU. Objective 2
areas are those undergoing `structural change'. Objective 3 is concerned with
the rest of the EU, in other words the non-Objective 1 and 2 areas, and is
focused on supporting training and re-training the unemployed. A number of
mechanisms are used to distribute funds:
ˇ Operational Programmes that account for over 90% of the funds;
ˇ community initiatives and programmes (Interreg III, Urban II, Leader+ and
Equal);
ˇ `innovative actions' funded through Article 22 of the ERDF;
ˇ aid programmes (PHARE, IPSA and SAPARD) to the Candidate States.
Projects in Objectives 1 and 2 eligible areas, which receive European
Regional Development Fund, the European Social Fund (ESF), the European
Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund (EAGGF), often have a cultural
dimension to them. For example, restoring and developing architectural and
cultural heritage, building cultural facilities, setting up cultural and tourist
services or providing training in the arts or in the management of cultural
activities. The EU's approach to culture emphasizes the links to regional
development and to notions of economic and social cohesion. However,
under present EU regulations, cultural activities are only eligible for funding by
Structural Funds if they are integrated into regional or local development
initiatives. In practice this means that cultural activities must contribute to
sustainable employment and form an integral part of local or regional
development strategies.
Funding for Objective 3 comes from ESF but not from ERDF. Objective 3 is
`thematic' being concerned with targeting specific social groupings where
there is need such as lone parents, young people, older workers, ethnic
minorities, ex-offenders etc, rather than geographical areas as is the case
under Objective 1 and 2.
A good example can be found in Kolding, Denmark, where a group of young
people excluded from the labour market transformed a former Russian
submarine into a tourist attraction. The project encompassed a number of
themes including culture, social integration, training and tourism. It received
support from municipal authorities with assistance from the ESF (Objective 3).
The project sought to combine practical and theoretical experience. After a
basic course (history, languages, working as tourist guide) the participants
could choose from a number of training courses (electronics, marketing, metal
working) and practical work (publishing, communications, setting up a
submarine museum etc.). During the first three years 110 people participated
and 69 of them found work or are attending training courses.
23
Overall it has been estimated that 5-10% of Structural Fund monies are
allocated to the cultural sector (EFAH, 200211
). As this project has shown,
from one Member State to another the cultural projects supported by the
Structural Funds vary in terms of the type and size of projects and the
amounts of funding they receive. This shows that the Member States make
very different choices as to the use of the Structural Funds.
Examples of Operational Programmes
i) Southern Finland
Under this Objective 2 Programme, Priority 3 `development of sub-regions,
urban areas, and attractiveness of the local communities' aims to improve the
living and social environment of the region and to expand tourism by
promoting the natural environment and the strong cultural identity of the
region. Some transport infrastructure, environment and logistics projects will
be launched to improve economic and living conditions as well as to provide
better access to the region.
Total cost of the project is 994,121 million with the EU contributing 218,289
million. Priority 3 funding amounts to a total of 246,631 million, with the EU
providing 78,801 million.
ii) Bourgogne Region, France
Priority 3 of this Objective 2 Programme aims to `compensate for the
handicaps of urban areas in difficulty'. Planned actions will seek to solve
recurrent problems in urban areas eligible for Objective 2 support in relation
to: a rundown and non-adapted environment, precariousness and social
exclusion, and a lack of involvement by local people in community life.
Improved social cohesion will be the common denominator of all the planned
measures. Access to services, in particular those relating to the new
information technologies, culture and leisure activities, will also be
encouraged.
Total cost is 753,488 million of which 233,672 million is provided by the EU.
Priority 3 funding amounts to 105,556 million with the EU providing 47,929
million.
iii) Greece
The Competitiveness Objective 1 Programme has as its priority 5 the
`upgrading, diversifying and promoting Greek tourism'. A central objective of
this programme is the diversification, the upgrading and the promotion of
Greek tourism, along with monitoring and the redirection and development of
tourism and reinforcement of competitiveness through the use of the
`Information Society' and the development of innovation.
11
European Forum for the Arts and Heritage (EFAH) (2002) Structural Funds, Enlargement and the
Culture Sector. EFAH General Assembly, November-December, Ljubljana.
24
Total cost is 1,976 million of which 1,826 million is provided by the EU.
Priority 5 funding amounts to 208,752 million of which 73,817 million is
provided by the EU.
iv) Greece
The Culture Operational Programme, Objective 1 has as its Priority 1 `the
protection and development of Greece's cultural heritage'. This priority
includes measures to improve museum infrastructure and the services they
offer and to safeguard and promote archaeological monuments and sites.
Culture is Greece's most important asset, which can and does contribute
enormously towards the country's economic and social development.
Priority 2 `the development of Greece's modern culture' seeks to strengthen
supply and demand for cultural goods and services. Improving infrastructures
and the relevant institutions will further develop modern-day culture in Greece.
Priority 3 is `technical assistance' in order to implement the programme.
Total cost of the programme is 604,900 million with EU Structural Funds
contributing 414,300 million.
v) Italy
The Regional Operational Programme for Sicily has as its priority 2 `cultural
resources enhancement of the region's cultural resources as a factor
contributing to its economic and social development (actions to promote the
artistic and archaeological heritage and support for companies providing
cultural services)'.
Total cost of the programme is 9,415 million of which 3,857 million is
provided by EU Structural Funds. Priority 2 funding amounts to 1,098 million
with 447,900 million coming from the EU.
vi) Portugal
The European Union co-finances Portugal's Culture Operational programme.
The programme falls within the 3rd
Portuguese Community Support
Framework and focuses on reinforcing culture as a source of development
and employment and promoting equal access to culture.
Priority 1, `developing historical and cultural heritage'. This priority will fund
measures aiming at salvaging and rehabilitating buildings classified historical
heritage sites, as well as revitalising the country's major museums. These
measures will include funding for the work needed to the buildings and the
construction or adaptation of existing tourist facilities.
Priority 2, `fostering better access to cultural sites and activities'. These
measures include the construction and adapting of cultural facilities and
promoting of cultural activities. In order to bring culture closer to the people
and to society, special emphasis will be put on the dissemination of cultural
information using new information technologies.
25
Total cost of the programme is 327,467 million with 237,278 million
provided by EU Structural Funds. Priority 1 funding is 261,017 million with
187,440 million coming from the EU. Priority 2 funding amounts to 66,450
million with the EU providing 49,838 million.
vii) Catalonia, Spain
The Catalonia Objective 2 Programme has as its priority 5 the `local and
urban development'. Community assistance will be used to restore and
improve urban areas and to promote and support local development
initiatives. Specific measures are planned for tourist and cultural
infrastructure, alongside the conservation and restoration of the historic,
artistic and cultural heritage. In the social sphere, measures will focus on
infrastructure and facilities, as well as the building and equipping of vocational
training centres and local development agencies. Job-creating local initiatives
will also be given support.
Total cost of the programme is 2,651 million with 1,235 million coming from
EU Structural Funds. Priority 5 amounts to 385,453 million, the EU providing
192,726 million.
viii) Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly, UK
This Objective 1 Programme has as its priority 5 `regional distinctiveness'.
This priority seeks to harness the benefits from the arts, cultural and heritage
industries to develop new, sustainable opportunities for growth and so
increase economic and employment benefits. Some of the area's strong
points include a strong cultural heritage and abundance of conservation
areas. These can be capitalised on in business and employment generation
projects, rather than concentrating on declining industries in the region.
Total cost of the programme is 1,180 million with the EU providing 497,844
million. Priority 5 funding amounts to 194,967 million with 101,967 million
coming from the EU.
In some cases it is obvious which Operational Programmes support culture.
However, in many other cases Operational Programme support for culture is
less obvious. Support for culture and the cultural sector often can be a
component in a range of sectors such as sustainability, development of ICT,
environmental improvement, tourism, urban renewal, combating
unemployment, combating social deprivation and worker mobility (EFAH,
2002).
4.21 Interreg III, Urban II, Leader+ and Equal
These four Community Programmes constitute around 5.35% of Structural
Funds. Generally, they have a very strong bias towards funding projects that
relate to heritage such as restoration and conservation schemes that are
intended to renovate a historic building or site and to put it back into modern
use. Examples include creating culture centres and developing buildings and
sites as tourist attractions.
26
While opportunities for the culture sector to access funding are possible with
these programmes, it is often conditional depending on the nature of the
individual development plans to be funded. Applications for funding to these
programmes can only be made via local or regional authorities, thus
preventing the culture sector from making direct applications. Therefore
cultural organisations need to approach their local and regional authorities to
ensure that culture or a cultural dimension is included. If this is done cultural
organisations are able to access funds from the approved development plans
(EFAH, 2002).
4.22 URBAN II programme initiatives12
Urban II is the Community initiative of the European Regional Development
Fund (ERDF) for sustainable development in the troubled urban districts of
the European Union. As a follow-up to Urban I in 1994-99, Urban II aims more
precisely to promote the design and implementation of innovative models of
development for the economic and social regeneration of troubled urban
areas. It will also strengthen information and experience-sharing on
sustainable urban development in the European Union.
The URBAN II initiative, alongside the INTERREG cross-border cooperation
programme, the LEADER+ rural development programme and EQUAL,
together are designed to address all forms of discrimination and inequalities in
the labour market. URBAN II began in 2000 and runs until 2006. There are
currently 70 URBAN II programmes across the EU, covering areas containing
some 2.2 million people. In addition, there is the URBACT programme that
supports a European Network for Exchange of Experience.
On average, each programme targets 27,000 people with populations range
considerably from 8,000 in Bari, Italy to 130,000 in Vienna, Austria. The
geographical area covered is on average 5.8km. The programme includes
inner-city areas (43%), historic city centres (20%) and peripheral areas (33%).
Funding packages are developed based on urban regeneration strategies
drawn up by local authorities, in association with a local partnership including
social partners, NGOs, residents groups and others. The ERDF contribution
to URBAN II is 730 million and the total investment amounts to some 1,600
million. Funding may be granted for up to 75% of the total cost in Objective 1
regions and up to 50% in other regions. Loans may also be made available
via the European Investment Bank (EIB).
Funding for culture can be found in relation to four broad areas (EFAH, 2002:
no page numbers):
ˇ "Supporting modern/contemporary culture by giving funds to improve
cultural infrastructure, particularly in renovating venues for artistic
performance.
ˇ Support to arts projects that strengthen social cohesion and which focus
on young people and on equal opportunities.
12
Some of this information can be found at: www.bton.ac.uk/urban/urban.htm.
27
ˇ Arts projects that help overcome linguistic or racial barriers.
ˇ Support to arts and crafts SMEs."
URBAN II in practice - examples in Member States
The list below contains examples of projects that have a cultural component.
i) Leipzig, Germany
The overall objective of the action priorities is to strengthen prosperity,
employment and competitiveness, to promote equal opportunities and social
integration, to strengthen identification with the urban sector and to give new
life to the cultural and historical heritage. Priority 3 `social, cultural and leisure
infrastructures' will seek to preserve cultural facilities as a local advantage.
Support will be given to facilities where people can come together and also
receive care provision, to leisure facilities and meeting-places, to laying out
green areas and other open areas and also to the restoration of buildings of
historical value.
Total cost of the project is 19,827 million, with the EU contributing 14,870
million.
ii) Kassel, Germany
This project has four priorities, two of which have a cultural dimension. Priority
1 `economic development' aims to ensure through innovative and urban
architectural boost projects and dialogue-oriented planning concepts, new
developments in the residential area will be secured and promoted and jobs
will be created in small and micro enterprises. These projects partially
continue the Culture Station (Kulturbahnhof) that gives a cultural boost to
economic activity. Constitutive parts of these measures are planning concepts
for abandoned port and brewery plant and urban architectural upgrading of
urban district centres and industrial areas.
Priority 2 `improvement of infrastructures in the fields of social services,
health, sport and culture' - by strengthening the social and cultural
infrastructure the region will be made more attractive and intact
neighbourhoods will be created or promoted. Support is available for
collaboration with local schools, for crches and youth centres, for the
improvement of playgrounds and sports facilities, as well as for counselling
centres and health equipment for prostitutes addicted to drugs. Efforts will be
made to find new uses for protected historical buildings.
Total cost of the project amounts to 42,049 million, with the EU contributing
9,913 million.
iii) Bastia, France
Priority 1, `quality of life and urban environment'. The aim is to initiate social
and urban renewal in the two areas concerned (the southern parts of the town
and the historical centre) to make them more attractive. Buildings will be
renovated in keeping with the architectural heritage. Recreational areas and
squares will be built, as well as car parks, to attract tourists.
28
Priority 2, `revitalisation and promotion of economic activity'. Support will be
provided for traditional economic activity and for the development of new
technologies. The base of businesses and craft activities will be strengthened,
particularly through training. Start-up assistance will be provided for
entrepreneurs operating in Bastia. A high-speed optical-fibre communication
network will also be built.
Priority 3, `equality of opportunity and integration'. A `heart of the city' will be
developed, the goal being to create social ties between inhabitants by building
a cultural centre and easily accessible facilities. Support will be provided for
organisations promoting literacy and social integration, as a means of
encouraging employment. Public transport will also be improved to make
neighbourhoods more outward looking.
Total cost of the programme amounts to 31,045 million with the EU
contributing 11,813 million.
iv) Grenoble, France
This URBAN II programme has as its priority 1 the `transforming the urban
area by creating hubs'. Effort will focus on creating hubs in the different
neighbourhoods, tapping the potential of the resources specific to each,
cultural or commercial resources, etc. The purpose is to change the image of
the neighbourhoods and create sustainable jobs. Measures are also planned
to facilitate access to employment for the less favoured population.
Total cost of the programme amounts to 26,296 million with the EU
contributing 9,660 million.
4.23 INTERREG III
INTERREG III is a Community initiative that aims to stimulate trans-european
cooperation in the EU (cross-border, trans-national and inter-regional co-
operation). It is financed under the European Regional Development Fund
(ERDF). The budget for this initiative amounts to 4,875 million (at 1999
prices) over the period 2000-2006.
The initiative is composed of three different strands, which have different
objectives (A, B, C and other programmes):
ˇ Strand A: covers cross-border cooperation between adjacent regions
aims to develop cross-border social and economic centres through
common development strategies.
ˇ Strand B: covers trans-national cooperation involving national, regional
and local authorities, which aims to promote better integration within the
EU through the formation of large groups of European regions.
ˇ Strand C: interregional cooperation, aims to improve the effectiveness of
regional development policies and instruments through large-scale
information exchange and sharing of experience (networks). There are
other programmes under Article 53 of the guidelines, these are ESPON
and INTERACT.
29
The range of projects eligible for support is wide and includes for example:
social inclusion; promoting cross-border urban development; the protection of
the environment; promoting renewable sources of energy; improving transport
(particularly environmentally-friendly modes); co-operation among cities;
spatial development strategies; efficient and sustainable transport systems;
capacity building of local and regional development structures; protection and
restoration of the environment.
Most of the supported plans fall under Interreg IIIa, of which the majority have
a cultural dimension (in 2002 there were 53 projects in total). This cultural
dimension varies in importance from project to project. Projects that have a
strong cultural component include (EFAH, 2002: no page numbers):
ˇ "Cross-border co-operation for cultural exchanges and activities. This is
the most common form in which the culture sector is benefiting.
ˇ Safeguarding the cultural and also the natural heritage through
conservation and restoration schemes.
ˇ Managing the cultural and natural heritage better for economic purposes
like tourism and to make the border regions more attractive to outside
investors. Supporting schemes that overcome linguistic barriers.
ˇ Supporting SMEs involved in the arts and crafts".
Examples of programmes
i) Italy and Austria
The prime objective of this INTERREG IIIa programme is to strengthen cross-
border co-operation on the economic, cultural and institutional levels in favour
of the border areas between Italy and Austria. In particular, the programme
will strive to resolve difficulties that have often hampered the potential of these
mostly mountainous border areas of Friuli, Veneto and the Province of
Bolzano (Bozen) in Italy and the Länder of Carinthia, Salzburg and Tyrol in
Austria.
Priority 3, `human resources, co-operation in the sectors of: the labour market,
culture, research and health, harmonisation of systems'. This priority involves
adopting measures to promote human resources lest transformation of border
assets increase unemployment. This priority also plans to define problems
produced by the difference in languages, administrative, legal and social
systems, culture, communication, health and public security.
Total cost of the project is 70,421 million with the EU contributing 33,627
million. Priority 3 funding amounts to 10,017 million with the EU providing
4,887 million.
ii) Austria, Germany, Switzerland and Liechtenstein - Alpenrhein-Bodensee-
Hochrhein
The INTERREG IIIa programme revolves around four economic development
priorities. Priority 3 is aimed at `social and cultural development'. The aim of
this priority is to create the (mental) bases for a cross-border growing together
in these partial regions, which are individually all well equipped with social and
30
cultural facilities. Efforts will be made to achieve co-operation in the fields of
schooling and vocational training, social affairs, health and culture. Support
will be given to projects organised according to the `self-help' principle,
exchange programmes between associations and projects concerning
regional history aimed at strengthening a regional identity.
Total cost of the project is 36,240 million with 17,479 million coming from
the EU. Priority 3 amounts to 9,439 million with 4,719 million provided by
the EU.
iii) Ems-Dollart Region, Germany-Netherlands
This is an INTERREG IIIa programme that aims to develop the transport and
technology infrastructures. Priority 5, seeks to `promote social integration'.
This priority has two strands. The first provides for project-oriented
collaboration in the field of health (collaboration between hospitals with
innovative approaches such as tele-medicine and tele-diagnosis) and for
cross-border collaboration between public utilities in charge of public order
and security. The other strand involves supporting projects and measures to
promote equal opportunities and cross-border social and cultural exchange.
To this end an (people to people) umbrella project will be set up.
Total funding amounts to 86,753 million with the EU contributing 35,449
million. Priority 5 amounts to 6,976 million, with the EU providing 3,488
million.
4.24 EQUAL
Funded by the European Social Fund, EQUAL provides a basis for
experimenting with new approaches to fighting the discrimination and
inequalities, facing employed people and jobseekers alike. EQUAL forms part
of the strategy adopted by the European Union to create more and better
quality jobs and ensure that nobody is denied access to them. EQUAL also
supports the European inclusion and anti-discrimination strategies but only for
aspects linked to the labour market. In effect EQUAL is a `human
development initiative' that provides funds for projects that build on personal
skills and deliver training and seek to tackle issues around unemployment and
employability.
The key principles of EQUAL are:
ˇ Partnership - to bring key players together in Development
Partnerships (DPs), at geographical or sectoral levels, to tackle
discrimination and inequality.
ˇ The thematic approach - to focus actions on thematic fields, in
keeping with the European Employment Strategy.
ˇ Innovation - to explore and test innovative approaches to employment
and training policies, in terms of objectives pursued, methods used or
implementing systems.
ˇ Empowerment (active participation) - to strengthen the capacity of all
players concerned, including beneficiaries, to take action by bringing
them together on an equal footing.
31
ˇ Transnationality - to make it possible for individual DPs and the
national authorities to learn from each other and cooperate
productively across borders.
ˇ Dissemination and mainstreaming - to develop and test new ways of
integrating best practices into employment and social inclusion
policies.
ˇ Any practice in the field of employment and training which adopts an
innovative approach to combating the problems of inequality and
discrimination faced by certain target groups.
The European Union's contribution to the initiative amounts to 3,026 million
for the period 2000-2006 and this will be matched by national funding. EQUAL
builds on the work of the Community Initiative ADAPT and EMPLOYMENT -
Now, Horizon, Integra and Youthstart over the period 1994-1999.
EQUAL has only a marginal interest in culture, although EFAH (2002) believe
that the cultural sector should be exploiting this funding to a much greater
extent, particularly in respect to developing culture as an `innovative'
economic sector.
Examples of programmes (under theme 1B)
i) UK - Linking EQUAL Access for the Disadvantaged and Excluded Refugees
(LEADER).
This programme aims to address the multiple barriers to employment faced by
refugees. One aspect of this programme is to `change attitudes and behaviour
of key actors'. The Development Partnership will run mentoring and work
experience schemes to educate employers about the needs and potential of
refugees. The mentors will be individuals who have a knowledge of the UK
work culture, a sensitivity to refugees' needs, an awareness of cross-cultural
issues and have time to spare in supporting and coaching refugees.
ii) Finland - Multiculturalism as a resource in a working community
The central aim is to improve immigrants' employability and ethnic equality in
workplaces in cooperation with immigrants, project actors and partners and to
create positive attitudes towards immigrants. The immediate results will be 16
working communities where `multi-culturalness' will be seen as a resource
and where ethnic equality prevails. The project has significant effects in
combating racism and xenophobia in the labour market.
iii) Czech Republic - `Varianty' Multi-cultural Education
The purpose of the programme is to address the social and economic
marginalisation of different social and cultural groups. It seeks to change the
social climate towards tolerance, respect, intercultural dialogue and
cooperation, as it is impossible to rely on the lasting effect of one-time
projects aimed at encouraging employment. One effective instrument for such
a change is represented by inter-cultural education.
A key objective is to foster skills for positive conflict resolution, inter-cultural
dialogue, utilization of cultural diversity and orientation in a multi-cultural
32
world. In addition, the programme will also seek to form attitudes of tolerance,
respect and openness to different social and cultural groups.
4.25 LEADER+
LEADER+ is one of four initiatives financed by EU structural funds and is
designed to help rural actors consider the long-term potential of their local
region. The initiative seeks to encourage the implementation of integrated,
high-quality and original strategies for sustainable development. It has a
strong focus on partnership and networks of exchange of experience. In
addition, LEADER+ is designed to complement the mainstream programmes
by promoting integrated schemes conceived and implemented by active
partnerships operating at the local level.
A total of 5,046 million for the period 2000-2006 will be spent, of which
2,105 million is funded by the EAGGF Guidance section with the remainder
coming from public and private contributions. There are around 66 identifiable
rural development plans funded by LEADER+, most of which support the
culture sector to some extent.
The `priority themes' for LEADER+ laid down by the Commission include
among other things `making the best use of natural and cultural resources, in
particular areas of Community interest, as defined under NATURA 2000'13
.
Support for projects has covered a range of issues such as:
ˇ developing linkages between the cultural and natural heritage with the
tourist industry;
ˇ restoring traditional rural buildings;
ˇ specifically supporting projects that aim to enhance and put into some
sort of use archaeological sites and, historic monuments;
ˇ expansion of cultural resources in the broadest sense, like support to arts
and crafts SMEs.
Examples of programmes
i) UK - England
A budget of 119 million is available to fund 23 Local Action Groups (LAGs).
Funding will support activities relating to the arts and crafts sector and tourism
exploiting the natural and cultural heritage.
ii) Spain - Navarre
A budget of 17 million is available to fund 5 LAGs. Some funds will go to
`finding new sources of income by valuing local products and by tourism and
by leisure activities based on the cultural and natural heritage'.
13
NATURA 2000 is concerned with the sustainable management of the natural environment focusing
on the preservation of wide-life and natural environments. It is an initiative lead by the Directorate
General for the Environment of the European Commission.
33
iii) Netherlands
A budget of 204 million is to be distributed between the regions of East,
North, South and Ranstad to fund 29 LAGs. Some funds will go to activities
that `make the best use of natural and cultural resources, including enhancing
the value of sites of Community interest selected by Natura 2000'.
4.26 PHARE
As part of the EU's financial plan for 2000-2006 (`Agenda 2000'), a financial
reserve of 40 billion (at 1999 prices) was set aside as aid to the candidate
states. Some 21,840 million was allocated to three financial instruments:
ˇ PHARE programme (10,920 million).
ˇ IPSA (Instrument for Structural Policies for pre-Accession): budget
(7,280 million).
ˇ SAPARD (Special Accession Programme for Agriculture and Rural
Development) (3,640 million).
These three instruments are providing assistance in ten central/eastern
European countries.
The PHARE programme began in 1989 and is intended to: "...improve
institutions, administrations and public bodies to ensure the correct application
of Community law and to assist new investments in the social and economic
sectors where they are most needed (infrastructure, business, social
measures)" (EFAH, 2002). Approximately 30% of PHARE resources are
earmarked for institution building, the main instrument of which is twinning or
twinning light (the secondment of experts from Member States to the
candidate countries to help develop the capacity to implement specific
aspects of the acquis). The other 70% are earmarked for investment, either
designed to improve the regulatory framework to implement the acquis or to
promote Economic and Social Cohesion (ESC).
This programme provides the most visible support to culture. PHARE has
funded two cultural programmes, each to the amount of 2 million. The first
such programme was for Bulgaria (1995-1999) and the second, which is still
running, is for Romania.
The Bulgarian Cultural Programme supported:
ˇ the funding of cultural activities and events;
ˇ the funding of further professional training schemes;
ˇ the creation of a Culture and Book Centre;
ˇ administrative costs.
The Romanian Cultural Programme is modelled to some degree on the
Bulgarian Cultural Programme. Because this programme is still active, no
evaluation has taken place and there is no information available.
34
The SAPARD programme for Bulgaria (agreed in 2000 and modified in 2002)
aims to improve agricultural production efficiency, promoting a competitive
food processing sector and sustainable rural development consistent with the
best environmental practices. The budget for SAPARD is  56.1 million of
which 8.1% is directed towards the renovation and development of villages
and the protection and conservation of rural heritage and cultural traditions.14
4.3 The Culture 2000 programme
Culture 2000 was created to promote artistic and cultural cooperation in
Europe and further moves towards a common cultural area. The Culture 2000
programme supports artistic and cultural projects with a European dimension,
at the level of their creation, their organisation and their implementation.
Activities supported by this programme include festivals, master classes,
exhibitions, new productions, tours, translations and conferences. These
activities are intended for artists and cultural operators, as well as for a
broader audience, in particular young people and those who are socially or
economically disadvantaged. Culture 2000 also seeks to:
ˇ promote cultural dialogue and mutual knowledge of the culture and
history of the peoples of Europe;
ˇ encourage creativity, international dissemination of culture and greater
movement of artists, performers and other professionals in the cultural
sector and their works, with particular emphasis on young people and the
socially disadvantaged and on cultural diversity;
ˇ promote cultural diversity and the development of new forms of cultural
expression;
ˇ share and promote, at European level, common cultural heritage of
European importance;
ˇ disseminate know-how and promote good practice in the field of
conservation and preservation of this cultural heritage;
ˇ take account of the contribution of culture to socio-economic
development;
ˇ encourage dialogue between cultures and interaction between European
and non-European cultures;
ˇ explicitly recognise culture as an economic factor and as a factor for
social integration and citizenship;
ˇ improve access to culture and encourage as many European Union
citizens as possible to become involved.
Funding for the programme amounts to a total of 167 million for the period
2000-2004. One of the main components of the programme is the
preservation and enhancement of Europe's cultural heritage. Approximately
34% of the budget is earmarked for this purpose.
14
Information found in: EU (2003) General Assistance Document 2003. European Commission:
Brussels.
35
Examples of Culture 2000 Projects
i) Belgium - Access to Art
This project will start up art workshops for young adults with mental and
physical disabilities in Belgium and Bulgaria. The workshops will result in a
travelling exhibition. Works of art will also be created that can be integrated in
socially disadvantaged neighbourhoods. Its objectives are:
ˇ stimulation of the social integration of persons with disabilities, through
art.
ˇ bringing into contact with culture as many citizens as possible, and
especially those who are disadvantaged.
ˇ exchange of art techniques between the different art therapists from each
country.
This project ran from: 1/11/2001 to 31/10/2002. The EU provided funding of
56,525 million.
ii) UK - INCCLUDE
An arts based anti-discrimination `toolkit' (CD and video) will be produced for
dissemination across Europe, designed collaboratively by the project partners
to tackle social disadvantage and discrimination in employment. Part of this
will be general performance based work which draws on personal
experiences; drama will be used to up-skill, give confidence and help devise
solutions to problems faced and prepare workplaces for the arrival of
'disadvantaged' workers. The objectives of the project are `to facilitate access
to culture and cultural participation by people in Europe, particularly those
facing exclusion from employment'. It also seeks to `demonstrate how
performance arts can be used to address social attitudes to discrimination'.
The EU contributed funding of 106,447 million to the project. The project ran
from 1/11/2001 to 1/11/2002.
iii) Greece, EUROLINE
The main purpose of EUROLINE is to create a line of cultural communication
between as many cities and centres in Europe as possible, seeking to bring
together a wide range of people, including the socially disadvantaged and
those with disabilities, to work creatively together. Following a steering
committee meeting there will be a 5-day seminar in performing and visual arts
for 150 participants. Partners will prepare performances on an agreed
European theme for the International Art Festival for Performing & Visual Arts.
There will be master classes and forums to discuss the different
presentations. There will also be a travelling Mail Art Exhibition on the Modern
European Experience with more than 1000 participants expected. Its
objectives are:
ˇ to actively involve and invigorate young people with artistic aspirations
with the purpose of advancing the cause of equal opportunities through
access to and participation in the world of performing and visual arts,
adaption of methods, removal of social barriers;
ˇ to experiment with new methods and approaches;
36
ˇ to encourage involvement of young people from different countries and
backgrounds, not as passive observers, but as active creators.
The project ran from 1/11/2001 to 1/11/2002.
iv) Finland - SPARK! New Design Scenarios for Daily Life in Europe
The project is a series of 5 events (workshops, exhibitions, publishing of a
book) organised in 5 different locations throughout Europe. It promotes new
type of creativity emphasising the role of culture in the socio-economic
development of municipalities and the power of new design services as a
factor in social integration and citizenship. In the events art and design
students and their teachers, together with the local administration and
citizens, will explore and create through their combined professional
experience and imagination scenarios showing ways out of the present
difficulties of communities and municipalities. These scenarios link the local
tradition and specificity of the past of these municipalities and the best
solutions will be included in an online best practice database. The sectors of
culture addressed are sculpture, industrial design, textile design, graphic
design and architecture.
Its objectives are:
ˇ to strengthen the role of educational institutions as cultural operators and
promote co-operation between them by sharing experience in projects
involving citizen;
ˇ to promote the design of services, supported by the Internet and new
technology to meet emerging social and cultural needs in new ways;
ˇ to emphasise the social, economical and educational value of culture, in
particular of Art Design in the New Economy as a new from of cultural
expression;
ˇ to promote new scenarios for new services.
The EU contributed 546,517 million to the project. It ran from 01/04/2002 to
30/07/2004.
4.4 Other programmes and initiatives with a cultural dimension
There are other programmes and initiatives that have a cultural dimension,
although often this is fairly modest in scope.
4.41 SOCRATES-GRUNDTVIG
Grundtvig is one of the 8 `actions' set out under the 1.85 million Socrates II
European education programme which runs for 7 years from 2000. The
Grundtvig action aims to enhance adult education provision through European
co-operation. To this end the action supports the following four types of
activities:
ˇ Grundtvig 1 - Trans-national cooperation projects;
ˇ Grundtvig 2 - Learning partnerships;
ˇ Grundtvig 3 - Mobility for training of educational staff;
37
ˇ Grundtvig 4 - Networks.
Overall responsibility for implementing the Socrates-Grundtvig action lies with
the European Commission (DG for Education and Culture). The Grundtvig
`action' is part of the European Commission's aim of promoting a policy of
lifelong learning at the European level as well as in each of the participating
countries. It encompasses all levels and sectors of adult learning (general,
cultural and social). In addition to learning that takes place within the formal or
non-formal system, Grundtvig also encompasses learning that takes place on
a more informal basis, such as `autonomous learning'. Beyond the Socrates
programme, Grundtvig has also highlighted the need to combine cultural and
youth-oriented activities with the vocational training sectors. Although
Grundtvig is at the halfway stage, the action "can be judged to be largely
successful." (EU, 2004: 23)15
Overall the Socrates programme encourages the creation of thematic
networks between university departments in Europe, for example the
COTEPRA project on the teaching of comparative European literature. It also
co-finances cooperation between European schools in the fields, amongst
others, of language teaching and of intercultural dialogue, such as projects in
intercultural education.
Examples of Grundtvig projects 16
Some of the Grundtvig projects have a cultural dimension, although most tend
to focus on innovative ways of providing adult learning initiatives. Examples
include:
i) UK, England
`Museums, Key-workers and Lifelong Learning' project is under the
supervision of the University of Surrey.17
The aim of the project is to identify
and document innovative ways by which key-workers can link museums, as
cultural learning resources, to potential learners in the community. Partners in
the UK, Ireland, Sweden, Austria, Portugal and Luxembourg have carried out
surveys of museum provision and practice, and a range of in-depth case
studies have been compiled.
ii) Germany
`Gewaltprävention - Kommunikationstraining und Konfliktlösungsstrategien'
project in Germany aims to develop `an action-oriented concept' to the
prevention of violence and problem-solving, which aimed at young people to
provide for a second chance at obtaining qualifications at European schools.
Besides the prevention of violence this concept will also be an example of
inter-cultural communication. Most of these young people come from socially
15
Commission of the European Communities (2004) Interim evaluation report on the results achieved
and on the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the implementation of the second phase of the
Community action programme in the field of education `Socrates'. EU: Brussels
16
Information on projects can be found at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/programmes/
socrates/grundtvig/compendium2002.pdf.
17
Further information on this project can be found at: http://www.surrey.ac.uk/Education/MKLL/.
38
disadvantaged groups, many of whom are migrants, who left school without
qualifications. These individuals have low self-esteem and most of them come
from a domestic background where there has been a history of violence.
iii) Germany
Theatre Work In Social Fields - European Research (TWISFER) is a project
for the establishment of theatre work in social fields as a medium of lifelong
learning. The aim is to connect the practical experiences of different countries
to a common European term. Five model projects about theatre work with and
for special target groups investigate the possibility of promoting personal,
social and communicative competences through theatre work with the
following target groups: elderly people, disabled people, migrants, young
offenders and people with special needs. The finishing point of the project is a
three days' congress about TWISF with a connected workshop programme,
addressed at interested students, adult educators, artists and people working
in a social field.
Total budget is 474,250 million with the EU contributing 225,496 million.
iv) Netherlands
`European Academy for Culture and Arts, an academy for adult education'
project in Holland. The main objective of this project (with a duration of two
years) is the realisation of the European Academy for Culture and Arts, an
academy for adult education for lifelong learning. The target groups for this
initiative are all professional, self-taught and potential artists in the visual art,
music, dance, media and crossover artists. The main activities within the
project are the development of (tailor made) modular courses.
v) Denmark
The MOSAIC (Manual of Social Inclusion by Education) project is to run for
two years. The project is intended to develop a manual to support schools
staff and managers in order to develop or improve the curriculum for
marginalised students such as members of ethnic minorities, migrants,
refugees, asylum seekers, and school-dropouts. The manual will support an
anti-racist and anti-xenophobia stance. It is intended to be sustainable
through actual incorporation into educational practice and through ongoing
dissemination of its findings. The total budget for this project is 320 million,
with the EU contributing 180 million.
4.42 Leonardo da Vinci
Grundtvig complements and has links to other actions within Socrates such as
Comenius (school education) and Erasmus (higher education) by forming a
third link in the `single education chain'. Grundtvig also links into other EU
programmes such as Leonardo da Vinci, to cover the whole spectrum of
lifelong learning.18
18
Leonardo da Vinci is a European Community programme which aims to support national training
strategies through funding a range of transnational partnership projects aimed at improving quality,
fostering innovation and promoting a European dimension to vocational training.
39
Leonardo da Vinci is the EU's community vocational training action
programme, which has been allocated 1,15 billion for the period 2000-
2006. It provides funding for projects in the field of education and training in
the arts, educational projects in schools on cultural themes and projects to
raise cultural awareness. The programme also provides training in traditional
crafts and in the restoration and development of cultural heritage.
Approximately 85% of the budget is devoted to `mobility'19
and `pilot'20
projects.
Examples of Leonardo da Vinci programmes (2002)
i) Germany, Stadtsportbund Göttingen
The Job and Sports project aims is to use sport to provide socially
disadvantaged youngsters with basic key skills such as teamwork,
interpersonal skills, flexibility and general social skills. The eight-stage project
will initially define the key skills which can be acquired through sport on the
basis of which model projects will be designed for implementation and
evaluation in the partner countries. Training measures for trainers and
courses for young people will be organised. The project will have expert back-
up and the results will be disseminated throughout Europe via sports
associations and training providers. The final stage will be to compile on-line
teaching and reference materials, course models and interactive media, which
will also look at individual aspects such as the gender factor in promoting
disadvantaged young people.
ii) UK, Manchester
The SItAMI (Social Inclusion through Access to the Media Industries
Manchester) project aims to develop effective training provision for two
socially excluded target groups (young, unemployed persons and
ethnically/culturally excluded women) using 'media' as a tool to empower and
develop the skills need by the labour market. In particular, it responds to a
need for trainers and teachers to be better empowered, through new tools and
materials, to work towards the inclusion of socially excluded target groups
interested in some form of media training.
4.43 The Youth programme
The Youth programme has a budget of 520 million for the period 2000-2006.
It plays a part in the cultural field by financing youth exchanges on cultural
themes, periods of `voluntary service' during which young Europeans work on
restoring cultural heritage and youth initiatives in the arts. Under `Joint
Actions' SOCRATES (education), LEONARDO DA VINCI (vocational training)
and YOUTH (non-formal education) programmes are brought together. It
19
The mobility measure provides support for trans-national placement projects for transnational
exchange projects.
20
Pilot projects involve trans-national partnerships (at least three organisations from three different
countries) in the development and transfer of innovation and quality in vocational training, including
actions aiming at the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) in vocational training.
40
provides support for initiatives that build on the complementary nature of
these three programmes and others such as Culture 2000.
Examples of the Youth programme in practice
i) Germany (2003)
Studiengang Darstellende Künste für Menschen mit Körperbehinderung is a
project that involves partners from Germany, Austria, France and Rumania.
They intend to create a basic training scheme for actors with physical
handicaps. The project should be realized together with non-handicapped
young people as trainees. The project will be marked by internationality,
exchange of culture, cooperation of schools, universities, theatres a social
NGOs and the integrative approach of common training of handicapped and
non-handicapped persons. At the same time it is intended to find new artistic
approaches and perspectives for theatres, film and TV production. Finally it is
intended to set up a 4-years training scheme which enables handicapped
persons to get a professional training which supports them in finding self-
determination and equality of chances.
The total budget is 197,551 million, with 148 million coming from the EU.
ii) UK, England (2003)
The aim of the PROACT (Promoting Rural Opportunities & Cultural Traditions)
project is to promote the concept of citizenship through the improved
recognition of rural and cultural traditions within the enlarged EU. The results
and outcomes will be used by young rural women under-30 and by young
ethnic migrant women. The objectives of this project include among other
things:
ˇ To develop and deliver citizenship training in order to enable young rural
and migrant women to actively contribute to the economic, cultural and
social life of their communities; to achieve personal, social and economic
development for the target groups.
The total budget is 388,121 million with 285,300 million coming from the
EU.
iii) Spain, Séneca (2002)
The project aims to improve local information, guidance and citizenship
networks by establishing a European model for Local Guidance Networks
based on the regional development strategy of the area in question and a
local agreement among all the education, training and cultural stakeholders.
The implementation of the methodology is done on the basis of trans-national
exchange and interactivity. In Avila the existing local guidance network, which
is still under development, is based on a new approach and they are
developing instruments to channel citizens towards certain elements that have
been defined as 'key' for city development. These key elements are:
employment, culture, heritage, tourism, and entrepreneurship. This model
could be valid for any socio-economic/cultural development identified by a
particular region, county or city.
41
The local guidance network will be the main tool to lead the active citizen
towards the key aspects of strategic development of the city. As such, they
constitute fast tracks to facilitate individuals' access to lifelong learning, to
employment opportunities and to make the most of their professional skills.
The total budget is 190,130 million, with the EU contributing 95,560 million.
iv) Finland, Spain, Portugal and Estonia (2002)
`Drama - a Way to Social Inclusion (DramaWay)' is a project that uses drama
as an active remedy for social exclusion. The target groups are young people
with social problems, who have immigrant backgrounds and sometimes a
history of drug abuse. Sharing of experience, good practice and methods take
place in 4 different workshops organised by the partners from Finland (co-
ordinator), Spain, Portugal and Estonia. It is intended that an international
network specialised in `therapeutic' drama supported by a website. As this
strategy is somewhat `spectacular' by nature, the dissemination can take
place easily, thus creating public interest nationally and internationally.
The total budget is 277,170 million, with the EU contributing 199,670
million.
4.44 INTI - Integration of third country nationals21
INTI is a European Union funding programme for pilot projects promoting
the integration in the EU member states of people who are not citizens of
the EU. The underlying principle is to promote new and innovative ways of
integrating immigrants, building wherever possible on past experience. Its
aim is also to promote dialogue with civil society, develop integration
models, seek out and evaluate best practices in the integration field and set
up networks at European level. The programme seeks to fund activities
where existing programmes do not sufficiently take into account the needs
of immigrants, although there should not be overlaps with other initiatives
(such as EQUAL, URBAN II, SOCRATES, LEONARDO DA VINCI, YOUTH,
CULTURE 2000).
The initiative runs from 2003-2004. It has 4 `strands':
ˇ A - Support of networks, exchange of information and best practices.
ˇ B - Information and dialogue.
ˇ C - Improved knowledge of integration issues.
ˇ D - Support for innovative projects.
Strand B has the most relevance to the cultural sector. The aim of this strand
is to:
21
Further information can be found at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/justice_home/
funding/inti/docs/appel_inti_2003_en.pdf
42
"Promote awareness raising at EU-level, which will focus on projecting
accurate information about immigrants with regard to their culture,
traditions, religion and their positive contributions - economically and
socially - to European Society."
Funding for this initiative amounts to 4 million (2003) and because of this
modest sum the EU will fund only 14 projects. Given that this is a new
initiative it is too early to evaluate its effectiveness.
43
Discussion of major themes
The brief for this project set out a number of themes/issues to be considered
by the project team. These are reproduced in section one of this report. The
section below summarises the findings of the project team with respect to the
thematic areas.
Section 5 - Theme 1
The ways in which poor access to and participation in cultural activities
can deepen and intensify poverty and social exclusion and those groups
which are particularly at risk of inadequate services and why.
5.1 The concept of social exclusion adopted by the project team and backed
by relevant academic literature makes it clear that the experience of poverty
and exclusion is multi-dimensional and includes lack of access to goods and
services as well as more economic measures of exclusion (see Apospori and
Millar, 2003). The fact that a multi-dimensional understanding of exclusion is
accepted was reflected in the widespread recognition at local level in Member
States that inclusion in cultural activities was often an important stepping
stone in preventing or addressing social exclusion. Projects in France and
Italy involved young people in drama and theatre workshops to enhance their
confidence, develop team working, interpersonal skills and other generic
transferable skills (section 4 outlines examples of this that are supported
through the Leonardo and Grundtvig projects). It was hoped that experience
of the drama classes and the performances attached to them would
encourage young people who were disaffected with formal education and
training to seek employment or additional training in the performing arts
sector. These projects were publicly funded and were accessed through the
unemployment benefits system.
Elsewhere the focus of projects varied from those providing language classes
for immigrants to using drama or dance in schools to celebrate different
cultures. Some projects were also specifically aimed at encouraging
employment in the creative industries. This could include drama workshops,
(France) training in digital media, (UK) and the creation of rap music centres
(Germany). All countries were of course extending access to the Internet with
libraries playing a key role (Italy was successfully using Grundtvig funds to
support this). The project team discovered a huge range of initiatives in
existence. These were often unknown outside the geographical area in which
they were operating and there were few opportunities for the sharing of good
practice or for evaluations of broadly similar projects to be compared. This
sometimes reflected a lack of drive at central government levels to actively
promote engagement in cultural activities as an important tool for addressing
social exclusion.
In terms of deepening and worsening poverty and social exclusion all
countries were aware that culture could make a difference in terms of
improving the quality of life but it was not equally prioritised by all in terms of
44
being important in reducing social exclusion. France, UK, Finland, The Czech
Republic and Sweden had national policies to support the linking of access to
culture with inclusion strategies and provide good practice in terms of
establishing a clear link between cultural and social exclusion. Despite
differences at national policy level it was possible to draw some general
conclusions about how members states are treating the issue of culture as a
means of redressing social exclusion.
Whilst removing material poverty and creating employment opportunities was
the dominant issue in the NAPs (incl), there was a recognition that access to
goods and services was important in tackling relative poverty. Countries such
as Britain and Germany sought to tackle this through geographical initiatives
that included financial assistance and staffing for local community groups to
provide, art, dance and music classes for those who would otherwise not be
able to access them. France adopted a more universal approach of `equal
access to culture for all'. Denmark provided support for local history groups
that were aimed at providing opportunities for elderly people to meet to reduce
their risk of social exclusion.
.
5.2 Much of the focus particularly of the National Action Plans (incl) is on
specific groups and specific institutions.
The analysis of 2003 NAPs (incl) identified the following groups as being at
particular risk of exclusion:
ˇ Disabled people
ˇ Refugees and immigrants
ˇ Long term unemployed
ˇ Lone parent families
ˇ Homeless people
ˇ Young unemployed
ˇ Disadvantaged elderly
ˇ Disadvantaged families
Some countries extended the list to include:
ˇ People who are mentally ill
ˇ Victims of domestic violence
ˇ Families where there is alcohol misuse
ˇ Drug misusers
ˇ Prostitutes
ˇ People lacking social and cultural skills
None of the NAPs (incl) identified groups that were particularly at risk of
cultural exclusion. From the case study examples documented in this study it
is possible to narrow the list of those most likely to be at risk of cultural
exclusion to those who were long term and young unemployed ( Britain,
France and Italy case studies). Disadvantaged elderly and families (Germany
and Spain case studies). Refugees and immigrants (The Greve and
45
Rabarbarlandet projects in the Denmark case study, and Germany and
Sweden case studies provide good examples of this).
Projects in the member states included in this study targeted cultural activities
on three types of groups ­those who were economically disadvantaged and
who would not have the financial or social means to access cultural activities.
This was often seen as a particular issue with regard to access to theatre,
museums and opera. Some countries had responded to this, at least partially,
by making access to museums free (UK and Sweden). Others had reduced
prices for those who were elderly, young or in receipt of state benefits. There
was also a recognition that people from disadvantaged communities were not
able to engage in cultural activities in their local area. This could be because
none or few existed, there was lack of knowledge about their existence and/or
they had no previous experience of participating in cultural projects. Hence we
encountered many examples (e.g. in France, Italy, Sweden, UK and
Germany) of cultural projects being supported as part of regeneration
initiatives that were targeted on specific localities. European structural funds
were often assisting with this as is outlined in section 4.
Secondly, those who were refugees or immigrants and who needed support to
maintain their native culture in the host county. Refugees and immigrants
were also seen as in need of inclusion in cultural activities in order to be
integrated effectively into the host country.
All countries recognised that refugees and immigrants would not be able to
effectively integrate into the host culture without language training. The
acquisition of language and other social skills by immigrant groups was seen
as a necessary prerequisite of securing a job and participating in the life of
their community and thus preventing the social exclusion of these groups. Of
the countries visited Sweden, Germany and Spain had well established
programmes of language training for their ethnic minority and immigrant
populations alongside classes that gave information about the culture of the
host country. Other countries such as the United Kingdom were more reticent
in this respect but the UK situation is changing to more closely reflect the
German and Scandanavian models. Section 4 gives examples of how EQUAL
has been used to support initiatives of this kind with examples from UK,
Finland and the Czech Republic. In addition to assisting migrants and
refugees with employment the projects seek to promote tolerance, respect
and an understanding of minority communities.
Thirdly, disabled people, where again, involvement in cultural activities was
considered to be an important route to integration into mainstream society.
(The Sweden and Finland case studies provide examples of projects where
disabled people were trained for employment in the creative industry sector).
46
Section 6 ­ Theme 2
The different barriers that prevent those at risk of poverty and social
exclusion accessing cultural services and opportunities and expressing
their own cultural identity.
6.1 The different barriers that were identified that prevent those at risk of
poverty and social exclusion from accessing cultural services and
opportunities and expressing their cultural identity are as follows:
(i) A lack of knowledge of the existence of services. This could be because
information was not made available or those who are socially excluded are
outside the social networks where it would be possible to readily access this
information;
(ii) A lack of recognition at national policy level of the importance of access to
culture services and opportunities as a means of reducing exclusion and
therefore a lack of programmes to support it;
(iii) A shortage of funding to provide cultural services that are accessible to all;
(iv) Geographical disparities in the provision of services means that only
those living in certain areas have access to a local range of cultural services
and opportunities;
(v) Deliberate strategies to keep some cultural services exclusive;
(vi) For disabled people - a range of barriers from lack of physical access to
lack of specific support for visual, aural or other impairments;
(vi) For minority ethnic communities - a lack of cultural services to support
their native culture and few support mechanisms to enable them to
effectively participate in the host culture. An additional barrier in this respect
may be a reluctance to participate in activities outside those of the native
culture because of fear, intimidation, lack of interest or lack of experience of
some cultural service and opportunities;
(vii) A lack of support and services and opportunities that cater for sub-
cultures or counter cultures ­ this is most likely to present access barriers to
young people;
(vii) A lack of services for marginalized groups such as ex-offenders, drug
misusers and so on.
6.2 In a number of the countries visited there were no cohesive programmes
at national level aimed at linking social inclusion with culture and this presents
a huge barrier for those seeking greater resources to improve access to
cultural activities for those experiencing social exclusion. However, all
countries were able to point to specific projects at local level that brought the
47
two agendas together. In most Member States the government has not
managed to integrate cultural policy effectively into its social exclusion and
anti-poverty agenda. Emphasis was usually placed on social protection
programmes and access to training and employment.
6.3 Limited funding and short-term targets and initiatives were perceived to
act as barriers to mainstream consideration of the role culture can play in
tackling social exclusion. Where limited or reducing funding for public services
was taking place, priorities for social inclusion programmes concentrated on
whether current social welfare systems could be made sustainable (Sweden,
Italy and Germany). Maintaining funding of health, social services and
pensions was often a priority sometimes alongside measures to reduce the
take-up of benefits.
Economic problems at national level leading to a reduction in public pending
was blamed in some countries for a lack of funding to support cultural
projects. In Germany, for example, it was acknowledged that increasingly the
state was looking to the private sector to support cultural activity. Whilst the
use of private sector finance was broadly welcomed there was concern that
whilst the private sector was keen to support `lighthouses of culture' such as
opera, theatres or museums this was threatening cultural activity in other
spheres and was neglecting problematic zones.
In Sweden a specific problem of silo funding was identified although this was
raised as an issue in every country visited. Staff in local projects or in the local
tier of government sometimes had to access a number of different funding
sources in order to enable a project to start or to continue. So, for example, a
project to support music training or dance for young people might first have to
be in a particular location to attract regeneration funding. This would then
need to be added to by funds for youth employment or training initiatives.
Youth work grants from the local authority or designated body may be
necessary to support local staff The premises used may need a grant from a
local community or charitable fund and depending on the ages of the young
people involved it may be necessary to seek separate grants to cover children
(examples of this nature were provided in the UK and Germany).
Short term funding was the biggest barrier in terms of keeping projects
running. Local culture projects were considered to be particularly reliant on
short-term initiatives. Sometimes innovative projects (see for example UK,
France, Italy and Spain) relied on European funding sources (section 4 of this
report provides a lot of detail about the ways in which European funding is
used to support local (and national) cultural activity) that are time limited. So
successful projects in terms of providing local gallery spaces for artists to
create and exhibit their work (Germany) or to provide rehearsal spaces for
youth music groups (UK) had to continually seek either new sources of
funding or seek ways of presenting the projects that fitted new funding rules or
new initiatives. This pointed to a need for greater mainstream funding for
projects of this kind.
48
Lack of awareness of the positive role culture can play in addressing social
exclusion seems to be more of a national than a local problem. However local
actors may be reliant upon resources from the Centre in order to ensure
progress and sustainability. The funding of particular initiatives may also rely
on formal time-limited protocols which may not be renewed, or simply be
overtaken by other immediate priorities before they can be consolidated (e.g.
drama work with young offenders in Italy).
Belief in the social protection system as the main tool for abolishing most
aspects of social exclusion tends to overshadow new policy measures to
address specific groups and needs. Using culture as a means of integration
and inclusion is often seen as a useful but marginal activity with regard to
reducing exclusion and is not prioritised and its effectiveness in tackling
exclusion has not been fully tested or supported as a mainstream policy.
This is changing in some countries most notably Sweden and the UK where
culture is considered to have an important role in regenerating disadvantaged
communities either through providing employment in the creative industries or
encouraging active citizenship (ODPM, 2004).
6.4 Finance is often an important barrier and where a charge is incurred, for
example in museums or at sports clubs, socially excluded people cannot
access those services. (Note that when the UK government provided extra
money to reinstate the policy of free admission to national museums, it
attached particular conditions and targets relating to social inclusion).
Lack of finance for individuals or families can affect access to cultural services
in a number of ways:
(i) a preoccupation with survival on a day to day basis can lead to little time or
energy being available to access and participate in cultural services and
activities (Council of Europe, 1997; 2001);
(ii) Exclusion from social networks can lead to a lack of knowledge or
experience of cultural sector activities (Amendola, 1998; Apospori and Millar,
2001);
(iii) It may not be possible to afford transport to access cultural activities. This
can be a particular problem for those experiencing social exclusion in rural
areas;
(iv) The cost of attending or participating in cultural activities can be too high
for those on limited incomes;
6.5 Most `high level' cultural policies are primarily directed at existing
institutions such as protecting heritage, art galleries, the performing arts,
libraries, museums and the general population rather than being targeted at
particular sections, although the tradition in the Nordic countries has on the
whole been more inclusive with regard to social provision and participation.
This means that, for example, there may be a general policy to increase
49
participation in the use of museums and libraries but any monitoring of this is
not broken down enough to record the usage by those who are socially
excluded. Appendix 2 of this report provides indicator information with regard
to the participation in cultural activities for each member state but it was not
possible to obtain figures that are broken down by ethnicity or socio-economic
group. This means that the under-representation of certain groups in cultural
activities in not apparent from this information. Also, meeting the aim of
increasing the number of users does not mean that you reach the most
excluded in society.
Crude monitoring programmes that concentrate on visitor or user numbers
may only disguise the lack of access to cultural services and activities by
those who are particularly disadvantaged. This may also have the effect of
misdirecting funds from projects that seek to work with excluded groups to
support the achievement of national participation targets.
6.6 Focusing cultural practices and policies on excluded groups can have the
intended or unintended consequence of deterring others from participating in
activities. One interviewee gave an example from the experiences of
librarians, "they had experience sometimes when they did more to get some
of the socially excluded into the library, they scared out the so-called normal,
average users, because if you come into the reading room and they are filled
with the homeless people who have not been washed for a couple of months
or something like that, a lot of people don't like to sit next to them and read"
Another interviewee stated it was the same in other sectors, for example
health services (see Denmark case study).
6.7 Sports clubs and associations that are run on a local, voluntary basis and
are often small can also present problems. Financing can be a problem since
specialist instructors may be needed, for example, for mentally ill or disabled
people. Also the will of the volunteers to work with socially excluded people in
their spare time has to be there; the government cannot always rely on
people's sense of `social responsibility'. As one interviewee explained:
"But it's not uncomplicated to make them participate because most of this
work is done by volunteers in their spare time. They are training
youngsters in soccer or whatever they are doing because they like it; the
young people are playing soccer because they like it. If you have to
introduce mentally ill people into groups, it demands a lot of those people,
not only the trainers or leaders, but also of the other participants, and that
is also a problem. It's not only financing, it's also a more broad complex
problem, because you might kill the interest, the original interest for the
sport for instance, of those who initiated it, by introducing too many difficult
problems in their volunteer work. And that's a tricky problem to solve."
6.8 A lack of understanding of cultural diversity and ways to support this
present a further barrier for those from minority cultures. More emphasis
needs to be placed on embracing cultural diversities. The underlying
approach of countries within the EU varies enormously. The project team
noted that in some countries a great deal of emphasis is placed on providing
50
language tuition for immigrants, refugees or asylum seekers to facilitate
integration into the host country. Whilst this is necessary to help counteract
exclusion it is also necessary to develop programmes to encourage cultural
diversity to flourish. Nevertheless as section 4 and the case studies for
Sweden, Denmark and Finland demonstrate there are projects that seek to
support the celebration of different cultures within Europe (see also, European
Commission 2001; Ilczuk 2001). These should have the effect of reducing this
barrier in the longer term.
51
Section 7 ­ Theme 3
The contribution that increased access to and participation in cultural
activities can make to combating poverty and social exclusion
7.1 The contribution that increased access to and participation in cultural
activities can make to combating poverty and social exclusion can be
summarised as follows:
7.2 Participation in cultural activities can lead to the acquisition of new skills
that assist with the uptake of employment opportunities (see Feist, 2000). All
countries visited had examples of this. Projects were targeted at young
people, long term unemployed, disabled people, minority ethnic groups and
refugees. Local project evaluations that were accessed in the UK, France,
Sweden and Britain showed that this could be a very effective strategy in
encouraging young people and disabled people to find work in the creative
industries and tourism sectors. European funding programmes such as ESF
were frequently imaginatively used to support increased training opportunities.
7.3 Involvement in cultural activities can lead to greater self confidence and
higher self esteem. Robinson (1999) discusses this in connection with young
people. Music and drama can be important tools for encouraging young
people into training or the labour market when more traditional approaches
have been rejected. Marks (2001) points to the benefits of cultural
participation for disabled people, not only in securing employment, but in
terms of resisting a view of disabled people that is negative or restricted.
Solomos (2001) highlights the importance of celebrating different cultures
including black and minority ethnic groups as a part of emancipatory
processes that lead to greater participation of black people in society and a
greater understanding and tolerance for cultural diversity.
7.4 Investing in cultural programmes can lead to a greater understanding and
tolerance of the diverse nature of contemporary European societies, as well,
incidentally, as leading to new hybrid art forms and practice which itself is a
success to be celebrated by the whole community.
7.5 The project team saw many examples of local agencies working together
to address the multi-dimensional nature of social exclusion. This led to a
combination of programmes being available that included social protection
measures and access to health care and housing as well as encouraging
participation in local cultural projects, sports activities and education, training
and employment. Germany's Social City programme and the United
Kingdom's urban renewal programme provided good examples of this. This
then led to an overall improvement in the quality and experience of life for
those who had been excluded.
7.6 All member states visited recognised the need to engage more children
and young people in education through cultural activities. Spain provided
many excellent examples of good practice in this area. The overall aim of the
projects was to embed skills to assist with participation in cultural activities
52
and embed an interest in culture that would stay with young people into
adulthood. Education is also seen as a way of encouraging active citizenship
(Stevenson 2001).
7.7 Urban and rural regeneration programmes were often the vehicle for
bringing local agencies together to tackle social exclusion. The emphasis
such programmes place on community involvement was especially valuable in
directing resources to community based activities ( ODPM, 2004 Amendola,
1998).
7.8 Local indicators and evaluation reports sought to measure the impact of
local cultural projects with regard to increasing access to employment,
enhancing participation in education and training, and bringing about a
reduction in crime and anti-social behaviour. The outcomes of such projects
and lessons learned need to be made more widely available, so that they can
be adapted to particular circumstances elsewhere.
7.8 The project team gathered numerous examples of programmes that
sought to reduce the social exclusion of people with disabilities. These varied
from educational support projects to training for employment in the media
industry. Sweden and Finland provided excellent examples of good practice in
this area.
53
Section 8 ­ Theme 4
The different mix of cultural policies and programmes which are
necessary to increase equality of access to and remove barriers to
participating in cultural activities
8.1 National policy should provide clear recognition of the role that
involvement in cultural activities can play in preventing and ameliorating social
exclusion. Departments and ministries responsible for both cultural and social
policy should produce strong policy statements that encourage the
participation of all groups in cultural activities and projects with budgets being
clearly earmarked for this purpose. In order to answer the question about the
different mix of policies that are necessary to increase equality of access and
remove barriers to participating in cultural activities we first of all in this
section (8.1) list the categories of activity in the cultural sector that need to be
supported. Sections 8.2 to 8.6 discuss further the policies and programmes
that fall within the categories outlined in 8.1 that are specifically related to
widening access to cultural services and activities and removing barriers to
participation in these activities.
Budgets are required for different types of activity and it would be helpful if
different funding streams could be allocated for the following activities (see list
below). In some cases the budget should rest with the Ministry responsible for
Culture but in others it would be necessary to pool budgets between the
Culture Ministry, the Ministry for Social Affairs (or equivalent) and the ministry
responsible for employment. These funding streams could also be supported
by funding from regional and local tiers of government. In Poland local tiers of
government spend more on culture than central government.
Policies and programmes are needed to fund the following activities. The
suggested funding sources are in brackets:
1. Sustaining and promoting national heritage sites and buildings,
and cultural services (museums, galleries, theatre, opera).
(Ministry of Culture).
2. Promoting wider access to national heritage sites and buildings
and cultural services (Ministry of Culture).
3. Sustaining and developing regional and local cultural services
(Ministry of Culture or its national agency; local government and
where it is applicable regional government).
4. Supporting and widening access to regional or local cultural
services (Ministry of Culture plus local or regional government
as applicable).
5. Supporting participation in community based cultural activities
(regional and local government through local taxation and grants
from the Ministry of Culture and Ministry of Social Affairs).
6. Supporting projects that seek to widen employment
opportunities in the culture or creative industry sectors
(Department of Employment).
54
7. Providing wider access to the internet and library use (the
central ministry responsible for libraries and e-governance plus
local or regional government).
8. Supporting and developing cultural activities in schools
(Department of Education).
As section 4 indicates a number of cultural activities are also supported by the
European Commission and programmes exist at European level that support
activity in all of the categories listed above. The private sector also supports
cultural services and activities.
The common lack of systematic connection or coherent policy between
Ministries at national levels has been noted in the course of this research.
Since `culture' - despite its importance in national identity and the growing
recognition of its role as an economic driver ­ frequently has a relatively low
political priority. The policies of the ministries of Culture still tend to start out
from the twin agendas of cultural (and heritage) institutions and their attendant
financial problems. This means that the human and social capital dimensions
are often missing or underrepresented in policy and priorities, particularly at
the national level. The case studies on Italy, Finland and Spain exemplify this.
There were of course examples of officials at national level and national
policies that appreciated the role culture could play in reducing social
exclusion ­ the Denmark, France and UK case studies provide good
examples of this. Where links were made between culture and social inclusion
at national level this appears to be was based on an understanding by officials
in the culture ministries that involvement in cultural activities is about
improving life enhancing self-respect and overall quality of life. There was also
recognition that enhancing self esteem and basic skills through cultural
activities may be necessary before employment opportunities could be
pursued.
8.2 Promoting wider access to national heritage sites and buildings and
cultural services.
Across all policy fields culture is seen a key factor for ensuring the quality of
life. The French Government has developed a range of policies to address
inequalities arising from geographical, economic and social factors that
impede participation in cultural life. These policies are aimed at extending and
diversifying audiences and fostering the development of the widest possible
range of cultural and artistic activities. There are also a range of policies and
initiatives that are specifically targeted at excluded and disadvantaged groups
and deprived areas.
Improved liaison and partnership needs to take place between the different
tiers of government with regard to ensuring effective implementation of
national policies which, by the same token, should reflect existing successful
practice at the regional and local levels.
55
The French government also stated its intention to integrate cultural
policy/inclusion into the NAP/incl process. It has sought to do this particularly
in the NAP/incl 2003 and France provides a good example of an attempt to
integrate culture and social inclusion policies both in terms of strategy
development and implementation. Overall `comprehensiveness' distinguishes
the French approach in this field.
The French case also highlights the important role played by sub-national
authorities. It is at the sub-national level where the practical dimension of
integrating of culture and social inclusion agendas mainly occurs
In Sweden the NAP/incl agenda focuses on the exclusion of people from
cultural life, in particular focusing on class, gender, ethnicity, place of
residence or disability. The agenda sets out a long-term programme to
increase involvement and participation in culture.
Support for the cultural infrastructure is seen as one of the fundamental
conditions for enabling culture to reach large numbers of people and involve
them. According to official statistics there has been an increase in the
numbers of people enjoying or taking part in cultural life (see Appendix 2).
Examples of polices would include subsidising cultural services so that free or
reduced entry rates can be given to low income groups.
Subsidising cultural services so that they are free for everyone.
Support for marketing campaigns so that information about cultural services
are available to the general public with particular efforts being made to reach
disabled people, people from minority ethnic communities and low income
groups.
8.3 Supporting participation in community based cultural activities.
In some countries support for active participation in cultural activities is seen
as an important mechanism for celebrating the diversity of cultures within a
particular country, region or area, whilst in others a dominant tradition of
`cultural assimilation' can be a barrier to constructive progress. Finland, UK,
and Sweden used European funds to support projects aimed at improving
understanding and tolerance towards different cultures. Projects that
encourage tolerance and respect for different cultures and that celebrate a
diversity of cultures are necessary to remove barriers to participation from
minority ethnic groups.
Specific projects are also needed to support improved access for disabled
people to cultural services alongside opportunities for participation in
community based activities and employment in the cultural or creative industry
sectors.
56
All countries that were visited struggled with enabling hard-to-reach and
vulnerable groups to engage in cultural activities. In a number of instances
attention had only been directed at the role that, for example, drama or music
could play in reaching out to particular groups as a last resort when all other
measures had failed. Nevertheless Germany, the UK, The Netherlands and
France had developed some really interesting projects such as providing
rehearsal facilities for local bands or creative writing groups that could operate
in a number of languages. The emphasis the culture strategy of The Czech
Republic places on addressing social problems such as alcoholism, crime and
drug addiction through cultural activities means that it may have much good
practice in this area to share with other Member States.
8.4 Supporting projects that seek to widen employment opportunities in
the culture or creative industry sectors.
Local agencies in all countries are aware of the importance of culture as a
means of building personal confidence, consolidating identity, preventing
social exclusion and providing routes for a number of people into employment
in both the creative industries and other sectors. Access to employment in this
way is particularly successful where it is linked to training and where
employment opportunities in the creative industry sector are increasing.
8.5 Supporting and developing cultural activities in schools.
Education policies are often at the forefront of encouraging children and
young people to celebrate their cultural heritage, to learn about different
cultures and to increase confidence and self-esteem through mediums such
as literature, music, drama and dance. Such activities need to be encouraged
and fostered.
There is a need to go beyond education policies to provide opportunities
within the wider community for participation in cultural activities. This can, and
often does, include national programmes to encourage attendance at
museums and theatres through subsidised access arrangements (UK and
Sweden. This should be added to by funding steams at local level that enable
and encourage participation in local groups working with drama or
film/video/new media, the provision of practice facilities for young musicians
as well as resources for local sports and leisure activities. As we noted earlier
local programmes often rely on short term funding which can be withdrawn
before projects get established or achieve sustainability.
8.6 Providing wider access to the internet and library use (the central
ministry responsible for libraries and e-governance plus local or
regional government).
All countries included in the study were extending access to the Internet and
were using libraries and other local community venues to provide access to
ICT facilities. This was often particularly important for elderly people who
were less likely than others to have access to a computer or the Internet at
home, as well as a lack of technical competence to deal with new technology.
57
Section 9
Recommendations
9.1 National policies including National Action Plans for inclusion need
to address the role that cultural policy and practices have in addressing
the needs of people who are socially excluded. Good practice from the
current NAPs (incl) ( Sweden, UK, Finland, France) in this respect needs to
be extended to all Member States probably by further guidance with regard to
the direction and content of the next round of NAPs in 2006.
9.2. Stakeholders and groups contributing to the NAPs (incl) could be
asked their views about the importance of participation in cultural
activities as a means of reducing social exclusion.
Discussions with officials in the Ministries responsible for drawing up the
NAPs (incl) as part of the case studies undertaken for this project led us to
conclude that consultation had taken place with other relevant Ministries and
a range of stakeholder groups. Analysis of the agencies and groups
consulted showed however that the vast majority of voluntary sector and
community organisations consulted were concerned with the alleviation of
material poverty. We could not find an example of community arts groups
being consulted and had this sector of community and voluntary organisations
been involved in the NAP process there may have been a stronger
recognition in the NAPs (incl) of the role culture can play in reducing social
exclusion.
The process of writing the NAPs demonstrated the benefits of co-ordination
amongst government departments. The lead Ministry in each country (usually
a Ministry of Social Affairs or an Employment Ministry) did consult with other
relevant departments and ministries. In some instances (France, Sweden, UK,
Denmark) this extended to the Ministries of Culture and this was reflected in
the attention that was given in the NAP (Incl) relating to access to cultural
services but certain culture ministries interviewed were unaware that the
process had even taken place. Arriba and Moreno (2002) state that the most
relevant achievement has been the intergovernmental participation and
involvement of social partners and stakeholders in compiling the NAPs but
there seems to be a need for a greater role for culture ministries in its
production and content.
9.3 Consideration needs to be given to mainstreaming support for
cultural activities where they are able to demonstrate that they have a
positive impact on reducing social exclusion. Culture Ministries are often
regarded as relatively weak in the context of tackling social exclusion, when
set alongside much more powerful Departments of State, and find it hard to
bring influence to bear. Interviews with representatives of Culture Ministries in
all the countries visited talked about their primary role as one of protecting
national heritage, providing a range of cultural services and working with
cultural agencies where appropriate (examples of this were Arts Council (UK)
58
or National Council for Cultural Affairs (Sweden) to encourage and support he
provision and development of cultural services at regional or local levels.
Access to cultural services was mentioned but when specifically applied to
social exclusion there was widespread agreement that other Ministries or tiers
of government had a lead role to play. The lead role was usually assigned to
the Ministry that had responsibility for compiling the NAP (incl). The UK's
experience of beginning to break down departmental barriers through a
central `Social Exclusion Unit' is significant and could be applied elsewhere to
promote a more unified approach to tackling social exclusion.
The split between funding to promote cultural activity and funding to tackle
social exclusion was also apparent at regional and local level. Individual
projects therefore had to access a range of funding sources in order to
provide local (community based) opportunities for participation in cultural
activities. Local projects fared best (see UK, Germany and France where
improving access to, and the provision of, cultural services and activities was
part of a wider regeneration initiative. This was usually area based and
including improving access to a wide range of public services as well as
enhancing skills and employment opportunities. As section 4 outlines these
regeneration schemes drew heavily on European structural funds.
9.4 Greater effort needs to be made to align the agendas of Ministries
responsible for culture with those that are responsible for social
inclusion so that policies can be developed and implemented that
recognise and value the contribution access to cultural services and
activities can play in tackling social exclusion.
During our research it was found that links between the policies within the
Department primarily responsible for culture, and social exclusion agencies at
regional and national level varied enormously. In Germany there were good
links between the Lander and Communes and a clear understanding of areas
of responsibility. A strong steer from National government was not possible
because of the German Constitution. In other countries the national level did
provide a strong steer but this was sometimes based on a narrow
understanding of culture ­ so Spain for example seemed to rely heavily on
education based projects which made it difficult to find projects on the ground
addressing the multi-dimensional nature of social exclusion and providing
services to tackle it. France too had a strong policy framework at the centre
promoting universal access to culture but local authorities were variable as to
the support they gave individual projects.
9.5 Culture needs to be broadly defined; it goes further than the remit of
cultural policy (the arts, sports, media, theatre, museums, libraries) to
embrace opportunities to enhance the quality of life for everyone and to
provide access routes out of marginalisation and unemployment.
Culture was often identified with a set of policies aimed at increasing the
integration of immigrants into the host society. In some states this led to a
close alignment of education and cultural policies although policies aimed at
increasing opportunities to secure employment were also seen as extremely
59
important in this context to provide a route to independence. Such policies
should possibly be complemented by support to projects that seek to enable
minority groups to value and celebrate their indigenous culture.
9.6 Education polices should provide an important mechanism in terms
of celebrating a variety of cultures and introducing children and young
people to a range of cultural services and activities. The educational
experience can be built upon by community-based activities and services and
can be developed in later life. Education was also seen as providing a vehicle
of creating understanding between and tolerance for different groups of
people and cultures. The Autonomous Communities' Education and Culture
Departments in Madrid and Murcia have integrated social inclusion into all of
their education policies and plans. For example, a teacher was using poetry to
explore language and gender roles. The extent to which education can
positively impact on participation in cultural activities needs to be explored
further.
9.7 Further information about the role culture can play in reducing social
exclusion and the support that is provided by the European Commission
could be gathered from a sample audit of the current European funding
programmes outlined in section four of this report. Section 4 provides
some detail about the way in which European funds can support cultural
activities. A full audit of some of these projects would enable a more complete
picture to be formed about the scale of cultural activity and services being
supported.
9.8 The project team would suggest that where European funding is
used (such as URBAN, ESF, GRUNTVIG) to support cultural projects
that piloting of indicators to measure the impact of the participation in
cultural activities on social exclusion should take place.
Recognition of the role that culture can play in attacking social exclusion is
being undermined by a lack of quantifiable evidence (Appendix 3 ­ seminar
report ­ suggests appropriate ways in which this could be undertaken). For
the purposes of this project it appears critical that indicators are developed
that seek to measure involvement in cultural activities and record where
involvement in such activities could have an effect on ameliorating or
preventing exclusion. This would need to go beyond crude measures of the
number of people attending libraries, theatres etc to reach those who, having
acquired increased confidence through cultural activities, go on to work in a
paid or voluntary capacity in creative industries or other employment sectors.
This of course is no easy task. However, a great many of the projects at local
level that support cultural activities as a means of reducing exclusion rely on
European funding or a combination of European and local funding streams. It
would be extremely beneficial therefore to pilot the development of indicators
through such projects. Those funding streams identified in the section above
such as URBAN and GRUNTVIG could be used for this purpose. This would
also have the advantage of delivering some comparability across Europe.
60
Part 2 - Country Profiles
Section 10: Case Study - Denmark
10.1 National socio-economic context
Denmark is one the success stories in Europe in terms of addressing the
related phenomena of poverty and social exclusion. The Danish social welfare
system is based on the principle of universality. The success of the Danish
model is underlined by the fact that in terms of the long-term risk of poverty
Denmark enjoys the lowest risk in the EU, averaging around 5%22
compared
to an EU average of 9% (NAP/incl, 2003). However it should be noted that the
risk of poverty is a relative concept, and the Danish indicators should be
considered against the fact that Denmark has the second highest median
income in the EU (NAP/incl, 2003). Denmark also has one of the European
Union's most even income distribution systems.23
In addition Denmark has
one of the highest employment rates and lowest unemployment levels in the
EU.
Denmark has a high percentage rate of persons active in the labour market.
Almost 79% of people in the 16-66 age range are active in the labour market.
The unemployment rate in Denmark is 5.5% (2002). Over 30% of public
expenditure is spent on social security and welfare. Denmark has one of
Europe's most even income distribution systems and its population has one of
the lowest long-term risks of poverty in EU. Long-term unemployment in
Denmark stands at 1% compared to EU average of 3% (NAP/incl, 2003).
The Danish economy is stable, so far remaining relatively immune from the
world economic slowdown. However, given the slowdown in global economic
growth some slight increases in key economic and social performance
indicators (e.g. unemployment) are expected over the short-term timeframe.
The government is confident that Denmark can ride out any wider global
economic problems and maintain current levels of public spending.
10.2 Social inclusion policy
The focus of social policy in Denmark has developed from a passive approach
to unemployment to a more active approach that aims to get people into the
labour market. This is seen as the best method for combating poverty and
exclusion and engendering social cohesion. A distinction is made between
insured and non-insured unemployed people, with non-insured people
generally activated after one year in contrast to four years for the insured.
22
Approximately 5.4% for women and approximately 4.3% for men.
23
"When data from ECHP is applied, both the Gini coefficient for income distribution in Denmark and
the income ratio are among the lowest in the EU" (See NAP/incl, 2003: 6).
61
As a result of this policy approach, Denmark's NAP/incl 200124
was principally
oriented toward facilitating access to employment where the role of
government is to provide active support measures to assist those not in work
gain or regain employment. Measures include rehabilitation benefits, flexible
working, protected employment and day shelters. Activation programmes for
the unemployed are mainly focused on the long term unemployed (particularly
unskilled workers; women; immigrants; over 50s on sickness benefits) and
those in receipt of welfare benefits, including sickness benefits and early
retirement pensions, as well as the homeless and people with mental illness
and/or drug problems (Kongshj Madse et al, 2001).
Denmark's policy approach also places great emphasis on partnership
working with relevant stakeholders. Indeed delivery of the NAP/incl is
predicated on a high degree of co-operation between tiers of government,
NGOs and social partners at all spatial levels. The Danish government has
established a national Social Council drawing together a range of social
partners, local authorities and the Council of Organisations of Disabled
People. The objective of the Social Council is to strengthen and support
efforts to develop a more socially inclusive labour market.
Social inclusion challenges:
Making a success of the Danish Government's ambition of creating an
inclusive labour market is a key challenge, particularly in the light of an ageing
workforce. The integration of immigrants and ethnic minorities is also seen as
a significant issue. As yet there is no comprehensive national strategy on `e-
inclusion', although there are a numerous but separate initiatives in the field of
ICT. Addressing problems faced by individuals with multiple social and health
problems is also seen as a challenge.
10.3 Social exclusion programmes and practices
Policy action aimed at combating poverty and social exclusion is mainly
targeted at the most disadvantaged and marginalised groups in society (see
sections below for a description of these groups). Related to this, policy action
also concentrates on combating so-called `intergenerational transmission'.
In March 2002 the Government established a programme called `Our
Collective Responsibility' which targets the most vulnerable groups in society.
The objectives of the programme are:
ˇ Strengthening the individual and the respect for the individual person.
ˇ Strengthening prevention.
ˇ Creating greater understanding of vulnerable persons' situation by
informing the population and by training staff.
ˇ Strengthening the volunteers' involvement in task performance and
furthering cooperation between the public sector and voluntary
organisations.
24
Ministry of Social Affairs (2001) Denmark's national action plan to combat poverty and social
exclusion (NAPincl) 2001/2003. Copenhagen: Denmark. Found at: http://www.eapn.org/inclusion/
EUdocs/napsincl/Denmark_en.pdf.
62
ˇ Strengthening cooperation across sectors.
ˇ Insisting on local and county authorities responsibility.
Specific initiatives are being established for the socially marginalised. The
Council for Socially Disadvantaged People25
(created in April 2002) will
monitor these initiatives. The Council also advises the Government and acts
as an advocate for this group, ensuring that the voice of the socially
disadvantaged is heard in national debates. It has 12 members who are
specialists in this field (NAP/incl, 2003).
There is also a programme called the `Encompassing Labour Market' which
aims to create a labour market for people unable to undertake normal
employment (Kongshj Madse et al, 2001). The establishment of this
programme is recognition that some people such as the homeless and those
with mental health problems need wider social policy support rather than
simply activation policies. Therefore a tension exists between the universal
activation policies and policies which recognise that some individuals may
never live a `normal working life' (Kongshj Madse et al, 2001).
10.4 Groups at risk of social exclusion
Denmark's Social Policy refers to `socially marginalised' people who are
"characterised by the fact that their personal and social problems often lie
within several problem areas." (Ministry of Social Affairs, 2002). The groups
identified in the NAP/incl 2003 are:
ˇ Mentally ill people;
ˇ Those lacking social and cultural skills;
ˇ Drug misusers;
ˇ Families where there is alcohol misuse;
ˇ The homeless and others unable to function in their own home;
ˇ Prostitutes;
ˇ Victims of domestic violence;
ˇ Socially disadvantages children and youth;
ˇ Disadvantages elderly;
ˇ Disabled;
ˇ Refugees and immigrants;
ˇ Long-term unemployed.
Minority ethnic groups are not included as socially excluded or marginalised,
unless they fall into any of the categories above. However there is recognition
that there are other reasons why minority ethnic groups, in particular those
newly arrived in Denmark, may need special attention from different Ministries
including the Ministry for Education and the Ministry for Immigration and
Integration Affairs. As one interviewee in the Ministry for Social Affairs
explained:
25
The Council is one of a number of new `social' institutions formed by the Liberal Party and
Conservative coalition Government that came to power in November 2001.
63
...we do not by definition say that they are socially excluded, but I think it's
very obvious in the policies and in the statistics that they are more in danger
of being in the socially excluded groups, and so there are policies that are
aimed to integrate them, also in the cultural areas, particularly in the sports
world, and in the voluntary sector; there are many programmes directed
towards this. They will get funding when they ask for it. So it's not a problem
that we have not been looking at.
10.5 National structures to take forward social inclusion policy
The Ministry for Social Affairs along with the Ministry of Employment and the
Ministry of Interior and Health are mainly responsible for social welfare
matters in Denmark. The Ministry of Social Affairs is responsible for extended
care for the elderly including family policy, activation, rehabilitation and
preventive measures. It implements initiatives that target particular social
groups for example, physically and mentally disabled people, the socially
excluded and those at risk of social exclusion, the mentally ill and alcohol and
drug addicts. The Ministry also provides transfer payments such as old-age
pension, anticipatory pension, maternity benefits, cash assistance and a
variety of special benefits (Ministry of Social Affairs, 2002). The Social Affairs
Ministry established the Agency for Social Service in June 2003 to monitor the
use and delivery of social services to the elderly, children and youth and the
disabled.26
The Ministry of Employment is responsible for benefits and activation
measures for unemployed people. The Ministry for Refugees, Immigration and
Integration Affairs undertakes initiatives that target refugees and immigrants
during their `integration period' into society (Ministry of Social Affairs, 2002).
10.6 Regional and local structures to take forward social inclusion
policy
Local authorities or municipalities have responsibility for planning and
provision of a range of housing, educational and social matters, including care
for older people, daycare facilities, rehabilitation and `activation' of non-
insured unemployed people. They are also responsible for awarding
anticipatory pensions. In addition local authorities administer transfer
payments such as pensions, sickness benefit, child benefit and cash
assistance, although the amount of benefit paid is laid down by statute. The
Counties have responsibility for health services, treatment of alcohol and drug
addicts and provision of accommodation for the homeless and people with
severe physical disabilities or mental health problems. The Counties offer
local authorities advice on support and treatment of the most marginalised
groups in society. They also provide personal advice to citizens (e.g. to
parents of disabled children). The regional Labour Office is responsible for the
activation of the insured unemployed (Kongshj Madse et al, 2001).
26
Non-Government Expert Report on Social Inclusion in Denmark, Report no. 1 (June 2003). Found
at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/soc-prot/studies/denmark_1st_report_final_en.pdf.
64
The government and the National Association of Local Authorities have
agreed to recommend that every individual local authority prepare and adopt
a local policy and action plan for initiatives relating to an inclusive labour
market.
As part of Denmark's partnership philosophy there are `Local Co-ordination
Committees' that bring together government agencies and social partners.
The role of the Committees is:
...to advise the local authorities on the social effort aimed at the labour
market, including what means to use locally to promote measures in favour of
the most vulnerable groups. But the objective is also to bring about a
common understanding locally of how better to equip those groups
professionally, socially and personally to contribute to their own support and
maintenance through employment, including efforts aimed at the corporate
sector.27
Local Co-ordination Committees are seen as an important tool by which social
exclusion is tackled at the local level.
10.7 Understanding of culture
"Cultural policy in Denmark at its starting point was part of the welfare state
product...and part of the aims of cultural policy always have been to give
access to activities, access to libraries, museums for everybody" (interview
with national government officials).
The values underpinning cultural policy are:
ˇ Freedom of speech;
ˇ Quality;
ˇ Decentralisation;
ˇ Cultural democracy. 28
10.8 The focus of cultural policy
Danish Cultural Policy has a broad focus on:
ˇ Creative and Performing Arts (music, theatre, architecture and design,
film, literature, visual arts);
ˇ Preservation and promotion of cultural heritage (libraries, archives,
museums);
ˇ Education and training in the arts;
ˇ International cultural cooperation;
ˇ Sport and local culture;
ˇ Broadcasting;
ˇ Copyright;
27
Ministry of Social Affairs, (2000) Denmark's National Action Plan to Combat Poverty and Social
Exclusion (NAPincl), 2001/2003. Copenhagen: Denmark, p. 16.
28
Ministry of Culture, 2002.
65
ˇ Special initiatives in culture and business and digital culture and
interactive media.29
The trend is towards widening participation and access to museums, libraries
and cultural activities in general. For example there has been an increase in
the number of people using libraries, although this is not measured in terms of
excluded people. However museums where a small fee is charged are
accessible only to those who can afford the fee.
Danish cultural policy also includes a broad popular and local culture
dimension which focuses on sports, zoos, circuses, amateur music and
theatre (Ministry of Culture, 2002). Voluntary sport is a very important aspect
of the work of the Ministry of Culture and local councils:
Participation in voluntary sports organisations is considered to be an
important element in the identity of individuals and the community to which
they belong. Volunteer work is the result of citizen's own initiative. Such
organisations are independent and they contribute to the creation and respect
between people. (Ministry of Culture, 2002: 34).
The special initiatives recognise that culture has become a significant
business in itself, which can provide employment and competitiveness as well
as attracting new residents, tourists and investments (Ministry of Culture,
2002). An informative study on the links between cultural life and business life
2000: Denmark's Creative Potential was published in 2000 by the Ministries of
Trade and Industry and Culture.
10.9 National structures to take forward cultural policy
The Ministry of Culture aims to provide the framework legislation and funding
to enable professionals in Arts Councils and voluntary associations to develop
arts and cultural activities. The Ministry has adopted a `hands off' approach to
cultural development whereby it does not attempt to steer or govern the
cultural sector too much. The Cultural Policy explains this approach:
In order to ensure freedom of expression in art and culture, grants to artists
are given with no political strings attached.... Independence and the arms-
length principle are fundamentals to Danish cultural policy... The Ministry's
role is first and foremost to act as architect of the framework for an
overarching cultural policy and, in collaboration with Parliament to set the
objectives and to create the structures that form the basis for cultural policy.
(Ministry of Culture, 2002: 5).
One of the interviewees from the Ministry of Culture reiterated this:
...at the end of the day it's not that strange that we end up with a non-
governmental project, because what we do in our Ministry is mostly to provide
frameworks; framework legislation and framework funding, and then we leave
it in general to professionals; arts councils, voluntary associations...to use
29
Ibid.
66
themselves. So we are trying not to steer or to govern too much in the sector
of culture.
Therefore neither civil servants nor politicians grant money to the arts instead
the newly formed Arts Council (which brings together the Councils for art,
theatre, music and literature) grants public monies. There are also various
architecture and design institutes including the commercially run Danish
Centre for Architecture. The Danish Film Institute is responsible for promoting
the art and culture of film. Funding for cultural activities comes from taxes,
licence fees and the profits from the national lottery and football pools.
10.10 The regional/local structures to take forward cultural policy
The application of the subsidiarity principle in Denmark means that local
authorities and politicians have considerable influence and responsibility for
cultural policies. Funding is distributed at central, county and local levels with
the majority of funding being spent at local level. Local and county councils
fund cultural initiatives and institutions including community cultural centres,
libraries, sport, local radio stations and cultural associations (Ministry of
Culture, 2002).
Every municipality (or a group of municipalities if necessary) must provide a
public library for which they are responsible for running and financing. There
is free access to libraries for all citizens. The objective of public libraries is:
...to promote information, education and culture by providing the public with
access to books, periodicals, audio books and other material - for instance
music and electronic information resources, such as the internet and
multimedia.30
In terms of sport, legislation enacted in 1999 enables any region in Denmark
to receive cultural grants for a period of four years and provides for
considerable freedom to allocate this money to different cultural activities.
10.11 National Action Plan Inclusion 2001
This was the responsibility of the Ministry for Social Affairs with contributions
from a Steering Committee which brought together several departments
including:
ˇ Ministry of Labour;
ˇ Ministry of Urban and Housing Affairs;
ˇ Ministry of Trade and Industry;
ˇ Ministry of Information Technology and Research;
ˇ Ministry of the Interior;
ˇ Ministry of Health;
ˇ Ministry of Education;
ˇ Ministry of Economic Affairs;
ˇ Prime Minister's Office;
30
Ministry of Culture, 2002.
67
ˇ Department of Gender Equality.
The Ministry for Social Affairs has overall responsibility for the NAP process,
although the NAP/incl 2001 states that other Ministries also have
responsibility for areas connected to exclusion (Ministry for Social Affairs,
2001). For example, the Ministry for Labour deals with unemployment
insurance, the Ministry for Housing and Urban Affairs is responsible for
housing benefit policy and the health affairs is the responsibility of the Ministry
of Health. The Ministry of the Interior is responsible for refugees and
immigrant initiatives.
Main focus:
The NAP/incl 2001 reflects Danish social policy which places some emphasis
on employment. The NAP/incl states that the Danish `activation' approach is
about:
ˇ Contributing to increasing the labour supply;
ˇ Improving self-support and preventing marginalisation;
ˇ Ensuring reasonable financial support without jeopardising the incentive
to take up employment.
European Commission analysis:
The European Commission's analysis of the NAP/incl 2001 praises the
Danish policy approach for its comprehensiveness. The Commission point out
that the Danish approach has some innovative features such as measures
supporting the responsibilities of social partners, for instance the Social Index
and Socio-Ethical Accounts, which provide incentives for business to act in a
socially responsible manner. Denmark's universal social welfare system
where there is free access for all to education, housing and healthcare as well
as comprehensive care provision for the elderly and children, is seen as
having been effective in preventing and alleviating poverty and social
exclusion.
Extent to which culture was included in the NAP/incl:
Very limited. The NAP/incl 2001 does not address the issue of access to
culture from the perspective of social exclusion, nor does Denmark's current
national cultural policy document31
. Culture appears to be a missing
dimension in Denmark's strategy to address poverty and social exclusion,
possibly as an unintended consequence of the decentralised and `arms
length' systems in operation (see below). Therefore it may be more an issue
of co-ordination between the national cultural framework policies horizontally
(i.e. with other departments of central government) and the implementation at
county and local levels, rather than any failure of understanding or intention.
31
The Danish Ministry of Culture, (2002) Danish Cultural Policy. Copenhagen: The Danish Ministry
of Culture. Found at: http://kum.inforce.dk/graphics/kum/downloads/Publikationer/Publikationer_
ENGELSKE/danishcultpol.doc.
68
However there is mention of a charter between the Ministry of Social Affairs
and Ministry of Culture, which refers to cooperation between the public and
voluntary sectors. The good practice section list some projects for example:
ˇ The local authority of Greve has adopted a policy for "the integration of
ethnic minorities" (Ministry for Social Affairs, 2001) which aims to unite all
initiatives taken by the local authority in one place, for example, day-care
facilities, schools, culture, leisure time and club facilities, housing
allocation, Danish language lessons, training and education, employment,
families, and activities relating to older immigrants and refugees.
Examples of the activities undertaken are establishment of a library-
based information search system for citizens with a non-Danish ethnic
background and special classes in social and societal subjects for all
foreigners shortly after their arrival in Denmark.
ˇ `SOLICOM' is an IT project for socially excluded people in Vejle funded by
the European Commission (DG Employment and Social Affairs) to
develop an internet based application for socially excluded groups to use
to develop their own proposals and encourages exchange between the
partners in Italy and Germany.
ˇ `Language play' seeks integration of bilingual children in day-care
facilities and schools in the local authority of Albertslund which focuses on
language development in "both Danish and bilingual children" (Ministry for
Social Affairs, 2001). It also supports employment of bilingual people to
strengthen the relations with the parents of bilingual children by creating
an understanding of cultural and social backgrounds.
How was the NAP/incl being implemented?
Through the various ministries, local authorities, counties and agencies listed
elsewhere in this document.
How was it monitored?
The Danish NAP/incl lists a number of indicators being monitored to track the
change in social exclusion:
ˇ Income distribution;
ˇ Employment/unemployment;
ˇ Transfer Income receipts (temporary benefits including unemployment,
sickness, maternity, etc);
ˇ Living conditions (e.g. health, education, housing).
10.12 National Action Plan Inclusion 2003
Who is responsible?
The Ministry for Social Affairs with contributions from a Steering Committee
which brings together several departments including:
ˇ Ministry of Labour;
ˇ Ministry of Urban and Housing Affairs;
ˇ Ministry of Trade and Industry;
ˇ Ministry of Information Technology and Research;
69
ˇ Ministry of the Interior;
ˇ Ministry of Health;
ˇ Ministry of Education;
ˇ Ministry of Economic Affairs;
ˇ Prime Minister's Office;
ˇ Department of Gender Equality.
Main focus:
An official in the Ministry of Social Affairs stated in interview that there would
be less emphasis on employment as a route out of exclusion and more of a
focus on groups of people who are socially excluded:
...this time we have distinguished more between the employment part of the
problem, in order to avoid too much overlap with the Employment NAPs. This
time we are focussed merely on the most marginalized groups, knowing that
this will not always lead to labour market participation.
It was also stated that there would be more information from other
departments, for example the Ministry of Culture, whose input they
acknowledge was missing last time. One interviewee at national level made
the comment that "there are as least as many aims in the National Action
Plans as there are departments involved in them." Another national level
interviewee highlighted the difficulty of having "a limit of 40 pages" implying
that not everything could be fitted into the NAP.
Extent to which culture is included in the next NAP/incl (2003):
It was thought by national representatives that culture would be mentioned in
general in the NAP/incl and that there would only be a limited reference to
culture. As one interviewee explained that culture would:
...not [be mentioned] so much this time. But a little bit more than last time,
because last time it was the notion of activation that prevailed, and we
realised we had too much overlap to the employment side, so we have
focussed more on the side effects this time, integrating cultural policy.
In terms of culture three main areas are covered:
ˇ Sports;
ˇ Library;
ˇ Cultural Heritage.
In the section of the NAP/incl entitled "strategic approach and main targets for
2003-05", cultural policy is seen as an important tool in terms of encouraging
public "participation in cultural life" (p.24). In order to address this issue the
Government will support cultural activities for children through the
encouragement of networking among major institutions such as the Cultural
Inheritance Protection Agency, Danish National Library Authority, Danish Film
Institute and Danish Arts (p.38). Sport is also seen as an important vehicle for
breaking down social and cultural barriers among ethnic Danes, immigrants
and refugees.
70
Who is responsible for implementation?
As above with the Ministry for Social Affairs having overall responsibility.
How will it be monitored?
When asked about monitoring and evaluation the representatives from the
Ministries did not have in-depth knowledge of how this information would be
gathered in terms of cultural activities and socially marginalised groups. In
general it was thought difficult to gather statistics on the most marginalised
groups since they are often difficult to reach and often suffer multiple
problems. However, the National Institute of Social Research does collect
information on some indicators which might be used to monitor and evaluate
projects and programmes. For instance there is limited data on the most
marginalised people such as those in and out of prison, and institutions for
drug addiction and these could be measured on a small area basis. A difficult
problem is how to measure the impact of these programmes and projects
when there are so many different activities involved and it is difficult (if not
impossible) methodologically to separate out cause and effect. It is also
necessary to evaluate over a long time-scale since the effects on the people
and the area are often not seen immediately. An interviewee from national
government explained:
Many aspects have to be taken in before you can see effects. Then it is
difficult to say very loud what was the effect of these programmes.
Despite this, funders are beginning to ask for more evidence about the impact
of their money. A research centre in Copenhagen has been established to
systematise evaluations of various Government programmes and ensure that
specific methodologies are used to evaluate. It is hoped that this will lead to
the dissemination of good practice.
10.13 Key comparative changes between NAPs/incl 2001 and 2003
The principal focus of the new NAP/incl (2003) is on the most `disadvantaged'
or `weakest' groups and individuals in society. There is less emphasis in the
updated NAP/incl on employment policy as a tool for addressing social
inclusion since there is now a Danish Employment NAP that specifically
addresses this area of policy.
10.14 Approach to the links between social exclusion and culture
Who is making the links - Ministries/regional level etc?
Cultural policies in Denmark do not necessarily focus specifically on social
exclusion although elements do have relevance to social exclusion agenda.
There are no specific programmes aimed at socially excluded groups. For
example, sports programmes run by organisations based on a voluntary
commitment that are doing general work but also specific projects which are
aimed at people who are marginalised or suffer from social exclusion. The
second example given was the library sector. The third example is cultural
heritage in general, including museums which make contributions to the area
of social exclusion. The Ministry for Culture has an ad hoc approach, leaving it
71
to the Arts Councils, local authorities and NGOs to decide whether to focus on
particular groups or not. One interviewee from the Ministry of Culture
reiterated the idea that the cultural policy is important for social exclusion but
also for the whole of society:
You know, speaking about what cultural policies can do for those groups -
also for the normal reasons we have cultural policies - which is personal
development, reflection, participation in society, these kind of general aims.
Entertaining, fun...
The Ministry of Social Affairs funds some social exclusion projects which
include cultural elements. For example, interviewees mentioned a project
which has funded homeless people to make their own newspaper, their own
radio and television programmes. This is within a framework of enabling users
to participate in and influence their own services and environment. Other
examples given by national government interviewees were cultural (sports)
projects or educational projects with the mentally ill, projects in run-down
residential areas with social problems, large minority ethnic groups or high
unemployment rates. Although there is no overall strategic plan linking social
exclusion and cultural activities, they do occur as can be seen in Section 7.
At local level, in the City of Copenhagen one interviewee stated that in terms
of tackling social exclusion, culture and sports was not seen as a high priority
by the Council; the emphasis was more on education policies. The same
interviewee thought that the system was very segregated and the funder did
not necessarily see the links between cultural and social issues:
That's the big one in the institutional system [education]. Nothing in cultural
policies. It's very limited. Sometimes you know, some projects are excluded
in cultural projects, because people say, "Oh this is a social project!
Cultural emphasis?
In our interviews with national government officials most emphasis was placed
on sports.
How is the combined approach being delivered?
The combined approach is normally at a local level and is project based,
rather than directed by Ministry for Culture or Ministry of Social Affairs.
However funding does come from all levels of government to finance these
projects. One Ministry of Culture interviewee stated that cultural policies are
aimed at everybody, so they "could argue that anything we do with our cultural
policies can have relevance."
However another interviewee at national level stated that the goal of
integrating culture and social exclusion policies has not been achieved:
...we are talking about projects, new projects coming up all the time. We still
haven't gone to the next level, which I suppose would be integration of this
into the daily work of all these institutions that are working with it. I don't
know if it's possible at all to do that, but it should be, if you want to have a
72
coherent policy, it should be integrated in all the processes. We are not
there yet.
However, there was an understanding at national level that culture was an
important factor in addressing social exclusion. Interviewees at national level
remarked that this was because it is fun to take part in cultural activities and
by participating in such activities people have experience of culture, which in
turn can increase a person's capacity to do things and enhance their self-
respect and quality of life. One interviewee talked about a process of
`normalisation' whereby socially excluded people can take part in `normal'
activities or at least be given the opportunity and choice to participate. There
was also an acknowledgement that while social exclusion policies were often
aimed at gaining employment, this is sometimes a long-term process and
people need support in other aspects of their life before they can cope with
paid employment. Therefore cultural activities and social exclusion and other
policies (e.g. housing and health) enable people to participate in society in
ways other than employment and it is this that strengthens the possibility of
social cohesion. As one interviewee explained:
First of all, because it's fun. I mean it isn't fun to live on the street, for
example, but it's fun to do sport, it's fun to see a picture, and then it gives
you an experience, and maybe the ability to...get some kind of...self
respect.... Just do a normal thing like sport, like everybody else, so that's a
means to strengthen the possibilities of cohesion.... But we also have this
attitude which is, I think, realistic that some of these people, it takes super-
human patience to get them back to something which slightly could remind
you of something that once upon a time had something to do with the
labour market.... But if you accept this, the other goal is to say that the least
we can do is to secure some kind of life quality, and doing that could
preserve the slight chance that they sometime may be able to participate in
some corner of the labour market or whatever, but having a life which is
decent, and cultural activities is definitely a part of that.
How much money is being spent?
Funding comes from all levels of government, national, regional and local.
The local and county authorities can apply to national government for money
to fund activities, the expenditure is usually split 50-50 (national-local/county).
An interviewee from the Ministry for Social Affairs put the cost at about 70
million Euros for activities to support social exclusion activities as mentioned
in Section 6.1. However this amount is negotiated and agreed on each year
by Parliament.
How is it being monitored?
According to the Danish National Institute of Social Research, surveys
demonstrate that long-term unemployed people participate in sports and other
activities such as local area associations. However, there is little data on
those who in Denmark are labelled as `socially marginalised' persons.
10.15 Denmark - case study profile
Dates of visit:
73
18-20th
June 2003.
Interviews undertaken:
ˇ Bjarne Fey, Director of Boys' Club, Nrrebro;
ˇ Jan Brehm, SSP Consultant;
ˇ Birte Lynghj, Librarian (Adults Services), Rdovre Hovedbibliotek;
ˇ Lone Terpgrd, Librarian (Children's Services), Rdovre
Hovedbibliotek;
ˇ Camilla Pedersen, Social Worker;
ˇ Peter Juul, Head of Department, Ministry of Social Affairs;
ˇ Jacob Schouenborg, Head of Section, Ministry of Culture;
ˇ Jrgen Wits-Lund, Deputy Head of International Relations, Ministry
of Social Affairs;
ˇ Per Voetmann, Director, EU Affairs, Ministry of Culture;
ˇ Torben Fridberg, Head of Research, Danish National Institute of
Social Research;
ˇ Hannah Klausen, Director;
ˇ Karina, Art Teacher.
Visits to programmes/projects undertaken:
ˇ Boys' Club, Nrrebro, Blegerds Plads 25, 2200 Copenhagen;
ˇ `Tremilen', Norrekeaer 8, Rdovre Kommune;
ˇ Kunstkolen, Vesterbro, Valdermarsgade 6, 1665 Copenhagen.
10.16 Denmark case study - example 1
Who is responsible?
Bjarne Fey and Ohm Flemming
Date begun:
The original project began in 1984/85 with a social worker.
Description of the programme/project:
Rabarbarlandet, Nrrebro, Copenhagen
Rabarbarlandet (Rhubarb Area) is a project within the area of Nrrebro
situated in the north of Copenhagen. It is a cultural project aimed mainly at
Arabic speaking people although individuals from other cultural and linguistic
backgrounds are welcome. Its main focus is on sport although there are other
smaller projects within the overall project, these are:
ˇ Club for children to play sports (including swimming, football, boxing, go-
karting);
ˇ `Nrrebronx' sports club with approximately 230 members which has daily
activities (started 2002). 80% are Arabic speaking, 20% Danish;
ˇ Celebrations on special occasions;
ˇ Summer time activities for children;
ˇ Video project with 12 boys (12-16 year olds) in collaboration with the local
Culture House. The boys learn how to use cameras and make films;
74
ˇ Neighbourhood watch run by Arabic fathers in the area who walk the
streets at night;
ˇ Danish classes;
ˇ Advice and support for unemployed Arabic speakers to find work;
ˇ Women's groups (mostly Arabic but also Turkish women) who meet to
drink coffee and talk;
ˇ `Lonely Youth' telephone helpline for young people. Volunteers answer
the phones one day a week;
ˇ Homeless shelter that began as part of the project but is now more
independent, although it is still co-ordinated by Rabarbarlandet.
Cost of programme/project:
In 1998 the project received approximately 1.5 million DKK of which some
400,000 DKK was from the Ministry of Social Affairs, with the rest coming
from the City of Copenhagen. This made up about two thirds of the budget,
while the remaining third came from fundraising activities. In 2003 the City of
Copenhagen became the sole financier of the project. However the project
directors are unsure as to whether this will mean the project will collapse or
reduce in size as it did in the mid to late 1990s. Funding comes from the
Department of Social Affairs in Copenhagen, while finance for sports activities
is provided by the Culture Department (200,000 DKK) and the project also
receives funds from the Education Department (1million DKK).
The project applies for different funds from the City of Copenhagen depending
on the activities it wants to carry out. There is money available but as an
interviewee said:
...we have to make a special project every time we seek it...so we need to
go into a new area; we have to go to the culture area to get new financial
sources, otherwise we are struggling.
The interviewee thought that for his project this was acceptable because he
wanted to develop cultural and sports activities further. Despite this, there is
concern that the City of Copenhagen will not be providing new resources from
2004.
Monitoring mechanisms:
There are no specific monitoring mechanisms but evaluation is carried out.
The approach to evaluation is ad hoc with some individual projects being
externally evaluated. The overall project is evaluated every five years, which
is funded by the municipality and is used to make decisions about
continuation of funding rather than as part of a formative evaluation. The
director highlighted the difficulty in evaluating projects like his and of finding
suitable indicators to measure success:
Some of the problem is we have people to evaluate us from the outside but
the main project we do not have anyone evaluating us, to tell us how it's
going, we don't have any pointers to success. No, we don't have that.
Because you're dependent on so many factors and you cannot control
them, but of course we can't do better than to tell them what we're going to
75
do, what the resources should be. But some of the results are really just...
we just want people to meet, to be happy, to have some light in their life.
Effectiveness:
Since there were no evaluations available it is difficult to judge the
effectiveness of the project. The interviewee pointed out barriers to
effectiveness, the main one being the lack of co-ordination between various
organisations within Nrrebro. Nrrebro used to be a municipality but it is now
part of the City of Copenhagen. The director of the project thought that the
abolition of the municipality of Nrrebro led to the breaking up of networks, as
he commented:
But for 4 years, we had our own Council in this area and that's one of the
reasons all the networks came crashing down and we had to start all over
again to make the kind of agreements or cooperation between the different
schools and the voluntary organisations and the culture centres. It was
broken down and people just, I don't know, went into themselves and the
mayor of this area was very dynamic and he forced people to work
together. But now...now we have to find new ways to work together again.
This had impacted specifically on the unemployment project because links
were not being made between organisations in the centre of Copenhagen and
the centre in Rabarbarlandet, where specialized support can be given to
Arabic speaking people. Communication is a problem but Rabarbarlandet is
working to overcome this.
When asked about the benefits of the project the director stated:
I think they have got a meeting point, they can meet other people. I think...I
can see that people are very isolated here. Maybe they know they are
there, their cousins and so on, but they are very isolated in the flats. And
now we are giving the opportunity to meet other people but sometimes we
have to knock on the doors and get them out!
10.17 Denmark case study - example 2
Who is responsible?
Jan Breme and the team at Tremilen in Rdovre Community.
Date begun:
1995
Description of the programme/project:
The main programme `SSP' in Rdovre Kommune focuses on the cooperation
between the education, the social system and the police. It is aimed at
improving the area, crime prevention and supporting young people. Within this
broad programme there is a network of several projects all based in the
community centre `Tremilen'.
The `library project' ran for one year in 2002 and aimed to "use culture as the
dynamo in social work". The library is based in Tremilen and has two
76
librarians who have set up a library in a non-traditional way. It has no books
(largely due to lack of resources) although these can be ordered from the
main library. Instead it has newspapers and magazines and a broader range
of activities for the community. A steering group was formed to explore how
the community of Rdovre could be supported and the library participated in
this. Activities that are carried out include:
ˇ Role-playing - where children worked with instructors and designed
costumes and make them, paint small figures and role-playing. This activity
brought together Danish and Kurdish boys for the first time and introduced
them to art;
ˇ Children's theatre;
ˇ Trips to the countryside or to the beach.
There is also a `Girls Project' in Rdovre that aims to support girls who suffer
from social problems such as drugs, family and relationship difficulties.
Groups of Danish, Kurdish and other minority ethnic girls are included. The
aim is to help deal with their problems, build self-esteem and encourage them
to take part in activities after school such as sport. The philosophy behind the
project is to allow the girls to decide for themselves what they want to do
during their time with the girl's group mediator. The girls mostly do sport but
they also engage in dancing, painting and sculpture. Similar groups are run
for boys (usually younger boys) by a male mediator. The mediators work with
other partners to support the children, for example the police, a nurse, social
workers and librarians. Volunteers are also involved and help to mediate
between the paid workers in the project and the parents. This is useful,
particularly when the volunteer can explain, for example to Kurdish parents in
Kurdish what the children are doing and why. It is important that the parents
trust the volunteer. The volunteer acts as a bridge builder between different
cultures, as one interviewee explained:
And that is a real important thing we have to say, that working with
minorities it is very important to have a bridge builder, who knows the
culture and who can make a bridge to go over the gaps.
There was also a project in 2000 that aimed to teach the Danish language to
mainly Kurdish women. Crime prevention is an important strand and the
following projects have been established:
ˇ `Night Ravens' - residents (mostly parents) have been employed as street
wardens who walk around the community in the evenings and talk to the
young people in order to prevent crime. They wear yellow jackets as a
uniform but do not have the same responsibility and powers as the
police.
ˇ Drug education in schools to provide information to pupils about the
dangers of all drugs including tobacco and alcohol.
ˇ `Youth Club' - that is mainly attended by boys. The walls of the club are
full of graffiti. The club hopes to encourage the idea of graffiti as art by
giving the boys space to be creative rather than them vandalising other
spaces with graffiti.
77
Cost of programme/project:
The actual cost is not known, although funding comes from the Government
and the Rdovre Kommune. The resources for the Girls' Project are short-
term and will only last until the end of this 2003. One of the interviewees
highlighted the fact that short-term funding leads to uncertainty even though
those working on the project believe it is having a positive impact on the girls.
The other workers in the SSP project will continue until at least 2008.
Monitoring mechanisms:
Mostly related to the overall project SSP. Crime indicators are monitored by
the police which reflect the importance of the crime prevention objectives in
the project. These are also easy to collect compared to other more qualitative
indicators such as self-esteem and quality of life.
Effectiveness:
Following on from the section above, crime figures were said to demonstrate
the effectiveness of the overall project since crimes were decreasing, for
example violence, burglary, vandalism, robbery, drug abuse.
The interviewees however, reported a change in the attitude and behaviour of
the children they have been working with, for example:
I have seen a big change in my girls. In the beginning the girls were very
naughty, they were shouting at other people, children, beating up...It's the
little group - 6 to 12 years old. They were tough and they say some really
bad things to grown ups. They almost climb up the walls, you couldn't
control them but now they have really calmed down and you can tell things.
You can say that is not good about giving trouble and they will listen to you.
You can take them to the library and they don't scream etc. They sit quietly
and read books...
It is hoped that as the girls leave the project they will join in social activities on
their own accord, although this is the long-term goal.
Each smaller project has written `an end of project report' and SSP produced
an additional report detailing all its activities in 2002 (these are available only
in Danish).
10.18 Denmark case study - example 3
Who is responsible?
Hannah Klausen, Director
Date begun:
1994
Description of the programme/project:
Art School (Kunstkolen) in Vesterbro, Copenhagen.
78
The Art School is a school for people with disabilities. There are 10 students
(aged over 18 years) and 2 teachers. Students attend the school after an
induction process during which their skill in artwork is observed and they are
asked questions about why they want to attend. The students also have the
opportunity to see if it is the right school for them. The process of acceptance
is not related to their artistic skills but their potential as an artist, as one
interviewee explained:
So it's not that they have to be very talented, but if we can see that this is a
person who burns for this, who really wants it, that's the main question for
us.
However, the school is not about therapy for the student as this is given by
other agencies, rather it is strictly focussed on producing good quality artists
and art.
The students spend 5 days a week at the school and a total of about 20 hours
in lessons. They stay at the school for about 10 months although some attend
for a longer period of time. There is no time limit on the length of time a
student can spend at the school. One of the students has been at the school
for seven years and although the Government would like the school to tell the
students to leave after a certain number of months, the school rejects this.
The school believes that it takes a long time to produce an artist and that
some people need longer than others.
Currently the school is located in an office block where there is also a café for
disabled people on the same floor as the school. However, the Director and
teacher explained that the office block does not create the right atmosphere
for artists. The students work together in a small classroom. The Director has
plans to expand the school and is currently writing an action plan to do this.
The hope is that the school will be able to move into larger premises where
there will be sufficient room for a studio for experienced artists, a classroom
for the newer students and a gallery. It has been suggested that the school
could form part of a cultural centre for people with disabilities, bringing
together theatre, music, dance and art.
The students' paintings are exhibited each year at the Town Hall in
Copenhagen. Once a week the students go on a trip outside the classroom to
museums, galleries and parks where they draw and talk about art.
Cost of programme/project:
Full cost is not known but the Director has to raise about 300,000 DKK each
year on top of the money she receives from the Department of Social Affairs
in the Municipality of Copenhagen. For the first three years the Director had to
lobby to obtain funding each year to finance the school. However the finance
received from local government is permanent now. This funding comes with
strings attached, meaning a loss of freedoms, although the Director so far has
been very effective at lobbying and for example, not making students leave
after a certain length of time at the school. However, the school has had to
move premises five times in seven years at the request of local government
79
and the last time this occurred the project ended up having to move into
worse premises. As this example shows the school is not entirely independent
of local government. The school felt it had sufficient funding, although it could
make use of additional resources, for instance move to larger premises.
Monitoring mechanisms:
No formal monitoring takes place.
Effectiveness:
The effectiveness of the school is demonstrated ultimately in the skill of the
artists, the quality of the art and the number of paintings sold. However, the
development of the student is the most important demonstration of success
and this is not only in terms of artistic talent but also in terms of personal
development. Being part of a group of students allows social and
communication skills to develop. Going on trips widens the outlook of the
students and makes them more independent, for example by using public
transport, going into shops and restaurants and meeting other people.
The exhibitions demonstrate the effectiveness of the school and its artists. At
first the only people attending the exhibitions were those people who worked
with the disabled. However a television programme was made about the
school and as a result more people are coming along to the exhibitions and
making enquiries about purchasing paintings. As the Director commented:
And so many people said: `Wow! We didn't know they could do so!.' And
that's one step to show that there are actually qualities to be used, we are
not just giving and giving and using money. Some people think: `Oh they
get everything!' But they are actually giving a lot of things back and it is very
important to show that.
10.19 Denmark - drivers and barriers to the development of links
between the culture and social exclusion agendas
Barriers:
ˇ Cultural policies are aimed at the general population rather than
targeted at particular sections of society. This means that, for example
there is a general policy to increase participation in museums and
libraries but the monitoring of this policy is not broken down sufficiently
to record usage by those who are from socially excluded groups. As a
result it is difficult to assess whether this policy is actually providing
assistance to the most excluded in society.
ˇ By definition the focus on excluded groups sometimes excludes other
groups, as one interviewee explained regarding the experiences of
librarians:
...they had experience sometimes when they did more to get some of
the socially excluded into the library, they scared out the so-called
normal, average users. Because if you come into the reading room
and they are filled with the homeless people who have not been
washed for a couple of months or something like that, a lot of people
don't like to sit next to them and read.
80
Another interviewee stated that similar experiences occurred in other
sectors, for example in the health services.
ˇ Finance is often an important barrier.
ˇ Cost. Often where a charge is levied, for example in museums or at
sports clubs, socially excluded people cannot afford to access these
services.
ˇ Sports clubs and associations are run on a local, voluntary basis and
are often small. Financing can be a problem, as specialist instructors
may be needed, for example for the mentally ill or disabled people.
Also the will of the volunteers to work with socially excluded people in
their spare time has to be there; the Government cannot always rely on
people's sense of `social responsibility'. As one interviewee explained:
But it's not uncomplicated to make them participate because most of
this work is done by volunteers in their spare time. They are training
youngsters in soccer or whatever they are doing because they like
it; the young people are playing soccer because they like it. If you
have to introduce mentally ill people into groups, it demands a lot of
those people, not only the trainers or leaders but also of the other
participants and that is also a problem. It's not only financing, it's
also a more broad complex problem because you might kill the
interest, the original interest for the sport for instance, of those who
initiated it, by introducing too many difficult problems in their
volunteer work. And that's a tricky problem to solve.
Drivers:
ˇ Where services are free socially excluded people can access services
and often do, for example, libraries.
ˇ Governments give finance for special programmes to link cultural
activities and social exclusion.
10.20 Denmark - implications for policy
ˇ Difficulty of measuring impact - of finding quantitative indicators
(see monitoring and effectiveness sections).
ˇ `Silo culture' of Municipality funding streams and the lack of co-
ordination (e.g. at national level but also the example given in
Nrrebro).
ˇ Segregation or integration in terms of delivery of services for
socially excluded groups. See the sports club and association
example given above. Also the Arts School stated that schools in
Denmark had tried to integrate disabled people but that this was not
a success because:
They always felt outside, no matter how much you try to do they really
see - "All the others can do what I can't do" - and they need
friendships that they can't get there in normal classes. That's what we
experienced here. Maybe it wasn't done the right way, or maybe we
81
should have more staff to do it, I don't know, but it hasn't been a
success.... And I think that this is part of developing to that point
where people with disabilities aren't really included in society, but we
need this centre to make people grow, people with disabilities, to
show how people can grow, and to show the society around what is
going on, and I think we came a good step forward with this school,
because we are one of the institutions that really manage to get out
into society.
ˇ Short-term funding initiatives are problematic when funding comes to
an end. Also, there are difficulties when conditions are attached to
funding (see Art School). Sustainability of projects is another important
factor.
10.21 References (reports/literature/web sites accessed)
Carlsen, H., Kruse, L. and Astrup, P. (2002) Idrttens rummelighed; 14
integrationsprojekter om foreningslivets muligheder og begrnsninger.
Copenhagen: Danmarks Idrts-Forbund og Spcialministeriet.
Centre for Social Integration and Differentiation (CID), Copenhagen Business
School.32
City of Copenhagen website contains some brief details on Culture and
Recreation Committee.
Hamfeldt Pedersen, A. (2003) Etniske minoritetsbrn og unges brug af
fritidstilbud i Rdovre Kommune: Statusrapport - barrierer og muligheder.
Rdovre: Rdovre Kommune.
Kongshj Madse, P., Munch-Madsen, P. and Langhoff-Roos, K. (2001) All
Hands on Deck! Fighting Social Exclusion in Denmark. Chapter in Mayes, D.
G., Berghman, J. and Salais, R. (eds.) (2001) Social Exclusion and European
Policy. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
Larson, J. E. (2001) Spatialization and culturalization of social policy:
conducting marginal people and local people in local communities.
Conference paper presented at the EURA annual conference, Copenhagen.
Lynghj, B. (2003) Trd Nye Stier: Alternativ biblioteksbetjening I Rdovre
Syd. Rdovre: Rdovre Kommunebiblioteker.
Madsen, P.K., Much-Madsen, P. and Langhoff-Roos, K. All hands on Deck!
Fighting social exclusion in Denmark, 124-151. In: Mayes, D.G., Berghman, J.
and Salais, R. (eds) (2001) Social exclusion and European policy.
Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA, USA: Edward Elgar.
32
CSD website found at: http://www.cbs.dk/departments/cid/.
82
Ministry of Culture (1999) Report to Parliament on the cultural policy initiatives
taken by Government on behalf of children.
Ministry of Culture (2002) Danish Cultural Policy.
Ministry of Refugee, Immigration and Integration Affairs website contains
details of the Danish Urban Regeneration Programme and examples of good
practices including: The Holmbladsgade Cultural Café and other BME
projects. Information about the Think Tank on integration (of foreigners into
Danish society).
Ministry of Social Affairs (2001) Denmark's National Action Plan to Combat
Poverty and Social Exclusion. Copenhagen: Ministry of Social Affairs.
Ministry of Social Affairs (2002) Social Policy in Denmark. Ministry for Social
Affairs website, found at: http://www.kum.dk/sw1356.asp.
Ministry of Social Affairs (2003) Denmark's National Action Plan to Combat
Poverty and Social Exclusion. Copenhagen: Ministry of Social Affairs.
Ministry of Trade and Industry and the Ministry for Culture (2000) 2000:
Denmark's Creative Potential. Copenhagen 2000: Ministry of Trade and
Industry and the Ministry for Culture (Found at: www.kum.dk).
Rdovre Kommune (2002) Byudvalgsarbejdet I Krene/Bybjerget, Rdovre
Kommune 1994-2002; en samlet beskrivelse. Rdovre: Rdovre Kommune.
Rdovre Kommune (2002) SSP rsrapport. Rdovre: Rdovre Kommune.
Solicom. Information on Solicom, an internet platform for combating social
exclusion sponsored by the European Commission, found at:
www.solicom.de.
UGIS background report (see case study update report 29/04/03), found at:
http://www.inm.dk/Index/mainstart.asp?o=17&n=0&s=5.
83
Section 11: Case Study - Germany
11.1 National socio-economic context
Germany has a comprehensive social protection system that is based on
various social insurance schemes, which provide insurance against a range of
potential misfortunes that may afflict people over their life times. Around 90%
of the German population is covered by the various social insurance
schemes. There also exists a `safety net' for those individuals who fall outside
the parameters of the social insurance system.
The German coalition government is struggling to arrest the high and
persistent levels of unemployment. For example, the unemployment rate fell
from 11.1% in 1998 to 9.4% in 2001, only rise again to 9.8% in 2002
(NAP/incl, 2003). In addition, youth unemployment has risen and the problem
of unemployment remains particularly acute in the former East German
Länder, where the unemployment rate is 17.3% (2001 figures, NAP/incl,
2003). One of the main causes of the unemployment problem is the sluggish
performance of the German economy in recent years. Another factor that still
resonates today is the burden placed on the social security systems resulting
from the reunification of Germany in the early 1990s. Both employers and
employees were forced to make increased contributions and as a result
businesses invested less and hired fewer new staff, while in addition private
consumption levels decreased (NAP/incl, 2003). Approximately 10.9%33
(2001) of the German population live in relative poverty. However the poverty
rate is much higher in eastern Germany, having risen from 13.6% in 1998 to
15.9% in 2001 (NAP/incl, 2003).
11.2 Social inclusion policy
The approach to social exclusion in Germany is based on the concept of a
`socially fair society' and the need to strengthen social cohesion. More
recently attention has also begun to focuses on social exclusion issues arising
from the developing `knowledge based society'. As with the case of Denmark,
33
Proportion of incomes below 60% of the median equivalised income.
84
German policy is strongly oriented towards employment inclusion measures.
Another key feature of the German approach is the role of education, which
has a strong focus on integration and preparing young people for
employment. Policy intervention to tackle poverty and social exclusion have
concentrated on two types of intervention:
1. Structural ­ intervening in the labour market to reduce exclusion and
marginality.
2. Industrial ­ improving individual capabilities, improving family relations
and encouraging poor people to become more self-reliant.
Since reunification it could be said that a third type of poverty has emerged,
`social poverty', a phenomenon brought about by inadequate welfare
measures.
Trends in poverty in Germany roughly follow those of the labour market and
recent rises in unemployment (since 1998) have led to increases in poverty
levels.
Social exclusion challenges:
One of the main contemporary challenges facing Germany is the need to
address issues specific to the eastern Länder, particularly high levels of
unemployment. Greater involvement is required from the regional and local
levels in terms of development and implementation of the social inclusion
policies and programmes. Joint efforts are also required from relevant actors
in respect to addressing policy problems in the areas of education, vocational
training and lifelong learning.
11.3 Germany - case study profile
Dates of visit:
13-15th
July 2003
Interviews undertaken:
ˇ Daniela Kuck-Schneemelcher, Ministry of Health and Social
Security (Bundesministerium für Gesundheit und Soziale
Sicheerung) Bonn.
ˇ Eva Krings, Culture Ministry, Dusseldorf (Ministerium für Stadlebau
und Wohen, Kultur und Sport).
ˇ Monica Schuemer-Stucksberg, Urban regeneration team, Berlin,
Head of Social City Programme.
ˇ Dr Dorothea Kolland, Cultural Policy Manager, Berlin (Bezirksaunt
Neukölln von Berlin).
Visits to programmes/projects undertaken:
A large number of projects were visited in Neukölln, Berlin.
Telephone interviews undertaken:
ˇ Dr Dorothea Kolland;
ˇ Mr Christopher Linzbach;
85
ˇ Philip Rogge.
11.4 Groups at risk of social exclusion
These are identified in the 2003 NAP/incl as:
ˇ The unemployed particularly young people and those facing long term
unemployment;
ˇ Single people, single parents and families with three or more children;
ˇ People with disabilities;
ˇ Immigrants;
ˇ Homeless people;
ˇ Drug misusers;
ˇ Victims of domestic violence.
11.5 The national structures to take forward social inclusion policy
Many Ministries have responsibility for social inclusion at national and regional
(land) level.
11.6 The regional/local structures to take forward social inclusion
policy
In Germany, the Länder and the local authorities are the so-called `pillars' of
the social protection system. This is because the country's federal constitution
guarantees the right of sub-national authorities to autonomy and as a result
the various strategies and approaches for combating poverty and social
exclusion tend to differ regionally and locally.
11.7 Examples at a local level
In 1999 the federal and state governments launched the Social City
programme (`Die Sociale Stadt'), which is an `integrated territorial approach' to
combating exclusion in urban areas. The programme consists of urban policy
measures that are integrated with programmes in other policy areas. The
German government made DM100 million available in both 1999 and 2000,
with the Länder and local authorities also contributing the same amount. In
2001 federal funding increased by 50% for this programme suggesting that
the Government believe this is a successful initiative. In all, the programme
has provided support for 210 measures in 157 municipal districts.
Alongside these activities, the municipal authorities also have responsibility
for drawing up area-specific urban development action strategies setting out
where action is required in respect to disadvantaged communities, as well as
seeking to develop integrated policy solutions. Examples of best practice in
this field can be found in the Länder of Bremen and the Rhineland Palatinate.
11.8 Cultural Policy
86
A new cultural policy emerged in Germany during the 1970's with the aim of
widening access to culture. The arts were to be made more accessible to all
sections of society; the term coined during this period was `culture for
everyone'. This also led to an expansion in cultural activities and a
development in the number and type of cultural institutes supported by a
greater public expenditure. In the 1980's this idea developed with cultural
activity being closely linked to promoting Germany as a good base for
business and industry.
The greatest recent change in cultural policy has emerged as a result of re-
unification. The adoption in the eastern Länder of the administrative structures
of the Federal Republic and the adoption of its approach to cultural policy, led
to a radical restructuring of the cultural landscape in the east.34
The 1990s
were characterised by austerity measures and budgetary constraints and by
growing evidence of structural problems facing the major traditional cultural
institutions in Germany.35
According to the Council of Europe36
, cultural policy in Germany is governed
by principles of decentralisation, subsidiarity and plurality. Despite the plurality
of government structures in Germany, there is general agreement that the
various tiers of government should try to complement each other by, for
example, jointly funding projects and events.
Perhaps somewhat paradoxically, cultural life in Germany is characterised by
the principle of competition among cultural institutions, cultural activities,
creators and artists and cultural intermediaries at the local level and among
the different Länder. This is regarded as a key driving force behind a great
many of the cultural institutes and activities in the German federal
framework.37
A further principle outlined is that of government non-interference along side
recognition by the public sector that it has responsibility for ensuring the
existence and funding of cultural programmes. There is also a constitutional
guarantee of freedom of the Arts (Article 5 (3)), which underpins the principle
governing the role of the Government in a `cultural state' (in other words state
support coupled with respect for artistic autonomy). Hence in the past the
majority of the cultural infrastructure has fallen under the public law
sponsorship. Only recently, because of cutbacks in the financial public sector,
has attention been paid to developing public private partnership models of
funding. The cutbacks in public spending have also provided greater public
discussion concerning the role the federal government should play and about
reform of state-run cultural institutions such as theatres and museums,
especially in regard to wage and salary scales at theatres.
34
Council of Europe (2003) Compendium of Cultural Policies in Europe: Germany. Found at:
http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
35
Ibid.
36
Ibid.
37
Ibid.
87
Over the past few years, the Federal level, the Länder and the municipalities
have increasingly relinquished direct responsibility for running cultural facilities
and programmes. Their institutional forms now reflect a growing preference
for new sponsorship models, although the public sector is not abdicating from
its responsibility to ensure funding. Two strategies should be distinguished in
this context:
1. The partial liberation of cultural institutions from the confines of budgetary
and public service law and from municipal and other administrative
structures through the use of other legal forms such as a limited liability
company or a foundation. However, the assumption that such change of
legal form would result in a reduction of public funding has thus far proved
erroneous.
2. The transfer of tasks (such as allocation of public resources and
maintenance of facilities) to institutions in civil society (generally
foundations and associations). This strategy of cooperating with
intermediary organisations is particularly prevalent at federal and Land
level.
Irrespective of these trends, which certainly reflect an increasingly widespread
acknowledgement of the important role of civil-society actors and the third
sector, the fact remains that most municipal cultural institutions are still
integrated into and bound by the structures and hierarchies of public
administration.
11.9 The national structures to take forward cultural policy
Historically and constitutionally the national government has had little control
of cultural policy. Recently a Minister of Cultural Affairs has been appointed at
national level. National government also provides some funds for the Länder
and communities to discharge their functions sphere of culture. Specific
projects can also be supported at national government level.
As mentioned above, cultural competence within the Federal state is still
firmly rooted in the Länder and Gemeinden under the 1949 Constitution.
However, the first Schröder Government in 1998 created the post of `Federal
Commissioner for Culture and the Media' for the first time, against very
considerable opposition, and has subsequently developed a limited Culture
Ministry. The German Social Democrats, although habitually loyal
constitutionalists, have never completely subscribed to the view that cultural
federalism means that central government should be excluded from the
formation of cultural policy. The first Commissioner, Michael Naumann,
pointed out that the long established `Permanent Conference of Ministers of
Culture' from the Länder was already suspect in terms of the constitution and
could be accused of creeping centralism.
The need for the creation of a Federal Commissioner was justified in the
government's view on both domestic and external grounds. On the internal
agenda was the significant issue of the erosion of cultural budgets since 1990,
particularly at municipal level, which was mainly a direct consequence of the
enormous costs of German reunification and sluggish economic growth. The
88
important cultural infrastructure of the former GDR Länder was at particular
risk and required some urgent national overview as rationalisation took place.
In addition, there was also the issue of how cultural policy should be
reconceptualised in the light of the rapid changes in leisure patterns and the
rapid growth of the cultural industries, which to some extent seemed to be
undermining the strong soziokultur traditions in many of the large cities. The
external challenge was the European Union from which the drive towards
harmonisation called for a coherent `national' defence of established features
of German cultural policy such as the broadcasting duopoly and the fixed
price book agreement. The Federal Government could therefore claim to be
defending the cultural sovereignty of the Länder rather than diminishing it.
Furthermore, Federal Government also supported `national reunification' and
buttressed regional cultural development by providing an emergency
matching `Cultural Reconstruction Programme' of DM240 million for the
former GDR territories for the period 1999-2003.
Naumann stated that his third major task as Federal Commissioner was to
promulgate and assist the social role of culture. In his maiden speech to the
Bundestag in November 1998, he commented:
Under the name of `culture' we understand nothing more or less than the
mirror we hold up to ourselves in order to comprehend who we are, what
we want, and what we are capable of.... Culture is, in a word, the most
beautiful form of political freedom in a democratically constituted society.
Naumann's successor (he resigned in 2000) Christina Weiss has maintained
this belief with statements such as:
Only culture creates that identity which helps human beings to search for
democratic solutions in an insecure society with an uncertain future.
11.10 The regional/local structures to take forward cultural policy
Responsibility for cultural affairs is principally organised at the level of Länder.
This is seen as important to the authority of the Länder and each is said to
have `cultural sovereignty', which is jealously guarded. The Länder are
responsible for funding cultural institutions and projects of regional
importance.
Municipalities can also have some responsibilities for cultural matters.
Generally these are responsibilities delegated from the Länder within the
context of promoting culture at local level.
Given the authority of the Länder and also the municipalities in the field of
cultural policy, the nature of cultural policy and activities can vary enormously
from one region and locality to another.
Alongside public cultural policy and funding for culture there exist a variety of
important civil organisations in the voluntary and private sectors. No formal
system of liaison exists between the formal government sector and voluntary
89
organisations but increasingly co-operation is taking place informally to
various promote and support cultural projects.
11.11 National Action Plan Inclusion 200138
Who was responsible?
Ministry of Family
Main focus:
Building on the key social policy principles described in section 9.2, the
NAP/incl focuses on four key priorities:
ˇ integration into labour market and qualifications;
ˇ reconciliation between work and family life;
ˇ assistance to the most vulnerable;
ˇ improved efficiency of assistance schemes, making them more targeted.
The NAP/incl aims to complement the NAP for employment, particularly in the
area of promoting `access to stable and quality employment for all women and
men who are capable of working'. The NAP/incl mentions the need to avoid
`poverty cycles'. The involvement of non-governmental actors is seen as
central to addressing the problem of social exclusion. Attention is also
focused on measures for the `social integration' into mainstream society of
Germany's large immigrant and ethnic minority population. Gender
mainstreaming is only referred to in the NAP/incl in relation to the `The Social
City' initiative (see below for further details).
The NAP/incl mentions the full range of policy areas covering the inclusion
agenda but in most cases fails to make specific commitments on how
inclusive policies will be operationalised. In most cases quantified targets are
missing, as are other mechanisms for measuring progress. In addition the
NAP/incl fails to make explicit reference to the 10 years perspective for
addressing social inclusion that was agreed at the Lisbon EU Council Summit.
EU Commission analysis:
According to the Commission Germany's comprehensive social protection
system has kept the rate of relative poverty low, in spite of the high level of
unemployment currently afflicting the country. There is an on-going debate on
improving co-ordination among tiers of government, which is challenging
because of the federalist framework of the German constitution. The debate
focuses on the division of public expenditure and receipts between the
Federal Government and the Länder and in respect to the issue of political
autonomy of the Länder. The NAP/incl also provides only fleeting
acknowledgement of the impact and significance of ESF programmes in
social inclusion.
Extent to which culture is included in the NAP/incl:
38
Federal Republic of Germany, 2001: National Action Plan to Combat Poverty and Social Exclusion
(NAPincl) 2001 ­ 2003. Found at: http://www.eapn.org/ inclusion/EUdocs/napsincl/germany_en.pdf.
90
No mention was made of access to cultural activities in the 2001 NAP/incl.
Who was responsible for implementation?
The Ministry of Family and other Federal Ministries. The Länder and
municipalities also have an important role to play, as do NGOs.
How is it being monitored?
National indicators are used.
11.12 National Action Plan Inclusion 2003
Who is responsible?
The Ministry of Health and Social Security in co-operation with some NGOs.
Main focus:
The main focus of the NAP/incl relates to enabling excluded people the
opportunity to access employment and training. The view of the Ministry co-
ordination the NAP/incl is that it closely follows the main priorities of the
European Community with regard to tackling social exclusion.
It has four main themes:
ˇ Labour market;
ˇ Family and childhood;
ˇ Integrating disabled people;
ˇ The integration of immigrants.
Policies aimed at alleviating poverty centre on education and accessing the
labour market, although an extensive range of welfare benefits also exist.
Extent to which culture is included in the current NAP/incl:
Only marginally, the social city programme is mentioned and this does include
funding and support for cultural programmes that address social inclusion
issues. In addition, one of the main objectives of cultural policy at the Federal
level is to make the arts and cultural events accessible to as many people as
possible.
The Länder and the local authorities run a wide range of schemes to help
people play an active role in society. For instance, many towns and cities offer
family tickets that give families with children reduced entrance fees to local
leisure and cultural facilities (e.g. theatres, museums, swimming pools).
Who is responsible for implementation?
The NAP/incl is co-ordinated by the Ministry for Health and Social Security.
The NAP/incl is written in co-operation with all the Ministries that have a role
in social inclusion policy, these are:
ˇ Bundesministerium für Verkehr, Bau- und Wohnungswesen;
ˇ Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung;
ˇ Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend;
91
ˇ Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Arbeit;
ˇ Bundesministerium des Innern;
ˇ Bundesministerium der Finanzen;
ˇ Bundesministerium der Justiz.
Liaison also takes place with a `Grand Circle of Institutes', a range of non-
government organisations and with the Lander. The office that organises
national government contacts and links with the Länder is the Geschäftsstelle
der Gerrbeits- und Sozialministerkonferenz.
There is also a group of experts that has been built around the "National
Report on Poverty and Wealth" and now advises national government policy
makers on social inclusion/NAP/incl issues.
How will it be monitored?
National Indicators are used.
11.13 Approach to the links between social exclusion and culture
Who is making the links - Ministries/regional level etc?
Links are mostly at Lander and municipal level. An important connection
between culture and social inclusion comes through the `Social City Project'.
Target groups:
Any geographical area that is disadvantaged can be included in the Social
City programme. Characteristics of these locations are that they experience
complex and multi-faceted problems that will include some or all of:
ˇ a need for renovation and modernisation;
ˇ a lack of open space;
ˇ poor commercial infrastructure;
ˇ inadequate leisure facilities for children and teenagers;
ˇ declining or inadequate job and training opportunities;
ˇ above average youth and long term unemployment;
ˇ above average dependence on welfare benefits and poverty;
ˇ an ageing population;
ˇ above average underprivileged households;
ˇ above average number of migrants;
ˇ a high proportion of one parent families;
ˇ a departure of high-income households;
ˇ recent increases in vacant property, high levels of vandalism and crime;
hopelessness and lack of perspective, conflict between different
population segments;
ˇ poor education results;
ˇ inadequate health services.39
Cultural emphasis:
Culture is included as one of the four essential aspects needed for revitalising
an area along with social, economic and environmental regeneration.
39
Becker et al, 2002: 8.
92
How is the combined approach being delivered:
Mostly through community based projects that are funded by a pooling of
budgets between the federal, land and municipality levels.
The project covers 249 districts in 184 towns.
How much money is being spent:
The Federal budgets for 1999 and 2000 earmarked 51.3m and 76.69m
each for 2001 and 2002 and 80m in 2003 for the Social City programme.
This is supplemented with funds from the Länder and local authorities.
Additional resources are levered in locally from business, charities etc. About
one third of the budget is spent on cultural projects.
How is it being monitored?
The German Institute of Urban Affairs is undertaking a national evaluation.
11.14 Germany case study - example 1
Who is responsible?
Built Environment - Berlin. Funding is for urban renewal, mostly from the EU
URBAN II programme.
Date begun:
1998
Description of the programme/project:
Description of Neukölln
Neukölln has 320,000 people and has a high unemployment rate, significant
numbers of people on public welfare and high numbers of non-German residents
(e.g. Turkish, Arabic, Russian, Russo-German migrants, African, Vietnamese
and Polish40
) who suffer from a range of economic and social problems. Given
this ethnic and cultural diversity of the area the education sector has faced
problems. For example, many elementary schools have between 70-90% of
children who do not have German as their mother tongue. There has also been
violence between Turkish and Arab youth, which has created a tense atmosphere
in some localities. However, there are wealthy quarters in the south, which have
the highest skyscrapers in Berlin and where 40,000 people live in hired flats
("Sozialwohnungen"). Traditionally the area was the `worker's district' famous
for its dancing, theatres and music halls (`In Rixdorf ist Musike'). The area has
faced significant economic difficulties since the 1960s, which increased after
1989.
Description of project:
The projects we visited in Germany came under the umbrella of `cultural
community work'.
40
There are some 160 nationalities in the area.
93
The Culture Manager for the municipality thought that in retrospect, Germany
had lost sight of the more or less reliable concepts of cultural work within the
communities laid down in the 1970s and 1980s by Hermann Glaser and
Hilmar Hoffmann. These concepts were known under the catchphrase "Kultur
für alle" (culture for everyone). However, she held the view that modern
Germany had lost hold of their `heroic emphasis', in part due to the social and
political developments that have taken place in Germany over the years which
followed. The principle of `culture for everyone' has been replaced by a notion
of "Kultur der Lebensstile" (culture of lifestyles). A diversification of cultures
seemed to make common sense, i.e. in the sense that each social group has
its own culture (the one it deserves). The threatening consequence of this
approach is that there is no longer the need to cultivate `cultural democracy'.
In keeping with this new position, she argued that the concept of "Soziokultur"
(roughly translated as "social culture") has changed. Its original meanings,
encompassing the surrounding social context, function and the responsibility
of art and culture, have been misunderstood by policy makers and
transformed into a kind of social and community work that utilises cultural
tools (e.g. `video work with youths'), and thereby losing its artistic pretension
and quality. This process means that a key instrument of cultural
democratising has been lost.
Budgetary pressure and an increased focus on the so-called `lighthouses' of
culture - the publicly financed operas, theatres and museums - is threatening
cultural work in other spheres.
She was also of the opinion that many artists had given up their political and
social engagement and cared about everything except social life (unless it
reflects their own). There are a number of reasons for this development. One
of the most significant may be the delusion following the "Deutscher Herbst"
(German autumn) in the late 1970s, as well as the failure of political
engagement within the arts, since the demise of the GDR.
The traditionally underdeveloped sector of private engagement and funding
for culture in Germany has been an important development. Every banking
institute has its own gallery and charitable activities and sponsoring have
increased, developments that have been welcomed by the state. Private
money has been invested for cultural highlights and generally not for
problematic urban zones, small projects and community work. Despite this the
state has not maintained its responsibility to communities and the townships
and districts have been unable to fill the gaps.
In policy terms what this has meant is that the main tool that currently exists
for linking social inclusion and culture is the Social City Project. In Neukölln it
contains 100-150 projects, about a third of which focus on education and
culture. These projects include everything from dance to sport, while some
are education-based such as a film made about break dancing. A local music
festival for young people is also held.
94
During the visit we were shown examples of a linear park being developed to
create an open space that could be used by a variety of different groups. We
also visited an art gallery that was set up to support local artists and give them
a venue to meet with other artists and display their work. Renovation work
was taking place on an old church to turn it into a new community centre
accommodating the needs of different religious groups. This would provide a
future local venue for cultural activities.
Monitoring mechanisms:
It is part of the national evaluation.
Effectiveness:
A great deal is being delivered on the ground and the holistic nature of
neighbourhood managing is enabling the somewhat limited budgets to be
pooled.
11.15 Germany - drivers and barriers to the development of links
between the culture and social exclusion agendas
Drivers:
ˇ A new Minister for Culture Affairs has been created at the Federal
level.
ˇ An identified and accepted need to find ways to integrate immigrants.
ˇ A determination to engage more children and young people in
education through cultural activities.
ˇ A determination to revitalise impoverished neighbourhoods.
ˇ The Social City Programme.
ˇ An ambition to develop additional employment through creative
industries.
Barriers:
ˇ A lack of awareness in some parts of the state system about the role
culture can play in tacking social exclusion.
ˇ A reduction in public spending.
ˇ A lack of co-ordination between different tiers of government.
11.16 Germany - implications for policy
1. Because of the decentralised governmental system in Germany the
main drivers of the culture/social inclusion agenda are the Länder and
municipalities, rather than national government. However at an EU
level it is national governments that have responsibility for European
wide initiatives and co-ordination in this field. Perhaps more
consideration needs to be given by national and European policy
makers to role played by sub-national authorities and other non-
governmental institutions and further attention needs to be paid co-
ordinating the actions of actors across and between the scales of the
governmental hierarchy. In addition the policy focus is still on culture
per se and there has only been limited efforts to bring together culture
95
and social inclusion agendas. Urban renewal often is the key to
levering the funds for specific projects.
2. Cultural policy at national level is mostly internationally focused. As yet
no significant linkages have been formed between the NAP/incl and
culture.
3. Discourse on culture is often narrowly focused around the integration of
ethnic minorities. Important though this is, so far there has been little
acknowledgement of the concept of celebrating cultural diversity in
Germany, although there are signs this may be changing.
11.17 References
Becker, H., Franks, Th., Löhr, R. P. and Rösner, V. (2002) Socially Integrative
City Programme ­ An Encouraging Three Year Appraisal, German Institute of
Urban Affairs. Occasional Paper, Berlin, Germany.
Blick ins Quartier Schiller promenade (2002), Berlin ­ Neukölln.
Bulpett, C. (2002) Regimes of Exclusion. European Urban and Regional
Studies, 1 April 2002, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 137-149(13).
Commentary from Die Beauftragle der Bundesregierung für Kultur und
Medien, April 2003.
Federal Republic of Germany (2001) National Action Plan to Combat Poverty
and Social Exclusion, 2001-2003.
Federal Republic of Germany (2003) Strategies to Enhance Social Integration
National Action Plan against Poverty and Social Exclusion 2003-2005.
Kolland, D. (2003) Summary of Cultural Policy in Berlin Cultural Policy in the
Federal Republic of Germany. Contribution for the Compendium of the
Council of Europe.
Rucker, C. und Szatmary, A. (undated) Entdeckungen: Unteruregs in der
Neuköllner Schiller promenade.
Schumacher, B. (2001) Aceate Neukölln. Germany.
Voges, W. and Olaf, J. (2003) The dynamics of social exclusion in Germany -
solving the east-west dilemma In: Apospori.E and Millar. J (eds), The
Dynamics of Social Exclusion in Europe. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
96
Section 12: Case Study 3 - Spain
12.1 National socio-economic context
A key feature of Spain is the late development of the Spanish welfare state in
comparison to other western European states. Over the last 20 years there
have been significant improvements in the social welfare system. In addition,
overall levels of social expenditure have risen rapidly in recent times (faster
than the rate of GDP growth), although spending levels remain significantly
below the EU average. However, Spain has the highest unemployment rate in
the EU standing at 11.2% (Eurostat figures for January 2004).41
The lack of
employment, combined with unemployment is a major cause of social
exclusion in Spain. Another factor that has a bearing on the unemployment
situation is the structure of the labour market, which is heavily reliant on
temporary contract workers and where employee protection regulations are
among the most liberal in Europe. According to the NAP/incl (2003: 4) 10.7%
(figure for 1999) of Spain's population "lived in poor households with an
income level 60% below the total average income and had remained in that
situation for four years."
On the positive side Spain has a fairly egalitarian society where the `wealth
gap' between different social classes is considerably narrower than in most
other European states. The family unit is still seen as a key national
institution. Until recently Spain has traditionally been a country of emigration
and consequently the question of `social integration' of immigrant communities
has never registered as a significant political issue or policy priority in Spain.
12.2 Social inclusion policy
Social exclusion is seen in the Spanish strategy as a `multi-dimensional
phenomenon'. The NAP/incl 2001 emphasised the causal factors leading to
social exclusion as:
ˇ Poverty (in terms of income);
41
Found at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat/Public/datashop/print-product/EN?catalogue=Eurostat
& product=3-02032004-EN-AP-EN&mode=download.
97
ˇ Difficulty of integration into the labour market;
ˇ Problems of access to education and basic standards of education;
ˇ Lack of adequate housing;
ˇ Lack of good health (mental or physical health) and medical attention;
ˇ Lack of or insufficient family support;
ˇ Social marginalisation;
ˇ Difficulty of access to justice;
ˇ Problems of access to or learning about new technologies;
ˇ Certain groups more susceptible (none listed).
The principal policy priority is the mobilisation of public bodies, social partners
and NGOs. By doing this it is hoped that future strategy development and
interventions in this field will be more integrated than previous approaches.
However, because social exclusion is a `multi-dimensional phenomenon' and
because of the number of actors involved in this field, mobilisation of key
stakeholders is viewed as a complex undertaking, as is the application of a
consistent inclusion policy. This situation is made more complex by the
`variable geometry' system of Spanish devolution, where the autonomous
communities each have different degrees of autonomy.
The focus of Spanish policy interventions is mainly on the employment aspect
of social protection, in particular in relation to pensions - 90% of the spending
identified in the NAP/incl is directed towards the minimum pension
complement - and addressing the needs of disabled people, families with
children and immigrants. The aim of this approach is to ensure that there is an
acceptable level of social protection for the most vulnerable groups in Spanish
society. The other important strand of social protection policy is the minimum
income (`Active Income Insertion'), which acts as a safety net for the most
vulnerable. It should be noted that there are links between the NAP/incl, the
Action Plan for Equality and the National Action Plan against Domestic
Violence.
In commenting on the NAP/incl process Arriba and Moreno (2002: 23) remark
that:
the Spanish NAPs should not be regarded as a plan for new strategies or
for a reorientation of actions already established by the various
governmental bodies involved in the fight against social exclusion. It is
rather an exhaustive recompilation of the various policies and programmes
implemented at the various layers of government and by the concerned civil
society organisations.
Social inclusion challenges:
One of the key challenges facing Spain is the need for co-ordination and co-
operation between tiers of government in order to ensure that minimum
standards are maintained nation wide. In addition, the follow-up plan to the
NAP/incl will require additional mechanisms for decision-making to be
established such as discussion fora. There is also a need to respond to
severe types of poverty and new forms of exclusion as experienced by
immigrants, the homeless and mentally ill.
DEL CASCO HISTÓRI
98
12.3 Groups at risk of social exclusion
The NAP/incl 2001 identified the following groups:
ˇ Children and families;
ˇ Young people;
ˇ Women;
ˇ Older people;
ˇ Disabled people;
ˇ Drug addicts;
ˇ Roma/gypsies;
ˇ Migrants;
ˇ Asylum seekers;
ˇ Refugees;
ˇ People with AIDS/HIV;
ˇ Prisoners/ex-prisoners.
The NAP/incl 2003 reflects this and adds to the list:
ˇ The homeless;
ˇ Residents of disadvantaged neighbourhoods;
ˇ Minority ethnic groups;
ˇ Victims of domestic violence;
ˇ Those who are all disadvantaged in terms of housing, income, health,
family support, cultural and social integration and access to information.
12.4 The national structures to take forward social inclusion policy
The NAP/incl Commission and relevant Ministries.
12.5 The regional and local structures to take forward social inclusion
policy
Spain is a quasi-federal state and as such the Regional Autonomous
Communities have many powers and responsibilities in the field of social
policy. In particular, social services and social policy are largely decentralised
to the regions and thus the national government has only limited powers in
these areas. It is at the regional level where social inclusion policy is primarily
implemented. Indeed 8 of the 17 autonomous communities having already
formulated regional inclusion plans. The Navarra Regional Plan (1998-2005)
is seen by the European Commission as a good example of best practice in
respect to effectively mobilising regional partners in an attempt to identify and
define operational measures to combat social exclusion.
In addition, actors at the local scale are also important players in the field of
social exclusion and culture. For example, Barcelona City authority has
developed a strategy `Accent on Culture', which aims `to make culture a key
element of social cohesion'. As well as Barcelona, most of the other big
municipalities have or are developing their own social inclusion plans. It is
important to note that the NAPs/incl (2001; 2003) fail to specify any funding
support for these regional and local inclusion plans.
99
12.6 The focus of cultural policy
Although cultural activity is an important and visible feature of Spanish
society, the state has traditionally given a low priority to cultural policy. For a
brief period during the 1990s the post of Culture Minister disappeared,
reflecting the strong tradition and assumption that competence in this field
resided with regional and city authorities. Perhaps because of this tradition the
NAPs/incl (2001; 2003) do not mention culture as a tool to address social
exclusion.
In Spain the concept of culture appears to be broadly defined as `ways of
living together'. However, public policy mainly focuses on `traditional' cultural
matters such as fine arts, museums, patrimony, libraries, archives and books,
cooperation and communication, cinemas and audiovisual arts, music, dance
and theatre.
As alluded to above, Spain is composed of several regions each with their
own distinct cultures and languages. However, the national government has
been criticised for promoting Spain as a unified state and people, when in fact
it is composed of several different cultures and languages. For example, i
Ruiz (2002) claims that the Cervantes Institute (the official institution
promoting Spanish culture) completely ignores the diversity of languages and
cultures within Spain (e.g. Galician, Basque, Catalan). In addition, President
Aznar's policy of promoting Spanish as the second language of the internet is
described by i Ruiz (2002: 173) as neglecting "the nuances of internal cultural
differences in favour of competition and efficiency".
Spain is also experiencing an increase in immigration, a new phenomenon in
a country that until recently was one of emigration. Immigration to Spain
increased rapidly during the 1990s, leading to a large increase in the number
of foreign nationals. The number of immigrants doubled from 1990 (400,000)
to 1999 (800,000), which represents 2% of the total population (Walliser et al.,
2001). These immigrants are made up of EU citizens living in Spain (e.g.
retired people from northern Europe) and people from less developed
countries who work mostly as unskilled workers in agriculture, construction,
and domestic service (Walliser et al., 2001). Estimates suggest that in 1996
there were 50,000 minority ethnic pupils in Spain, rising to 250,000 in 2003
(Interview with National Department of Education). As the figures above show,
immigration has risen rapidly in a short period of time. The need to develop
policies to address issues arising from higher levels of immigration is
emphasised at both national and regional government levels.
The rise in immigration is being addressed mainly by education policies.
Culture in an educational context is understood in broad terms:
In this context, culture refers to a community's way of behaving, the way it
interprets the world and situates itself therein. Seen from this point of view,
culture concerns values, behavioural norms and social roles; that is to say,
100
it is changing, dynamic and adaptable elements that provide a system for
explaining and interacting with reality. (Sánchez Fernandez, 2002).
The aim of education policy in Madrid, Murcia and Andalusia is to provide
intercultural education in order to create an inter-cultural society (Le Métais,
2002). Inter-culturalism is based on an interactive approach, whereby people
have the opportunity to affirm their own culture whilst at the same time relate
to other cultures. Sánchez Fernandez (2002) explains:
Inter-culturalism emphasises the importance of directing education at the
whole of society not just at cultural minorities and teaching citizens to
understand and respect others cultures.
An inter-cultural school will enable its pupils to put themselves in the place
of others and to understand that everyone deserves respect, thereby
leading them to avoid any type of cultural arrogance.
The policy objectives of the Ministry for Education, Culture and Sport make no
specific reference to social exclusion:
ˇ Promotion, protection and dissemination of Spanish history, state
museums and the arts;
ˇ Books and reading and encouragement of authors, the promotion,
protection and dissemination of state archives and libraries;
ˇ The creation and participation of cultural cooperation with public and
private bodies;
ˇ Promotion, protection and dissemination of theatre, music, dance and
circus;
ˇ Promotion, protection and dissemination of cinematography and the
production, distribution and exhibition of audiovisual materials;
ˇ Building international relations in terms of culture in co-ordination with the
Foreign Ministry.42
The Department of Culture is made up of several sub-directorates
(Subdireccion General de Accion y Promocion Cultural; Subdireccion General
de Comunicacion Cultural con los Comunidades Autonomas; Subdireccion
General de Cooperacion Cultural Internacional). None of the policy objectives
of these sub-directorate refer directly to social exclusion, although
Subdireccion General de Accion y Promocion Cultural has as one of its
objectives: `facilitate access to culture through promotion and
dissemination'.43
42
Found at: http://www.mcu.es.
43
The full list of policy objectives are - Subdireccion General de Accion y Promocion Cultural:
Prepare and implement cultural programmes in collaboration with other institutions, public and private
bodies and individuals. Facilitate access to culture through promotion and dissemination. Create a
favourable atmosphere for the creation of cultural industries and promote sponsorship programmes,
voluntary work and cultural tourism. Establish and manage a programme of subsidies and aid. Develop
and carry out cultural action in general which does not fall under the general competencies of other
organisations within the department. Subdireccion General de Comunicacion Cultural con los
Comunidades Autonomas: Cooperate with the Autonomous Communities and in agreement with them
promote knowledge of regional plurality and exchange information. Promote, with their agreement, the
cultural diversity of the Autonomous Communities abroad, in coordination with the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs and Foreign Embassies. Subdireccion General de Cooperacion Cultural Internacional:
101
The Department of Education does, however focus on specific groups of
people for example, disabled children (mental and physical); underprivileged
children (e.g. rural, socio-economic problems, minority ethnic groups and
Roma), awarding grants and scholarships and minority ethnic pupils. This is
supported by actions such as the training of teachers in Spanish as a second
language and special needs training for teachers.
Integration of all children is regarded as important and all regions have to
make plans for the following:
ˇ For the last 25 years children of travelling families have been able to
access mobile classrooms which follow them from place to place. These
classes also provide literacy and education for adults.
ˇ The same programme is carried out for children in hospital or for those
who have just come out of hospital and are convalescing. Also, the
children of temporary workers who are itinerant (e.g. in agriculture) are
provided with classes.
ˇ For Roma children the aim of policy is to facilitate their education and
integration, whilst retaining their culture and respect for their culture from
others.
Resources for the above are provided by both national and regional
governments. The Autonomous Communities have signed treaties with
national government to ensure that their respective programmes are co-
ordinated.
`Inter-culturalism' is seen as an important issue within education departments
at both national and regional levels. At national level the new `Quality of
Education Law' establishes special programmes for the teaching of Spanish
language and culture (Ministerio de Educacion, Cultura y Deporte, 2002).
Nationally an inter-ministerial group meets once a month to discuss the
Programme for the Regulation of Minority Ethnic Groups and Immigrants
(Programa global de regulación por las minorías étnicas y las inmigrantes).
The aim of this programme is to protect and promote respect for cultures,
provide for educational needs and increase social integration.
A further, European Programme was introduced in 1996-97, called the `Muse
Programme', which uses training in art, dance and fine arts to integrate
children. As part of this programme subsidies are given to schools, education
centres and non-profit organisations.
12.7 The national structures to take forward cultural policy
Participate in the preparation of Treaties, international cooperation programmes and cultural
exchanges. Give advice on the participation of Spain in international organisations (without comprising
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs). Cooperate in the publicity of Spain abroad. Co-ordination with the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Embassies.
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The Ministry for Education, Culture and Sport is responsible for educational,
cultural and sports policies. However, regional governments now have
substantial powers in these policy fields, as well as social policy.
12.8 The regional/local structures to take forward cultural policy
As mentioned above, we have limited information about the structure and
content of cultural policies at the regional level. However, each regional
Education Department has a duty to provide quality education for all children
as will be described further in the following sections of this document.
12.9 National Action Plan Inclusion 2001
Who was responsible?
The NAP/incl Secretariat was located in the Ministry for Employment and
Social Affairs in the General Sub-Directorate for Social Action, Children and
Family. There is an Inter-ministerial Commission for the NAP/incl that
coordinates the actions of Ministerial Departments in the area of social
exclusion. The Commission included:
ˇ Ministry of the President.
ˇ Secretary General of Social Affairs.
ˇ Sub-secretary of the President.
ˇ Director General of the National Institute of Employment.
ˇ Director General of Social Action, Children and Family.
ˇ Representatives in the Ministry for Social Affairs; Justice; Treasury;
Interior; training; Education, Culture and Sport; Public Administration;
Health; Environment; Economy; Science and Technology.
ˇ A representative from the Government's Cabinet.
ˇ A representative from the Secretary of State for Social Security.
The group meets three times a year and can create special working groups if
necessary. The Commission is responsible for analysis and implementation
issues on behalf of those Departments involved in the NAP/incl process.
Main focus:
ˇ Access to employment;
ˇ Access to social services, education, housing and health.
EU Commission analysis:
Considerable effort has been made by Spanish government authorities and
social partners to gather relevant information that informs the NAP/incl 2001.
Given the structure of the political system more effort is required in terms of
improved co-ordination and co-operation between tiers of administration in
order to ensure minimum national standards can be applied to tackle social
exclusion across the whole of Spain. The NAP/incl does not articulate
quantified objectives for addressing exclusion, which is an issue that requires
attention. This is because the Commission believes that targets will allow an
improved understanding of the social exclusion process and encourage the
adaptation of social policy to emerging societal trends. The Commission also
103
recommend that further development of regional plans for inclusion is
necessary.
Extent to which culture was included in the NAP/incl:
The Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport's contribution is entirely focused
on education issues. The overarching concern in this department at both
national and regional levels is the increase in immigration and how to deal
with growing multiculturalism in Spain. The education objectives in the
NAP/incl are as follows:
1. To insure equal access to education for all;
2. To improve compulsory teaching so that it can adapt to the needs of the
most vulnerable;
3. To facilitate the education of 0-3 year olds in most disadvantaged groups;
4. To improve the link between vocational training and incorporation into the
labour market;
5. To improve basic skills training for adults at risk of exclusion.
To achieve these objectives the NAP/incl and the findings from interviews with
Department of Education officials, highlight the need to improve teacher
training in order to prepare teachers for the increased cultural diversity of
school children. To achieve the second objective the Community of Madrid
highlighted its Compensatory Education Regional Plan, which aims to:
put into practice a number of positive and compensatory action measures,
in order to remove situations of social and educational inequalities among
those collectives which come into the school in a deprived situation for
social, cultural or economical reasons, or due to the place where they live.
(Comunidad de Madrid, 2001).
The third objective focuses primarily on the need to develop the education of
young children in order to prevent exclusion later at school and to facilitate a
better work-life balance for families. This, and the fourth and fifth objectives
reflect more directly the primary focus of Spain's NAP/incl on the link between
social exclusion and employment. A number of vocational training
programmes for young adults are in place and are discussed in section 7.
A table in the NAP/incl (Ministerio de Trabajo y Asuntos Sociales, 2001: 7)
identifies the level of risk of various groups such as children, young people,
adults under 45, older people, women, disabled people, drug addicts/AIDS,
homeless, residents of disadvantaged neighbourhoods, minority ethnic
groups, ex-prisoners against lack of employment, education, training, housing,
income, health, family support, cultural and social integration and information.
There is no definition of `cultural integration' provided in the NAP/incl.
However, older people, the homeless and minority ethnic groups are thought
to be `seriously affected/at risk' in respect to cultural and social integration,
while disabled people, drug addicts and AIDS suffers, residents of
disadvantaged neighbourhoods and ex-prisoners are categorised as
`affected/at risk'.
104
The examples of good practice at the end of the NAP/incl demonstrate that
programmes and projects to combat social inclusion exist in Spain. Below are
two examples of the different approaches which bring together culture and
social exclusion in the NAP/incl:
ˇ The Council of Zaragoza Integrated Plan for the Historical Centre (Roman
quarter) is part funded by URBAN and the City Council. It aims to retain
the existing population and attract new residents; reinforce social
cohesion by getting the community to participate in the development of
solutions; improve work qualifications of most disadvantaged residents;
maintain present economic activities and facilitate new opportunities;
maintain the signs of identity in the centre from an historical and
morphological point of view and rehabilitate its architectural and popular
heritage; improve the level of equipment, communications, services and
infrastructure; promote the Historical Quarter as the city centre; facilitate
access to housing. This has resulted in the establishment of a
Coordination Group to develop the area that brings together 34
associations, 8 work-related training centres run by NGOs and a
construction-training programme for 16-25 year olds. It has led to: 50 jobs
being created for improving the urban environment; development of
tourism in the Roman quarter; improved social services; two new
information centres for the prevention of AIDS and prostitution and the
opening of a Cultural Centre, focusing on the integration of immigrants.
ˇ Mestizo Council in Corvera (Asturias) focuses on working immigrants and
their integration through provision of training, education, culture and
housing opportunities. It organised `Days against racism and xenophobia'
which over 10 days brought together over 200 artists and 15,000
participants, which included lectures on tolerance in schools and
education centres. Multilingual Guides are produced and craft workshops
and `world-markets' held. It is hoped that these will be rolled out to other
councils. The programme resulted in people exchanging language skills
and learning both Romany and Spanish/asturiano, art and craft
associations were brought together and anti-racist activities carried out to
promote culture and social cohesion.
Who was responsible for implementation?
All departments involved in the Inter-ministerial Commission are ultimately
responsible for the implementation of the NAP/incl. At the regional level this
Commission should be replicated. Arriba and Moreno (2002: 38) conclude
that:
Problems about its implementation concern mainly its financing...it is not
clear whether the central government will manage the articulation of `fresh'
funds to accomplish the estimated increases at a rate of an annual 8%.
Furthermore, the NAP/incl cannot be achieved by central government
displaying a top-down, hierarchical harmonisation of programmes nationwide
rather it has to be achieved by inter-governmental co-ordination (Arriba and
Moreno, 2002).
For the education actions the Autonomous Communities have responsibility
for their implementation in collaboration with the national department. All 17 of
105
Spain's Autonomous Communities have full powers over education matters,
although the core curriculum is set down in Royal Decrees (Casanova, 2002).
How was the NAP/incl implemented?
The NAP/incl locates the main responsibility for the fight against exclusion at
the regional level. Decentralisation of social policies to the regions means that
the central government has only limited powers in this area. The Autonomous
Communities are to develop Territorial Action Plans for Social Inclusion
(TAPSIs), while Local Plans for Social Inclusion are to be developed by
Municipalities. However some Autonomous Communities have already
developed integrated plans to address exclusion (e.g. the Basque Country).
Arriba and Moreno (2002) highlight the fact that the active involvement of the
Autonomous Regions is crucial for the successful implementation of the
NAP/incl. However they also point out that the NAP/incl is simply a
compilation of existing policies rather than a new approach:
...the Spanish NAPSI should not be regarded as a Plan for new strategies
or for a reorientation of actions already established by the various
governmental bodies involved in the fight against social exclusion. It is
rather an exhaustive recompilation of the various policies and programmes
implemented at the various layers of government and by the concerned civil
society organisations. (Arriba and Moreno, 2002: 23).
The Autonomous Communities have a number of programmes that contribute
to the NAP/incl process. Continuing with the example from Section 4.3 above,
the Autonomous Community of Madrid's Compensatory Education Regional
Plan (2001) contains within it several objectives and action plans connected
to: educational provision; actions in schools supported by public funds;
complementary actions; inter-cultural education development and inter-
institutional cooperation and social participation. Objective 4 focuses on the
development of inter-cultural education and aims to support ethnic and
cultural minorities and their parents, ensure the integration of gypsy pupils
and support the integration of migrant pupils. To take one example regarding
inter-cultural education, objective 4.1 aims:
To promote the integration of ethnic and cultural minorities into the
education system, starting from the principles of normalisation and respect
for difference (Comunidad de Madrid 2001: 26).
The actions set out for this objective are (Comunidad de Madrid 2001: 26-7):
1. Incorporation of the inter-cultural education as a cross-curricular topic,
with explicit contents relating to gypsy and other cultures present in
schools, in accordance with the immigration processes.
2. Institutional programmes aimed at maintaining the language and culture
of minority groups: Language and Portuguese Programme, Arab
Language and Moroccan Culture Programme. Development of different
actions aimed at maintaining the language and culture of other groups, in
cooperation with public institutions and non-profit organisations.
3. Elaboration and dissemination of curricular intercultural materials and
other teaching materials guided to support the integration of minorities
106
(Welcome Programmes, Spanish teaching-learning Programmes), as well
as teaching aids including contents referring to different cultures.
4. Inclusion in the In-service Training Programmes of actions aimed
specifically at updating knowledge of the teachers in the inter-cultural
education field.
5. Establishment within schools of teacher teams devoted to develop
educational projects incorporating the intercultural perspective, as well as
the integration of minorities. All of them with contents regarding language
acquisition, the differential psychology and socialisation processes in
different cultures.
6. Establishment of the Madrid Institute of Support and Inter-cultural
Documentation as an institution capable of encouraging initiatives, guided
to the training and investigation in the field of inter-cultural education and
special care of ethnic and cultural minorities.
In Madrid there are now more than 100 nationalities and over 30 languages
spoken (Casanova, 2002) and according to the department of education of
the Madrid Autonomous Community, this situation is "enriching but also
complex".
From January 2003 the `Welcome School' was introduced with induction
classes for newcomers who do not speak Spanish. These are three month
long intensive classes and are currently being evaluated to ascertain what
changes need to be made.
In 2002 the Autonomous Community of Madrid ran a programme called
`Madrid: meeting point of cultures' (Madrid encrucijada de culturas), which
aimed to promote multiculturalism though poetry. Two anthologies of poetry
were published for use in primary and secondary schools. The poems are
written in 24 different languages including Braille and a CD-rom that
accompanies the books has poetry in sign language. Pupils were encouraged
to write their own poems and at an event for both children and adults in June
2003 awards were given for the best programme and poems. The
representatives in CCAA Madrid said that this was an emotional event, with
the involvement of small children and a student choir who came from all over
the world.
Publications have also been developed at the Department of Publications
within Madrid's Department of Education that relate to diversity, adult
education and international programmes of inter-culturalism under the title
`Madrid in the World' (Madrid en el Mundo). The collection aims to promote
good practice and the publications are free. The Department stated that they
are:
very proud of the publication because they are very successful outside
Madrid in Europe and Latin America.
Publications include books on Spanish as a second language. Good
examples highlighted in this area were a book of poems of Rafael Alberti and
a new primary school book on teaching Spanish as a second language.
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After-school classrooms are also opened up for music, dance, theatre, library
and sport and are available to their surrounding area in the afternoons in
order to contribute to the `social improvement of neighbourhoods' (Casanova,
2002).
The national education department claimed that the NAP/incl, in terms of
education at least, is being implemented in a similar way in all regions. In
particular, we have gathered further evidence about Andalusia and Aragon
(Le Métais, 2002) that demonstrate similar approaches to Madrid and Murcia.
How was it monitored?
The NAP/incl lists a number of indicators that are used to monitor progress.
These include indicators on:
ˇ Access to employment;
ˇ Social services;
ˇ Income guarantees;
ˇ Access to housing;
ˇ Access to education;
ˇ Access to health services;
ˇ Access to ICT;
ˇ Family policies;
ˇ Programmes for those in poverty;
ˇ Programmes for the Gypsy community;
ˇ Programmes for immigrants;
ˇ Programmes for disabled people;
ˇ Participation of NGOs and the development of social capital;
ˇ Communication;
ˇ Creation of co-ordination mechanisms.
In terms of education, in March-April 2003 evaluation forms were sent out to
each CCAA in order to ascertain what had or had not been implemented and
with what results, and to gather suggestions for the next Action Plan. In
addition, the CCAA conduct an analysis of groups at risk and plans for their
inclusion and support. The Department of Education forwards these forms to
the Ministry of Social Affairs [No details about the forms were given despite us
asking].
Key indicators to be monitored are contained in the NAP/incl but also include
(according to the Ministry of Education):
ˇ Literacy levels;
ˇ Difficulty of access to the educational system;
ˇ Number of 6-15 year olds without schooling;
ˇ Failure in secondary school;
ˇ Lack of knowledge of Spanish;
ˇ Concentration of pupil/families in particular areas;
ˇ Number of youths 16+ years who have not got a compulsory schooling
certificate and are not working.
How will it be monitored?
108
Ultimately by Ministry for Employment and Social Affairs.
12.10 Approach to the links between social exclusion and culture
Who is making the links - Ministries/regional level etc?
The emphasis at both regional and national levels is on the need to integrate
people of different cultures whilst at the same time encouraging respect and
understanding of cultural diversity. Lack of Spanish language skills and lack of
employment are seen as important barriers to inclusion and the various
Departments of Education are trying to address these issues. The rise in
immigration at such a rapid rate has meant that schools and teachers within
schools are compelled to deal with diversity on a daily basis, and the
promotion of inter-cultural education is therefore seen as imperative. This can
be seen in the approaches adopted in Madrid and Murcia.
Whilst in some of the programmes education and vocational training are
emphasised, there is an acknowledgement in all programmes of the need for
personal development in order for individuals to be successful in the labour
market. Programmes such as UFIL included a cultural element and the
EQUAL Resem-Senet programme also emphasised the importance of
learning about and understanding other cultures. All programmes included a
mixture of people from different cultures and backgrounds. As one interviewee
explained:
Education has to be about solidarity...as an element of cohesion, education
is about how we all live together.
Target groups:
As a result of the concentration on `education as culture', the target groups
that connect social exclusion and culture are inevitably young people, pupils
and adults with no formal qualifications. For example:
ˇ Pupils at risk of exclusion from school (due to behaviour or attendance
problems);
ˇ Pupils with no qualifications;
ˇ Pupils from poorer backgrounds;
ˇ Pupils with social or family problems;
ˇ Pupils whose first language is not Castellano (or Basque, or Catalan, or
Gallego);
ˇ Adults with no formal qualifications.
In terms of the arts, the National Institute for Performing Arts and Music
subsidises dance, theatre and circuses, although there is no specific
programme linking culture and social exclusion. A similar situation exists in
respect to the Institute of Cinematography and Audiovisual Arts. The
emphasis is more on universal subsidies to organisations or individuals
working in the area of theatre, dance, cinematography etc.
Cultural emphasis:
ˇ Learning about cultures through language and education;
ˇ Inter-cultural education to promote social cohesion;
109
ˇ Basic literacy and competence in the Spanish language (at national and
regional levels the emphasis also will be on learning the language of the
region).
12.11 How is the combined approach being delivered?
Through schools, Councils and European initiatives such as EQUAL and
URBAN that are implemented by partnerships from private, public and third
sector organisations.
12.12 Spain - case study profile
Dates of visit:
2-4th
June 2003
Interviews undertaken:
National Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport
ˇ D. Jaime Cisneros García, Deputy Director General for Relations
with Territorial Administrations;
ˇ Doa Encarnación Pernavieja Marrón, National Ministry of
Education Culture and Sport, Technical Advisor at the Deputy
Directorate for Relations with Territorial Administrations;
ˇ D. Juan Roberto Gillman Mellado, Technical Advisor at the Deputy
Directorate for Academic Regulation (D. Gillman attended
throughout the visit in the capacity of translator).
Directorate General for Educational Promotion, Education Department,
Autonomous Community of Madrid
ˇ Maria Antonia Casanova, Director General of Educational
Promotion;
ˇ Anna Carmen del Canto Nieto, International Programmes Unit,
UFIL Coordinator.
Unidad Específica de Formación e Inserción Laboral (UFIL), Sierra
Palomeras (Community of Madrid Programme of Social Guarantee
Professional Workshops)
ˇ Jaime Asens del Pozo, Director.
State Office for Vocational Training, Innovation and Attention to Diversity,
Education and Culture Department, Autonomous Community of Murcia
ˇ Juan Angel, Director General;
ˇ Juan Navarro Barba, Head of Services for Attention to Diversity;
ˇ Elena Ladrón de Guevara Mellado, Inter-Institutional Coordinator;
ˇ Juan Diaz, Director Resem-senet EQUAL project.
110
Visits to programmes/projects undertaken:
Madrid
ˇ Unidad Específica de Formación e Inserción Laboral (UFIL)
(Training and Employment Unit), Sierra Palomeras in Villa de
Vallecas (Part of the Autonomous Community of Madrid
Programme of Social Guarantee Professional Workshops).
Murcia
ˇ C.P. Salzillo Infants and Primary School (Proyecto Educativo de
Centro) in Espinardo.
ˇ Resem-senet EQUAL project Solidarity Employment Network.
12.13 Spain case study - example 1
Who is responsible?
Unidad Específica de Formación e Inserción Laboral (UFIL) (Training and
Employment Unit), Sierra Palomeras in Villa de Vallecas (Part of the
Autonomous Community of Madrid Programme of Social Guarantee
Professional Workshops).
Description of the programme/project:
UFIL is a school teaches disaffected students (aged 16-21 years) and those
with learning difficulties who have not gained a Certificate of Secondary
Compulsory Education. There are nine centres in Madrid, each providing
vocational training, life and basic skills, education and work experience. The
objectives of UFIL in Sierra Palomeras are to encourage personal
development through knowledge and achievement, to teach students how to
behave in adult situations and enable these young adults to live by
themselves and to find employment.
Students spend most of their time (i.e. 18-19 hours) at the school in the
vocational workshops in Sierra Palomeras, where carpentry, electrics and
hairdressing are taught. In other schools there are plumbing, cookery and
gardening workshops for example. They also spend six hours per week in the
classroom learning basic skills in maths and language. The classroom work
and workshops are closely related in terms of subject matter. Students vary in
ability, so there is the opportunity to work in small groups or individually.
Guidance work and individual mentoring supports this structure. Students can
start at any time during the year so classes have to be flexible.
Students begin the programme with an induction. They receive grants each
month if they perform well, attend on time and behave themselves. Training
starts with preparation for employment. Next students have the opportunity of
work experience, and if successful they can move on to employment, which is
some times subsidised by the Community of Madrid. This process can take
around two years and last between 11,000-18,000 hours. In addition, students
carry out other activities such as vocational guidance, visits to work places
111
(usually factories), cultural visits, physical education and visits to other UFIL
Centres.
`Cultural visits' have been made to museums in Madrid and book fairs which
focused on the three cultures of the Mediterranean (i.e. Judaism, Islam and
Christianity). These cultural visits are incorporated into the teaching
programme both before and after the visits. They are seen as an integral part
of the programme in terms of reducing stereotypes amongst the diverse
students. This is also done through discussions in class and reading
newspapers.
Monitoring mechanisms:
The main indicators monitored by the Madrid Autonomous Community are the
number of people accessing employment and the type of employment by
social group (e.g. immigrant, non-immigrant and ethnicity) and by gender. The
`type' of student is also monitored (e.g. secondary school students with
behavioural problems, young offenders, those referred though social
services). In terms of the students referred to UFIL Sierra Palomeras, 42%
were from secondary school, 13% from special classes for those who won't
finish secondary school, 41% were referred via social services, care
institutions or those who have left school and 4% were young offenders. Of
these 66% were of Spanish origins, 32% from immigrant backgrounds and 2%
were gypsies.44
Effectiveness:
According to data gathered by the Autonomous Community, between January
and December 2002 69% of students found work as a result of the
programme, 60% have an employment contract subsidised by the Community
of Madrid (6 months work) and 40% have a normal contract. Some 70% of
immigrants found work compared with 68% of non-immigrants, while for men
the number was 67% and women 70%.
12.14 Spain case study - example 2
Who is responsible?
The Department of Employment and Social Policy in the Directorate General
of Social Policy in the Autonomous Community of Murcia is responsible for
the `Plan for the Social Integration of Immigrants in the Region of Murcia'
(Plan para la integración social de los inmigrantes de la región de Murcia).
Date begun:
2002-2004
Description of the programme/project:
This plan sets out the work of all the departments within the Autonomous
Community. The plan aims to coordinate activities directed towards
immigrants in the areas of social policy, women, children and families, youth,
education, health, housing, employment, training, culture and tourism and
44
These are figures for 2002/03.
112
cooperation and development. It is based on the principle of inter-culturalism
rather than the assimilation of immigrants into Spanish society. In this respect
the aim is to promote awareness of other cultures and an acceptance of
diversity. The objective of the plan is:
to build a way of living together based on reciprocity and mutual
responsibility, where everybody can actively participate in training,
development, employment, political life and create a `society for everyone',
created by everyone and for everyone. (Autonomous Community of Murcia,
2002: 10).
In the area of culture and tourism the plan emphasises the cross-cutting
nature of `culture'. The plan states that culture is important to the economy, it
aids the social integration of citizens, contributes to the vision of society and
promotes the Region both nationally and internationally. For immigrants and
society as a whole, the plan stresses importance of encouraging an exchange
of knowledge about cultures, ways of living, languages, religions, customs
and folklore:
The final aim of the plan is to achieve the integration of immigrants into a
democratic and plural society which knows how to live with differences,
without discrimination as a result of race, culture, nationality, language,
religion or gender and promotes tolerance, respect, mutual adaptability, an
acceptance of the benefits and richness of exchange between diverse
races and cultures to achieve an open, free, democratic, tolerant society.
(Autonomous Community of Murcia, 2002: 87).
Therefore culture is used and understood in a very broad sense and the plan
states that the Department for Culture and Tourism actually has very few
actions to undertake with regards immigrants. However, the department is
responsible for the following areas:
ˇ Dissemination of knowledge about different cultures and also publicity
and information campaigns about the Region of Murcia aimed at
immigrants;
ˇ Publication of books, magazines, and internet documents by authors from
other countries translated into Spanish to aid immigrants in learning the
language;
ˇ Programme of educational visits to museums in the Region;
ˇ Training courses in tourism aimed at immigrants to help them find work.
Cultural activity is therefore aimed at learning about other cultures and the
Region of Murcia, learning Spanish, education, training and facilitating
employment. These are not only the objectives of the Department of Culture
and Tourism but also, and in particular, of the Departments for Education,
Women and Youth. In particular, the Department of Education and the
Directorate General for Professional Training, Innovation and Attention to
Diversity, plays an important role in promoting social integration.
Cost of programme/project:
113
Cost as set out in the plan.
Area Budget (2002-2004) in Euros
Social 10,122,622,82
Women 420,708,47
Children and Family 262,236,53
Youth 48,080,97
Education 5,207,382,23
Health 2,927,743,32
Housing 3,606,072,63
Employment and training 3,023,090,89
Culture and tourism 245,513,44
Cooperation and development 30,651,62
Total 25,894,102,92
Monitoring mechanisms:
The evaluation of the plan will measure the extent to which objectives have
been met and activities carried out in each area on an annual basis. Analysis
will assess the difficulties and barriers to achieving the objectives as well as
the positive experiences from which lessons can be learnt about how to
improve the Plan. Information will be collected about: finance; a description of
the activities; quantitative and qualitative data about the social group at which
the activity was aimed; assessment of the coordination between different
organisations; the impact of the activity and lessons to be learnt.
A Monitoring Commission has been established within the Department for
Employment and Social Policy to plan and conduct the evaluation and
monitoring. The Commission's membership is composed of representatives
from all the various departments involved in the Plan.
12.15 Spain case study - example 3
Who is responsible?
Resem-senet EQUAL project is a carried out by the Development Partnership
for Social Integration and Solidarity Employment, involving:
ˇ Regional Department for Education and Culture, Murcia (lead partner);
ˇ University of Murcia;
ˇ City Council of Murcia;
ˇ City Council of Molina de Segura;
ˇ City Council of Totana;
ˇ City Council of Santomera;
ˇ City Council of Cieza;
ˇ Murcia Acoge NGO;
ˇ Traperos de Emaús NGO;
ˇ The Institute of Community Development NGO;
ˇ AFAMMER Association;
ˇ La Cope Radio station;
ˇ Tomas Alcáza, private business;
114
ˇ Komercan Puertas de cocina, private business.
The EQUAL project in Murcia has partners in Austria, Finland and France.
The projects in Murcia are unusual in that they are directed by the Department
of Education. In other countries the projects are run by their Employment
Departments. This is because, according to civil servants in the Autonomous
Community, the Education Department has been a pioneer in the field of
discrimination and social exclusion and thus has the most experience of these
issues. It is also because they believe that exclusion from employment starts
much earlier in the life cycle and so the aim is to build a bridge between
school and employment.
Description of the programme/project:
The European Social Fund and the Autonomous Community fund EQUAL
RESEM-SENET. The principle underpinning the project is:
The construction of a Common Europe comes from the will to understand
different people, languages and cultures. Therefore, exclusion for ethnic,
social, cultural, religions or economical purposes is a threat for such a
model of living together.... Diversity must be understood and defended, as
this is the very idea of a Common Europe. (Autonomous Community of
Murcia, 2002).
It is a transnational programme aimed at young people and adults at risk from
exclusion, migrants and gypsies. Those taking part include school age
persons who have become disaffected at school and are truanting or at risk of
exclusion from school, and adults who have not finished compulsory school. It
aims to combine educational, employment and social welfare actions into the
same project. It also aims to promote new ways of combating all forms of
discrimination and inequalities within labour markets. The programme of
activities, are:
1. Information, Training and Sensitisation, for example school leaver classes
to tackle absenteeism and social exclusion and a new university course
specialising in the mediation of social exclusion and discrimination for
those people working with disadvantaged groups.
2. Access to the programme and co-ordination of insertion itineraries
provided through four `Information and Orientation Centres'.
3. Training and social and labour insertion provided in workshops focusing
on personal and social development, specific vocational training
workshops and work placements.
4. Research on social exclusion, racism and muticulturality undertaken by
the university.
5. Establishment of a `Discrimination and Good Practice in the Labour
Market Observatory', which will identify and disseminate good practice.
Monitoring mechanisms:
Research will be carried out under Activity Four described above and will
include an analysis of the contributing factors to social exclusion for migrants,
gypsies and underprivileged people. A survey will be carried out to examine
the institutional responses and discriminating factors in enterprises, the
educational system and other public institutions responsible for social policies.
115
An evaluation will also be carried out to demonstrate the efficiency and impact
of the project. The evaluation will be experimental and will make a comparison
between the initial situation of the beneficiaries and their final situation at the
end of the project. There will be a control group of non-participants.
The Observatory will also undertake a number of research projects and
collate information. It will gather information on good practice in the field of
anti-discrimination policies. It will conduct surveys on discrimination in the field
of social policy and the labour market. Analysis of the media will take place.
Effectiveness:
Co-ordination has been the key to inclusion. Previously organisations worked
separately but now they collaborate and make plans jointly.
12.16 Spain case study - example 4
Who is responsible?
The Regional Plan for Equal Opportunity in Education (Plan Regional de
Solidaridad) is the responsibility of the Department for Education and Culture.
Date begun:
2001-2003.
Description of the programme/project:
The Plan aims are (Navarro Barba, 2002a):
ˇ To continue developing measures to ensure the implementation of the
principle of equal opportunity in the education of socio-educationally
deprived pupils.
ˇ To foster actions which ensure educational quality and suitable provision
for pupils with compensatory education needs.
ˇ To carry out measures to integrate pupils with compensatory education
needs, to encourage the participation of the various stakeholders of the
educational community at all social strata to achieve effective and
equitable access to education and society, and to facilitate the social
integration of families from other cultures and with special difficulties.
ˇ To foster coordination and collaboration between those responsible for
the social and educational initiatives of the various authorities, institutions
and non-governmental organisation and the compensatory measures
proposed in this plan.
The plan is part of the process of developing inter-cultural education in
Murcia. It focuses on introducing inter-cultural elements into the curriculum,
teaching Spanish as a second language and also invests in the development
and training of teachers in these areas. Above all it aims to ensure quality
education for all and maintenance of standards. Publications and good
practice guides for teachers are held in a library at the department and a
website has been created to aid teacher training and exchange of
experiences between teachers.
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Activities within the plan also include subsidies to Parents Associations to
improve links between schools and families, as well as promote
understanding of diverse cultures amongst a wider audience. Also, `Welcome
Classes' (Aulas de acogida) will be established for new immigrants and those
at risk of social exclusion and will provide intensive teaching in Spanish
language and cultures, a social programme and sport, as well as information
about accessing services.
The Education Department do not work in isolation but collaborates with other
partners and organisations with responsibility for services relating to
immigrants and socially excluded people. The approach, according to the
information gleaned from interviews with officials in the department, has to be
holistic since school only covers about five hours of a pupil's day. However,
according to law every child in Spain has the right to education - whether their
parents are legal immigrants or not - so the Department of Education tries to
stress to all parents that they can bring their child to school and the Home
Office will not be informed. They produce publicity to ensure that it is clear
that the Department of Education is not the Home Office (Interviews at
Autonomous Community of Murcia).
The Education Department also promotes International Days, which are held
in schools to facilitate inter-culturalism and also to present the idea of schools
as social centres for use by the local community. These events celebrate
festivals or different ways of living (e.g. ways cooking foods, different clothing,
etc.) and are supported by various organisations. The idea is that the "school
becomes a mirror for the society we want" (Interview at the Autonomous
Community) and promote inter-culturalism.
Monitoring mechanisms:
Department for Education monitors numbers and types of pupils and their
performance.
Each school will be asked to produce a review of how they welcome and
educate immigrant children when they first arrive at school.
Effectiveness:
Judged against its long-term impact.
12.17 Spain - drivers and barriers to the development of links between
culture and social inclusion agendas
Culture and social cohesion is not yet an important national policy or media
issue but is becoming increasingly important at the regional and local levels
(Pascual i Ruiz, 2002). Pascual i Ruiz states that civil society organisations
have been crucial in framing policy and practitioner understanding of culture
and social cohesion. Family is seen as important for social cohesion in terms
of traditional participation in cultural activities (in neighbourhood associations
and religious groups) (Pascual i Ruiz, 2002).
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Some regions and towns are pursuing their own cultural and cohesion policy,
for example, Barcelona with its Accent on Culture Plan (Pascual i Ruiz, 2002).
However, there is little evidence of this happening at a regional level. The
Autonomous Community of Catalonia has commissioned research from
Interarts of Barcelona, in order to develop its own regional cultural strategy.
During our research we did not find strong links between the policies within
the Department for Culture and social exclusion at regional level. However,
the regional Departments for Education clearly viewed `culture' as part of their
responsibility in the context of increasing immigration and social exclusion and
promotion of an inter-cultural approach. Education was seen at regional level
to be the key to social inclusion and central to individuals securing
employment, which would then provide a route to independence. Education
was also seen as an important means of creating understanding between and
tolerance for different cultural groups.
The regional Education and Culture Departments in Madrid and Murcia have
integrated social inclusion into all of their education policies and plans.
However, special programmes are still aimed at meeting the needs of
immigrants, gypsies and students with special needs in basic skills and
access into employment. It is possible that more links between cultural policy
and social exclusion are being made at a very local, project or classroom
based level (e.g. a teacher who used poetry to explore language and gender
roles).
12.18 Spain - implications for policy
ˇ Policy makers in Spain have broadly defined the concept of culture.
This definition goes further than the traditional remit of cultural
policy, which covers the arts, sports, media, theatre, museums,
libraries). The research conducted in Spain highlights the fact that
culture is about `finding ways of living together', through
understanding and tolerating different world-views and traditions.
The Regional Educational Departments we visited reflected this
approach and presented to us with their approaches to dealing with
an increasingly multi-cultural and inter-cultural society. In addition,
culture is not solely confined to cultural policy and cultural
departments but encompasses education, employment and social
affairs.
ˇ The NAP/incl objectives set out by the European Commission
emphasised the importance of including people through
employment. The Spanish NAP/incl and projects we visited in
Spain reflect this. However, it is important to note that social
exclusion is not just about employment. Socially excluded people
have multiple problems that need to be addressed before they can
return to employment and access other fields of human endeavour.
ˇ The process of writing the NAP/incl demonstrated the benefits of
co-ordination amongst government departments. Arriba and
118
Moreno (2002) state that the most important achievement of
Spanish social inclusion policy has been intergovernmental
participation and involvement of social partners and stakeholders.
This was not an easy task but once informal relations were
established it was made easier. However, the lack of informal
relations is cited as a reason for the lack of information in some
sections of the Spanish NAP/incl (Arriba and Moreno, 2002).
Information was easy to gather from the regional authorities that
had already developed `Integrated Plans for the Fight Against
Exclusion' (e.g. the Basque Country).
ˇ Involvement of the third/voluntary sector is important. Civil society
organisations were involved in writing the NAP/incl including the
Red Cross, Caritas, the Gypsy Secretariat and the Spanish
Committee of Disabled People (CERMI). These NGOs were better
equipped in terms of knowledge and human resources and as a
result, they could make more concrete and definitive proposals.
These bodies also brought a degree of critical analysis to the social
inclusion policy agenda. In particular, Caritas (International Catholic
Charity) produced a comprehensive NAP/incl proposal that was
very critical of Spanish policies towards social inclusion, which led
to many of its proposals being incorporated into the final NAP/incl
(Arriba and Moreno, 2002).
12.19 References
Arriba, A. and Moreno, L. (2002) Spain: Poverty, Social Exclusion and `Safety
Nets'. Madrid: UPC-CSIC Working Papers.
Autonomous Community of Murcia (2002) Without you we are nothing we
need each other. Resem-senet EQUAL project publicity leaflet.
Autonomous Community of Murcia (2003) Solidarity Employment Network.
Red Solidaridad y Empleo. Resem-senet. Presentation to the Transnational
EQUAL conference in Murcia.
Casanova, M. A. (2002) Provision for diversity in the autonomous community
of Madrid. Chapter in: Le Métais, J (2002) A Europe of Differences:
Educational responses for Interculturalism. Enschede: Consortium of
Institutions and Development and Research in Education in Europe
(CIDREE).
Council of Zaragoza (1997) Integrated Plan for the Historical Centre (Roman
quarter) (1997) http://www.ayto-zaragoza.com/azar/CIUDAD/PICH/
PLANINTG.HTM.
Pascual i Ruiz, J (2002) Culture, Connectedness and Social Cohesion in
Spain. In Making Connections: Culture and Social Cohesion in the New
Millennium. Canadian Journal of Communication, vol. 27, No. 2&3.
119
Le Métais, J (2002) A Europe of Differences: Educational responses for
Interculturalism. Enschede: Consortium of Institutions and Development and
Research in Education in Europe (CIDREE).
Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte (2002) Ley Orgánica de calidad
de la educacion. Madrid: Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte
Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte website: http://www.mcu.es.
Ministerio de Trabajo y Asuntos Sociales (2001) Plan Nacional de Acción
para la inclusión social del Reino de Espaa.
Navarro Barba, J. (2002a) Educational equal opportunity plan for the
autonomous community of Murcia. Chapter in: Le Métais, J (2002) A Europe
of Differences: Educational responses for Interculturalism. Enschede:
Consortium of Institutions and Development and Research in Education in
Europe (CIDREE).
Navarro Barba, J. (2002b) Repuesta educativas a la educacion de alumnus
extranjeros.
Sánchez Fernandez, S. (2002) Plan for educational provision for immigrant
pupils in the autonomous community of Andalusia. Chapter in: Le Métais, J
(2002) A Europe of Differences: Educational responses for Interculturalism.
Enschede: Consortium of Institutions and Development and Research in
Education in Europe (CIDREE).
Walliser Martinez, A., Bruquetas Callejo, M. and Moreno Fuentes, F. J. (2001)
National and City Contexts, Urban Development Programmes and
Neighbourhood Selection: The Spanish Background Report. Working paper
for UGIS.
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Section 13: Case Study - France
13.1 National socio-economic context
The invention of the phrase `social exclusion' is attributed to Rene Lenoir a
French Minister for Social Action during the mid-1970s, who used the term to
refer to groups who were not covered by social insurance. The concept was
further developed and refined in France and by the 1990s social exclusion
had firmly become part of the EU policy agenda.
In recent years France has suffered from a relatively high unemployment rate,
despite strong economic growth. Unemployment currently stands at 9.5%
(January 2004)45
compared to a Euro-zone average of 8.8%. Therefore it is
not surprising to find that the primary cause of poverty and social exclusion is
unemployment. The main groups in society most vulnerable to exclusion are
children under 15 in poor households, long term unemployed, young people
with poor qualifications, single parent families, asylum seekers and residents
located in deprived areas. Relative poverty stood at 15% in 2001, which is the
EU average for that year.46
13.2 Social inclusion policy
Uniquely among European nation-states France has passed a law against
exclusion (this occurred in June 1998). It is based on a notion that all citizens
should have `effective access' to `fundamental rights'. Addressing social
exclusion is seen as essential, not only in the social and economic spheres
but also vital to the `social solidarity' of the Republic. This `rights-based'
approach to social exclusion covers nearly every conceivable aspect of public
policy and as a result France has instituted a `multi-dimensional' policy
45
Figure from Eurostat.
46
This figure is: the share of persons with an equivalised disposable income below the risk-of-poverty
threshold, which is set at 60 % of the national median equivalised disposable income (after social
transfers). See Eurostat: http://europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat/newcronos/queen/display.do?screen=
detail&language=en&product=THEME3&root=THEME3_copy_491347045042/strind_copy_7633963
10863/socohe_copy_88803726593/sc022_copy_442632116734.
121
approach to social exclusion. There have been institutional innovations in
France such as the creation in 1999 of the National Observatory of Poverty
and Social Exclusion, which has the purpose of collecting data and
information, developing knowledge and information systems and
commissioning studies, evaluations and research. The Observatory is part of
the Ministry of Social Affairs. The key feature of anti-exclusion policy in
France is the highly integrated form it takes (Choffe, 2001).
At a practical level the French approach to tackling social exclusion, which
was adopted in 1998 is based on three key policy measures:
ˇ the introduction of a minimum income, consisting of an income
supplement, guarantee of social rights in relation to health care and
housing and a social or employment `integration contract';
ˇ the development of employment based `insertion' policies;
ˇ an area based approach to regeneration47
.
The NAP/incl builds on and supplements this approach to combating social
exclusion (see below).
Social exclusion challenges:
The principle contemporary social exclusion challenges facing France relate
to combating the insecurity in the areas of income from employment, housing,
health, knowledge and skills. In addition, guaranteeing `access to rights' is
another key challenge. Problems with territorial or geographical
concentrations of exclusion also remain in certain housing districts and other
geographical areas.
13.3 Regional policy
The municipalities, départements and regions each have responsibility for
cultural matters. While the national government has continued to play a
substantial role in the public funding of culture, the contribution of local and
regional authorities has significantly increased in recent years and now
represents 60% of overall public funding of culture48
. Local authorities are
providers of cultural facilities such as museums, theatres, libraries and music
schools. According to the Council of Europe "the departments and regions
have become involved in local public cultural action to a degree far exceeding
the obligations laid down in the devolution laws of 1982 and 1983".49
13.4 National Action Plan Inclusion 2001
Unlike some other member state NAP/incl, the French plan sets out a detailed
financial programme for delivering the social inclusion strategy. The NAP/incl
47
See: The Scottish Parliament, 1999: Approaches to tackling poverty and social exclusion, research
note RN42. Edinburgh: Scottish Parliament Information Centre.
48
The Scottish Parliament, 1999: Approaches to tackling poverty and social exclusion, research note
RN42. Edinburgh: Scottish Parliament Information Centre.
49
Council of Europe/ERICarts (2003) Cultural policies in Europe: a compendium of basic facts and
trends. Found at: http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
122
employs a two-pronged medium-term strategy that emphasizes access to
employment and mobilisation of the key public and private sector actors as
the key methods for tackling exclusion. In order to ensure effective
mobilisation of relevant actors better co-ordination between government
departments and all actors in this sphere is seen as necessary. The NAP/incl
also emphasizes the importance of targeted action focused on the most
deprived regions. Efforts have been made to develop and define indicators
relating to gender, age and the labour market.
EU Commission analysis:
Most of the measures set out in the NAP/incl focus on ways to improve
access to employment. However, the plan does propose a wide range of
social and cultural measures directed at specific target groups or regions.
French policy adopts a holistic approach in respect to `access to rights', which
is intended to promote equal opportunities. One flaw in the NAP/incl is the
lack of quantified objectives, although the July 2001 National Government
Programme that is the financial instrument for implementing the NAP/incl,
does set down quantified objectives.
13.5 National Action Plan Inclusion 2003
The second French National Action Plan/incl provides an excellent example of
good practice in terms of how culture and social inclusion is promoted. The
NAP/incl outlines new initiatives to support:
ˇ Art education;
ˇ Increasing the number of cultural representatives;
ˇ Improving the mutual understanding between those involved in the
cultural sector and disadvantages populations;
ˇ Creating innovative projects;
ˇ Opening cultural and artistic programmes to persons in difficulty;
ˇ Developing further the Culture and the Hospitalised and the Culture and
the handicapped programmes;
ˇ Creating a Permanent Forum to study `Culture and Social Ties'.
Further large scale projects are being developed that will combat social
exclusion in the cultural sector, for example by using digital portals and
interactive communication sites. A policy of promoting access to sports will
also be implemented.
Extent to which culture is included in the NAPs/incl:
Cultural inclusion policies are incorporated into the French NAPs/incl. This is
perhaps not surprising given that `equal access to culture for all citizens' is
written into the French Constitution. It is therefore incumbent on the French
state that it takes action to ensure that all citizens have the opportunity to
participate in cultural life. The impact of this approach informs the work of the
French Government. For instance the decree laying down the brief of the
Minister of Culture (2002) states in its opening passage that the Ministry:
123
shall be responsible for making the major works of humankind accessible to
the maximum number of people, with particular emphasis on French
works'50
.
Across all policy fields culture is seen a key factor for ensuring the quality of
life. This conception of culture possibly explains why France has the highest
level of public spending on culture in the EU. The French Government has
developed a range of policies to address inequalities arising from
geographical, economic and social factors that impede participation in cultural
life. These policies are aimed at extending and diversifying audiences and
fostering the development of the widest possible range of cultural and artistic
activities. There are also a range of policies and initiatives that specifically
targeted at excluded and disadvantaged groups and deprived areas.
13.6 The focus of cultural policy
Developing participation in cultural activity and broadening access to culture is
a key cultural policy objective of the French Government.51
This objective is
also seen as important in respect to addressing social exclusion. A key link
between culture and social exclusion is provided by Politiques de la ville
programme. Whilst the programme has been running since the early 1980's
and from the early 1990's as a multi-disciplinary regeneration programme, it is
only since the mid 1990's that the Ministry of Culture became involved. The
involvement of the Ministry introduced a number of debates about how artists
were supported by society and in turn what responsibility artists had to
society. Tensions were also apparent between those that thought budgets
should concentrate on protecting and maintaining the cultural heritage of
mainly elite institutions and the pursuit of `excellence' in performance and art.
Commentators argued that there was a lack of national policy to shift
emphasis towards supporting more local groups and diverse cultural activities.
This is not to suggest however that voices within the Ministry of Culture did
not and do not argue for a different approach.
This was demonstrated in the `Politique de development culturelle'
programme introduced by Culture Minister Jack Lang. This project sought to
explicitly recognise the need to respond to popular cultural attitudes and have
programmes that aimed at people who were excluded from society. This
enabled people from a number of diverse and minority groups to claim a
legitimate right to access budgets and finances. One of the main changes
introduced by this programme was the acceptance that people could decide
for themselves what was good for them without reference to artistic
excellence.
The approach of the Politique de development culturelle programme was of
course criticised by some cultural elites who strongly felt that such an
approach could undermine the pursuit of artistic excellence. The strength of
this view meant that most cultural budgets still concentrated on traditional
50
See `France': http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
51
See `France': http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
124
patterns of spending to support cultural institutions. Support for the social
inclusion approaches to culture is mostly being funded through the `Politique
de la Ville' programme. Most of the funding derived from the `Politique de la
Ville' programme is project-based and therefore is often short-term. It also
introduced a dilemma of whether such programmes should be supporting
prominent artists for a given period of time or trying to identify and support
new artists coming from the neighbourhoods. In practice a great deal of artists
from local neighbourhoods have been supported to record music, undertake
theatre productions, learn dance and so on. Funding criteria usually demand
that social actions takes place with people from the neighbourhoods as part of
the project.
Responsibility for monitoring funds is the responsibility of the regional tier of
the Ministry of Culture. Evaluations of projects are normally undertaken. The
Conseil Locale de Culture D'Elegance Societe undertakes co-ordination
among the different agencies at local level.
At national level there are inter-ministerial connections but most linkage
between cultural and social inclusion happens at the local level. The remit of
the Ministry of Culture is predominantly one of supporting artists. This means
that in order to access funds from this source people have to define
themselves as such. As a consequence of this, a great deal of culture projects
that are located in the community and which seek to encourage social
inclusion are funded from other Ministries such as the Ministry of Cultural
Affairs.
13.7 France case study profile
Date of Visit:
14-16th
October 2003
Interviews:
Ministre des affaires socials, du travail et de la solidarité
ˇ Madame Jacqueline Lebon, Chargeé de mission "Lutte contre
L'illettrisme et l'exclusion financire.
ˇ Monsieur Jean-Paul Dupré, Chargé de mission "Politique de la
ville".
Ministre de la culture et de la communication
Département de L'innovation et des pratiques artistiques et culturelles:
ˇ Madame Ariane Salmet, Adjointe au chef du département.
ˇ Monsieur Georges Rosevgue, Chargé de mission "Monde du
travial", "Lutte contre les exclusions et les discriminations".
ˇ Madame Isabelle Dufour-Ferry, Chargée de mission
"Culture/Administration pénitentiaire" et Fédérations de'Éducation
populaire.
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ˇ Monsieur Xavier Collal, Chargé de mission "Culture et Hôpital".
Département de L'action territoriale:
ˇ Monsieur Pascal Murgier, Adjoint au chef du department, chargé de
la "politique de la ville".
Département des affaires internationals:
ˇ Madame Aline Denis, Chargée de mission pour les questions
européennes.
ˇ Monsieur Jean-Baptiste Cuzin, Chargé de mission pour les
questions européennes.
Cultural Research Institute, University of Grenoble
ˇ Guy Saez
13.8 Examples of programmes at local level
Example 1:
RMI ­ `minimum integration income'. People who have this status and who
have been out of work for a long time will get access to training in the cultural
sector. This happens in a number of cities. Much of this training will involve
developing or improving self-esteem and teaching people to reconstruct their
lives and develop skills in drawing and writing. Such programmes are not
compulsory but cultural training is a part of this budget. A lot of the training
focuses on self-development. This approach is underpinned by the view that
in our post modern situation `self-realisation' and achievement through arts
and culture is an important dimension of a rich and vibrant society. This view
recognises a whole range of activities from graffiti to rap music that form part
of artistic activity in a modern society.
Example 2:
A number of programmes are aimed specifically at immigrants or ethnic
minorities. This means providing funds for a range of minority ethnic festivals,
language classes and so on. Much of the recent debate is about celebrating
diversity but this can lead to some confusion at local level. For example, there
has recently been some concern about the extent to which local people
should be able to manage neighbourhood social/cultural centres, especially
where this can lead to ethnic tensions about who controls specific buildings.
Example 3:
The education system has recognised the need to provide more opportunities
for artistic education in schools. This can vary from classes in primary schools
going to visit museums to larger programmes that encourage skills
development, not only in arts generally but in the more technical support side
of performance. An example of this operates in technical colleges where
young people worked with Opera Strasbourg to discover opera and learn the
skills needed to stage an opera.
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Example 4:
The Ministry of Culture funds a number of programmes that support the
development of cultural activities in prisons and hospitals.
13.9 France - implications for policy
ˇ The key feature of the French case is the position and importance in
public discourse and in public policy terms of culture per se and
specifically as a tool to address poverty and social exclusion. Culture is
taken seriously in France. Culture is regarded as a key ingredient for
ensuring a good quality of life for all French citizens and as such it is an
important component of France's multi-dimensional approach to social
exclusion.
ˇ As described above, a range of policy measures have been instituted
to improve access to and participation in arts and culture, for instance
by supporting cultural development among deprived groups and
communities. These policy measures are seen as important in terms of
`democratising culture'. However, despite the emphasis given to
opening up access to cultural activities and democratising culture,
success so far in some areas has been mixed.52
ˇ The French government also stated its intention to integrate cultural
policy/inclusion into the NAP/incl process. It has sought to do this
particularly in the NAP/incl 2003 and France provides a good example
of an attempt to integrate culture and social inclusion policies both in
terms of strategy development and implementation. Overall
`comprehensiveness' distinguishes the French approach in this field.
ˇ The French case also highlights the important role played by sub-
national authorities. It is at the sub-national level where the practical
dimension of integrating of culture and social inclusion agendas mainly
occurs.
13.10 References
Choffe, T. (2001) Social exclusion: definition, public debate and empirical
evidence in France, 204-229. In: Mayes, D.G., Berghman, J. and Salais, R.
(eds.) (2001) Social exclusion and European policy. Cheltenham, UK and
Northampton, MA, USA: Edward Elgar.
French Government (2001) Plan national d'action français contre la pauvreté
et l'exclusion sociale.
French Government (2003) National Action Plan Inclusion.
52
See `France': http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
127
The Scottish Parliament, 1999: Approaches to tackling poverty and social
exclusion, research note RN42. Edinburgh: Scottish Parliament Information
Centre.
Wilson, S. 2000 Combatting [sic] Social Exclusion in France and Britain Jobs
for Young People, Report of Seminar held at RHS conference Centre,
London. Franco-British Council publication.
Section 14: Case Study - Sweden
14.1 National socio-economic context
The Swedish social welfare system is universal and comprehensive. Sweden
spent 33% of its GDP on social welfare provision, which represents the
highest level of spending anywhere in the EU. As a result of the
comprehensive and generous support provided by the Swedish welfare
system, poverty levels are relatively low at 10% (2001 figures).53
In addition
employment levels are high and unemployment rates low. Unemployment in
Sweden currently stands at 6% (January 2004).54
14.2 Social inclusion policy
The Swedish approach and strategy for combating social exclusion is based
on a policy of maintaining full employment and a universal social security
system. The welfare system is seen as being robust and effective, having
rode out the worst of the economic crisis during the 1990s and succeeded in
preventing the economic crisis from also becoming a welfare crisis.
The main function of social exclusion policy is to provide security and
opportunities for development. This promotes increasing prosperity both for
the individual and for the community as a whole. Six main themes have been
developed:
1. Employment policy:
One of the main tasks of employment policy is to take steps to avoid a
segregated labour market and contribute in other ways to greater equality
between groups. The purpose of Sweden's `vigorous employment policy' is to
reduce unemployment and create a high rate of employment for both men
53
See Eurostat. This is based on the share of persons with an equivalised disposable incomes below the
risk-of-poverty threshold set at 60% of national median equivalised disposable income (after social
transfers).
54
Found at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat/Public/datashop/print-product/EN?catalogue=Euro... .
128
and women regardless of their background or origin (the target is to increase
employment levels from 73% in 2000 to 80% by 2004).
2. Benefits provision:
Changes to the social security system have made it less generous and more
restrictive. The most important changes involve eligibility criteria and benefit
levels. Increasing dependency on social welfare allowances tend to affect
young people and households containing refugees and immigrants. The
system pays benefits to parents and their children, to sick people, the
unemployed, the disabled, old-age pensioners and surviving dependants. A
guiding principle is that people should be guaranteed an adequate income.
3. Education:
Lifelong learning for all, from pre-school to university and in adult education,
is a powerful instrument for equality, including gender equality. The role of yje
comprehensive education system is to establish basic democratic values and
to promote learning.
4. Health:
An important indicator of inclusion is the health status of the population.
Although, there are relatively small differences in health between different
groups in Sweden compared with other countries, there is a higher incidence
of health problems and long-term sickness among the elderly, women, people
born outside Sweden and blue-collar workers.
5. Housing:
The process of social and ethnic segregation is evident in Sweden. In 1998,
over 20% of persons of foreign origin lived in an area where less than 70% of
the population were native Swedes. Housing segregation tends to aggravate
social problems, and policies have been developed to mix tenure.
6. Age and Family:
The existence of social problems is closely related to age. The problems of
young people often have to do with their financial situation, while the
problems of the elderly are related to health. Background factors such as
education, family situation, educational levels or country of origin have a
bearing on the incidence of social problems. In order to improve the
economic situation of particular age groups and families with children, a
support system has been built up in order to provide financial security.
Various allowances have the effect of redistributing resources over the life
cycle and reducing differences in the financial position.
Social inclusion challenges:
In some areas the social welfare system is viewed as being only partially
successful in guaranteeing the welfare of certain groups in society, particularly
young people, immigrants and single parents. It was these groups in particular
that were hit hard by the employment crisis at the beginning of the 1990s. In
addition, there is a question mark over whether the current social welfare
system is sustainable, given that only by increasing employment can the
funding of health, social services and pensions be maintained and the take-up
of benefits reduced. Other challenges include better protection for those at
risk of social exclusion such as the elderly, the disabled, ethnic groups, those
129
not integrated into labour market or with poor education and residents living in
disadvantaged areas or regions.
14.3 Groups at risk of social exclusion
The comprehensive social security system provides support for a wide range
social exclusion problems. However, the system has not fully succeeded in
developing inclusivity for a number of groups, in particular:
ˇ young people;
ˇ immigrants;
ˇ single parents;
ˇ other vulnerable social groups such as substance misusers.
14.4 National Action Plan Inclusion 200155
Who was responsible?
The Ministry for Industry, Employment and Communications is responsible for
the National Action Plan, although the plan recognises the role of other
Ministries. Joint working has been put into practice at the municipal level
through Local Development Agreements (see below). However, interviewees
stressed that departmental rigidity limited the impact of cross-theme working.
Main focus:
Sweden's first action plan for social inclusion was published in May 2001.
Employment policy is a key feature of the NAP/incl. It is based on the `Work
First' principle, - that is measures designed to enhance the opportunities of
individuals to find work - which is applied to welfare policy as a whole. Another
key, albeit ambitious target is to half the number of welfare dependent people
by 2004. The Swedish government believes that by opting for a universal
social security system based on income-related benefits rather than minimum
benefit rates, administration is cheaper than a system of means-tested
benefits, and that the Swedish model provides a better deal for the most
disadvantaged groups. The Swedish welfare system is seen as being robust
and effective, having rode out the economic crisis during the 1990s and
succeeded in preventing the economic crisis from also becoming a welfare
crisis.
Extent to which culture was included in the NAP/incl:
Under section 1.2 `Facilitating access by all to resources, rights, goods and
services' the NAP/incl mentions the need: "To develop, for the benefit of
people at risk of exclusion, services and accompanying measures which will
allow them effective access to education, justice and other public and private
services, such as culture, sport and leisure" (p.19). The NAP/incl agenda
focuses on the exclusion of people from cultural life, in particular focusing on
class, gender, ethnicity, place of residence or disability. The Agenda sets out
55
The Swedish Action plan can be found at: http://www.eapn.org/inclusion/EUdocs/napsincl/sweden
en.pdf.
130
a long-term programme to increase involvement and participation in culture.
The key aspects of policies are:
ˇ Cultural heritage: national museums have a social and educational
responsibility. An entrance fee has proved to be a barrier to
accessibility and from 2004 the majority of national museums in
Sweden will have free entry.
ˇ Children first: There is broad political agreement on the need for
special initiatives for children and young people. Almost all institutions
receiving public subsidies for cultural activities must give an account
of the way in which they give priority to young people.
ˇ Culture at work: Demands for cultural activities in the workplace stems
from the National Public Health Committee's research which states
that participation in cultural activities is good for your health, reducing
absenteeism and enhancing working life.
ˇ Role of cultural workers: The main proposals are around research and
investigation.
European Commission analysis:
The Commission believes that the Sweden universal social system provides a
solid platform for abolishing most aspects of poverty and social exclusion.
However, the Commission recommends that new policy measures are
required to address the cases of specific groups and individuals. The Swedish
Government has not yet integrated cultural policy into its social exclusion and
anti-poverty agendas.
Who was responsible for implementation?
The NAP/incl is being implemented through several Ministries mentioned
below and the counties and municipalities.
14.5 National Action Plan Inclusion 200356
As the Swedish Government admits in the NAP/incl 2003, the focus of the
2001 action plan was on a description of welfare systems and measures to
strengthen existing policies. However the current action plan mainly focuses
on raising awareness of the social integration process in accordance with the
open method of coordination as this is still not sufficiently well known in many
quarters. It will also seek to encourage and support the establishment of local
processes aimed at social participation in partnerships between local
authorities, other relevant authorities and organisations.
The NAP/incl 2003 included a specific section on culture, which set out the
Government's achievements and plans in the field of culture/cultural inclusion.
At the beginning of 2003 the Ministry of Culture presented an `Agenda for
Culture 2003-2006'. To make cultural activities more widely available, there
will be free admission to a number of state museums. Other features of the
agenda include further measures for children, disabled persons and culture at
work and more regional programmes.
56
Found at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/news/2001/jun/napincl_03_sv_en.pdf.
131
In addition, the Government Book Price Commission will, up till the end of
2005, continuously monitor and evaluate the effects of the reduction of VAT
on books and newspapers from 25% to 6%. Encouragement will be given to
inviting professional artists and cultural workers to visit schools, workplaces or
`unconventional environments', as a means of giving more people access to
culture. During the period 2003-2006 the Ministry of Culture will, in
cooperation with cultural workers, artists' organisations and employers,
explore new roles for artists outside mainstream cultural life.
14.6 The national structures to take forward social inclusion policy
The Government has set ambitious objectives that determine its policy in all
areas. To address these themes the government has stepped up measures
to reduce benefit dependency, increase employability and provide support for
more vulnerable groups. National policies have been developed and
undertaken by a range of Ministries. Although policies are developed by
individual government departments attempts have been made to develop
cross-cutting initiatives which involve several Ministries, although the silo
mentality still exists in central government. This is less evident in the case of
commune administration.
The Ministry of Justice has focused on the administration of social inclusion
policy through integration policy. This policy establishes equal rights,
obligations and opportunities for all regardless of their ethnic and cultural
backgrounds, a community based on diversity and development characterised
by mutual respect and tolerance. It is also responsible for democracy and
popular movement policy, which promotes active citizen participation in
decision-making processes and community life in order, among other things,
to prevent alienation.
Other Ministries are also responsible for specific social inclusion policies.
These include:
ˇ The Ministry for Industry, Employment and Communications has
focused on policies for increased employment.
ˇ The Ministry of Health and Social Affairs has focused on the welfare
policy framework, social services policy, disability policy, child and
youth policy, elderly policy and health policy.
ˇ The Ministry of Education focuses on increasing education attainment.
14.7 Regional policy
The delivery of social welfare is primarily the responsibility of the local
authorities. They are responsible for providing assistance to vulnerable people
and communities. They provide forms of assistance and services such as
child and adolescent care and care for other vulnerable groups. In addition
local authorities are also responsible for school education, refugee reception
and other local functions. The County Councils are responsible for regional
activities including subsidies to regional cultural institutions, theatre groups,
music institutions, museums and libraries, and subsidies to popular
132
movements and non-governmental organisations. The county administrative
boards are responsible for cultural environments at regional level in
collaboration with the county museums.the health service, care services and
services for the elderly and the disabled. The local authorities and County
Councils have the right to levy taxes and finance their own expenditure. An
equalization system guarantees that all local authorities have approximately
the same per capita tax base. Based on this system the Government provides
grants to the local authorities which are then paid out in the form of `block'
grants.
14.8 Metropolitan and local policy
Local authorities and County Councils have the right to levy taxes and finance
their own expenditure. An equalisation system guarantees that local
authorities have approximately the same per capita tax base. Equalisation is
also used to take into account various structural factors.
The goals of `metropolitan policy' are to provide the foundations for
sustainable growth in the metropolitan regions, to stop social, ethnic and
discriminating segregation, and to work for equal and comparable living
conditions by:
ˇ Raising employment rates in socially disadvantaged housing areas for
both men and women;
ˇ Reducing benefit dependency;
ˇ Strengthening the position of the Swedish language among young
people and adults;
ˇ Provide opportunities for all school students to reach secondary
school attainment levels;
ˇ Raising the educational level of the adult population who have not
completed their upper secondary schooling (up to 18);
ˇ Providing sound and healthy living environments;
ˇ Improving public health;
ˇ Increasing democratic participation.
Metropolitan policy aims to give the metropolitan areas ample scope for
sustainable long-term growth and thereby promote the creation of new job
opportunities both in the metropolitan areas themselves and in the rest of
Sweden. It also hopes to end social, ethnic and discriminatory segregation,
thereby working for equality and equal opportunities in terms of living
conditions for inhabitants of the big cities.
State assistance to metropolitan areas is provided to 24 deprived housing
districts with large concentrations of immigrants. This assistance is based on
`local development agreements' between the government and metropolitan
authorities.
Local Development Agreements:
Local Development Agreements (2000-2002) are a national government
initiative with a budget of SEK 4 billion (480m). Approximately 25% of LDA
133
funds are spent on culture related activities. This amounts to approx SEK 700
million over three years.
There are 24 neighbourhoods targeted in 7 municipalities: Botkyrka,
Goteborg, Haninge, Huddinge, Malmo, Stockholm and Sodertalje. These
municipalities develop agreements based on local objectives and action plans
for each neighbourhood, provide regulation of central and local measures in
the respective areas and undertake a follow-up assessment plan. The focus
of the programme is long-term sustainable development and to reduce the
level of social, ethnic and discriminative segregation in the urban areas. It
operates in key areas of: education, employment, culture and social life and
health issues. Central, regional and local authority levels are all involved.
Funding is allocated to the municipality and it is the local district administration
that initiates the majority of projects.
Local Development agreements operate in the following manner:
ˇ The allocation of resources within the municipality should take
account the needs of the vulnerable urban areas;
ˇ Any project funding or other special investment by the municipality in
the disadvantaged areas should not be reduced;
ˇ State support for the local development work must be matched by at
least an equivalent sum from the municipality;
ˇ The municipality should strive in all its activities within the areas
concerned to achieve the goals of the local development agreement;
ˇ The municipality should develop the local democratic dialogue in such
a way that the local inhabitants are involved and participate in the
local development work.
Four key methods are used when designing and implementing the local
development agreements:
ˇ Bottom-up approach;
ˇ Collaboration;
ˇ Long-term perspective;
ˇ Objectives and evaluation.
14.9 The focus of cultural policy
The understanding of culture in Sweden:
The Swedish Government view cultural policy as cultural heritage and various
forms of art, drama, music, works of art and dance. Policy responsibility for
youth and popular movements was moved to the Ministry of Justice. Support
for the cultural infrastructure is seen as one of the fundamental conditions for
enabling culture to reach large numbers of people and involve them.
According to official statistics there has been an increase in the numbers of
people enjoying or taking part in cultural life.
A Swedish Institute fact sheet (1992) on `Cultural Life and Cultural Policy in
Sweden' states:
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In a well-developed welfare state, the public sector should seek to offer the
individual citizen not only financial security and social welfare, but also a
cultural environment of high quality. The cultural policy objectives adopted
by Parliament in 1974 speak of freedom of expression, decentralisation,
and the universal right to culture irrespective of place of residence or social
background.
Cultural policy objectives:
In autumn 1996, the Government presented a Bill on culture to the Swedish
Parliament, which contained seven objectives of cultural policy:
1. Safeguard freedom of expression and create genuine opportunities for
all to use that freedom.
2. Work to create the opportunity for all to participate in cultural life and
cultural experiences and to engage in creative activities of their own.
3. Promote cultural diversity, artistic renewal and quality, counteracting
the negative effects of commercialism.
4. Enable culture to be dynamic, challenging and independent force in
society.
5. Preserve and utilise our cultural heritage.
6. To promote education.
7. To promote international cultural exchange and encounters between
different cultures within Sweden. 57
One of these objectives - `to work to create the opportunity for all to participate
in cultural life and cultural experiences' - relates to the social exclusion
agenda. In order to meet this objective the Government aims to promote
greater access to culture for children and young people and for disadvantaged
groups such as the disabled, elderly people and people on low incomes.
The 1996 revision of the aims of the country's cultural policy includes the
following two statements:
ˇ To promote cultural pluralism and artistic renewal and quality, thereby
counteracting the negative effects of commercialisation;
ˇ To create the conditions for culture to be a dynamic, challenging and
independent force in society.
In recent years the government has instigated a number of policy measures to
increase access to cultural services and resources. In 1997 public library
legislation was passed (and later revised in 2002), which emphasised the
responsibility of each community to guarantee free public service and access
to libraries. National museums will also introduce free entrance for visits to
their permanent exhibitions.
Cultural diversity:
The national agenda states that `people with weaker roots in the community
are less inclined than others to take part in publicly funded culture'. Among
these are people of foreign origin. Agencies and institutions in the cultural
57
Council of Europe / ERICarts, 2002: Cultural Policies in Europe ­ a compendium of basic facts and
trends. Found at: http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
135
sector have specific objectives to combat discrimination, xenophobia and
racism. They promote social equality, equality between women and men, and
enhance diversity.
14.10 The national structures to take forward cultural policy
The main responsibility for cultural policy lies with the Ministry of Culture,
although the youth affairs portfolio has moved to the Ministry of Justice. The
National Council for Cultural Affairs (Statens kulturrd) plays a major role in
implementation of cultural policy.
14.11 The regional/local structures to take forward cultural policy
The municipalities are concerned with activities at local level: libraries, music
schools and subsidies to local orchestra, theatre groups, museums and local
cultural environment activities. The Government has concluded local
development agreements with a number of metropolitan authorities within the
framework of national metropolitan policy.
The County Councils award grants to cultural institutions and organisations,
study organisations, popular movements and children's and young people's
theatre groups in order to stimulate diverse cultural activities. The County
Council is the main financial sponsor of local concert venues and awards
cultural scholarships.
14.12 Approach to the links between social exclusion and culture
Who makes the links - Departments/Government levels?
Cultural policy in Sweden has a long history of involvement with social
inclusion. Policies backed up by delivery systems have been developed to
enable culture to reach and involve large numbers of the population.
The Ministry of Justice is also responsible for Regional Development Policy
and the Metropolitan Areas Policy. In 1999 the Commission on Metropolitan
Areas was set up to coordinate national urban policy. Members of the
Commission include: State Secretaries for Culture, Education and Science,
Industry, Employment and Communications, Health and Social Affairs,
Environment, Justice, Finance, Prime Minister's Office. The Commission
develops and coordinates the policy and ensures achievement of its goals.
Five reference groups are linked to the Commission, one of which monitors
cultural, sports and recreational projects.
The Commission originally had its base in the Ministry of Culture but it was
later transferred to the Ministry for Industry, Employment and
Communications (2000) and current is based in the Ministry of Justice. The
Commission aims to promote economic growth and better planning methods
136
in metropolitan areas and also to represent the state in negotiating Local
Development Agreements with 7 selected metropolitan areas.
Target groups:
Although culture and social exclusion policies cover a wide range of groups
emphasis is placed on the integration of ethnic migrants into Swedish society.
The comprehensive welfare system is seen as a tool that will help to further
integrate them into Swedish society.
14.13 How is funding being monitored?
Research is continually undertaken at the local level to measure the impact of
social inclusion and culture policies. To date there has been success in
achieving many of the objectives. There have been over 500 evaluation
reports at national, regional and local level and over 2000 measures
implemented at the local level.
14.14 Sweden case study profile
Dates of visit:
17-
19th
June 2003
Interviews undertaken:
ˇ Ms Ingrid Ramberg, Botkyrka Multicultural Museum;
ˇ Mr Hassan Hosseni, Research Leader, Botkyrka Multicultural Centre;
ˇ Mr Evert Kroes, Ministry of Justice;
ˇ Ms Pernilla Hellman, Project Leader, Botkyrka Municipality;
ˇ Mr Peter Englen, Consultant, Circus Cirkor.
Visits to programmes/projects undertaken:
ˇ Botkyrka Multicultural Centre, Fittja.
ˇ Framtidsverkstan, Fittja.
ˇ House of Culture Rotemannen, Alby.
Telephone Interviews:
Annika Mansnerus ­ Ministry of Health and Social Affairs
14.15 Sweden case study - example 1
Who is responsible?
ˇ Ms Ingrid Ramberg, Botkyrka Mangkulturellt Centrum (Multicultural
Centre);
ˇ Mr Hassan Hosseni, Research Leader, Botkyrka Mangkulturellt
Centrum (Multicultural Centre).
Date begun:
The original project started in the mid 1980s.
Description of programme/project:
Multicultural Centre, Fittja.
137
Botkyrka is a municipality in the south west of Stockholm County. It has a mix
of densely populated urban areas and sparsely populated rural areas and has
a population of 73,000 (1998), of which 30% have roots outside of Sweden. In
Fittja, the area of Botkyrka used in this case study, 90% of the population
have roots in 52 countries, the vast majority of them in the Middle East. The
`indigenous Swedish' population tend to be from lower social classes.
The area has a long tradition of youth activities and cultural initiatives and it
tends to be open-minded and entrepreneurial in many respects. The area also
has a wide network of voluntary and community organisations. The central
government has allocated SEK 2 billion from 1999 to fund several projects in
Bothkyrka.
The programme:
In Botkyrka, social exclusion occurs at several levels, although is mainly
based on age, gender and ethnic origin. To combat this, areas of local
development work have been identified:
ˇ increased employment and income levels;
ˇ language skills;
ˇ improved public health;
ˇ improved school results;
ˇ crime reduction;
ˇ housing and physical environment improvements;
ˇ cultural and recreational facilities;
ˇ increased democratic participation;
ˇ overcome negative image of area.
Social exclusion and cultural policies predominantly focus on ethnic diversity.
This is based on tourism, theatre, music and dance (these are also used as a
medium for language training). Recognising the diversity of the area and
using culture as a means to foster economic and social development is seen
as an important priorities, particularly in terms of enhancing the image of the
local community. The LDA in Botkyrka attaches a high level of importance to
cultural activities and has provided 32% of total funding for cultural projects in
the area (SEK 30 million).
The Multicultural Centre is located in the Municipality of Botkyrka in the south
west of Stockholm. The project has developed a museum/gallery and
research centre that focuses on the multi-cultural population of the area and
the `exotic' benefits such people bring to Swedish society. It provides:
ˇ Support and advice for local residents;
ˇ Meeting space and leisure facilities;
ˇ Research links with other academic establishments;
ˇ Publishing house.
Local and regional action programmes have been developed that aim to make
more effective use of existing resources without allocating new government
138
funds. Evaluations indicate that the partnership model has been largely
successful. Crime has reduced, democratic participation has increased and
the perception of security has increased. Health remains a stubborn problem.
The central government has changed its methods of working and ignored a
blanket approach to funding but allowed freedom for specific programmes for
specific areas.
Partnerships are considered a useful forum for exchanges between public and
local authorities, although interest from the business sector has been limited.
The programme also aims to promote an integrated territorial approach over
sectoral interests and it is hoped that the private sector will come on board in
a more constructive way and not just `free-ride' the benefits.
Effectiveness:
ˇ Enhanced cultural provision has helped to combat social exclusion,
although the methods employed have had a limited impact because
they have been top-down in nature. There is concern that
professionals in local authorities are not aware of what communities
want in regard to social inclusion and cultural activities. As a result
participation rates of local people in some activities is very limited.
For example the Research Institute (Mangkulturellt Centrum)
provides museum/gallery and café but is not frequented by locals.
However, the establishment of the centre has resulted in a more
positive image of the area.
ˇ In many ways the programme is nave because it does not know
what locals want.
ˇ The professionals are unaware of local use of facilities and no
monitoring seems to be in evidence.
ˇ Members of the community who become more economically
independent tend to leave the area, leaving a pool of more hard-to-
reach groups and thus making it more difficult to achieve positive
outcomes.
ˇ Swedish culture is dominant. There is a trend toward embracing the
Swedish culture than embracing diversity. However, recent
evidence shows that immigration is having an affect on the identity
of Swedes and changes are occurring.
ˇ Bureaucracy of comprehensive welfare system does make projects
and programmes inflexible and a barrier to access in some ways.
However, this is less obvious at local level.
Monitoring Mechanisms:
Very limited. Interviewees were unaware of usage rates.
Future of programme:
Commitment from all levels of government will continue. This is seen as a
long-term strategy, although future funding will be more limited, a factor that
will inevitably impact on the programme.
14.16 Sweden case study - example 2
139
Who is responsible?
ˇ Ms Pernilla Hellman, Project Leader, Botkyrka Municipality.
Date begun:
The project started in 2000.
Description of programme/project:
Framtidsverkstan, Fittja.
This project is funded by the Botkyrka municipality. A large flat within the main
housing complex in the area has been renovated and used as a community
room. This building is used as the base for the development and publication of
a community magazine. The project is staffed by approximately 10 young
people from the local area most of who are first generation Swedes. The
magazine highlights local issues and discussion and is produced over a 10-
week period during summer school holidays. The project has received
coverage in national media. The project aims to:
ˇ Generates interest in the area;
ˇ Helps alleviate negative attitudes of Fittja;
ˇ Provides young people with experience (and small wage) of working in
journalism.
Monitoring mechanisms:
Sales of the magazine and number of applicants applying for positions on the
team. Both indicators highlight the popularity of the project.
Views of participants:
Very popular project in which youths from different cultural backgrounds can
work together. Most members of the team wish to progress to University.
14.17 Sweden case study - example 3
Who is responsible?
Mr Peter Englen, Consultant, Circus Cirkor.
Date begun:
The project started in 1995.
Description of programme/project:
Circus Cirkor, The House of Culture Rotemannen, Alby.
This project was first developed in 1995 as a way of integrating circus art
forms with communities and youth culture. The project has a range of
activities around performing arts, film and television and music. The project is
funded by national and local government. Although this is a national artistic
company which provides services on a national basis, there are many benefits
to the local area. These include:
140
ˇ recruitment;
ˇ developing a creative education system;
ˇ youth activities;
ˇ stimulate interest from outside agencies to develop in the local area;
ˇ build national and international networks (Suborb festival for new circus in
August 2003).
The programme plans to build on these positive aspects and has received
positive media coverage and visits from prominent politicians.
Effectiveness:
There has been concern about the impact the programme is having on the
local area.
14.18 Sweden - Drivers and barriers to development of links between
culture and social exclusion agendas
Barriers:
ˇ In some areas the social welfare system is viewed as being
only partially successful in guaranteeing the welfare of
certain groups in society, particularly young people,
immigrants and single parents.
ˇ Following on the from above, there is an uncritical belief in
and over-reliance on the social welfare system as the main
tool for abolishing most aspects of social exclusion, which
has stifled new policy measures to address specific groups
and needs.
ˇ Government has not managed to effectively integrate
cultural policy into its social exclusion and anti-poverty
agenda, thus leaving gaps in the system.
ˇ Most cultural policies directed at the general population.
ˇ Funding limitations. There is a question mark over whether
the current social welfare system is sustainable, given that
only by increasing employment can the funding levels of
health, social services and pensions be maintained and the
take-up of benefits reduced.
ˇ Crude monitoring programmes may lead to the misdirection
of funds.
ˇ Lack of awareness of multi-dimensional issues of exclusion.
Drivers:
ˇ Increased awareness of diverse nature of Swedish society.
ˇ Close working relationships between agencies at the local
level.
ˇ High levels of support for culture initiatives within the broader
social exclusion programme.
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ˇ Positive impact of programmes to date on employment,
education, crime, housing.
14.19 Sweden - implications for policy
ˇ A tightening of public expenditure may place limitations on
some existing social and cultural inclusion projects and
programmes and the development of new initiatives.
ˇ There is a lack of effective joined up working at the national
level in Sweden, in particular Ministries and Government
Departments still have a `silo approach' to working. The
NAP/incl recognises this and stresses the need for closer
collaboration at levels of governance and the passing of
legislation enabling local authorities and County Councils to
collaborate in joint committees for the purposes of delivering
health and care services.
ˇ Too much emphasis is placed on monitoring inappropriate
measures and indicators.
ˇ Some cultural and integration programmes place too much
emphasis on Swedish-ness rather than fully embracing the
cultural diversity of Swedish society.
14.20 References
Andersson, R. and Palander, C. (2001) National and City Contexts, Urban
Development Programmes and Neighbourhood Selection. The Swedish
Background Report. A working paper for UGIS.
Swedish Government (2001) Sweden's action plan against poverty and social
exclusion.
Swedish Government (2003) Sweden's action plan against poverty and social
exclusion 2003-2005.
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Section 15: Case Study - Finland
15.1 National socio-economic context
Finland has relatively low levels of poverty and social exclusion. As with other
Nordic states the social security system in Finland is based on the principles
of universality and a comprehensive income security system. This system is
seen as having succeeded in ensuring low levels of poverty, for instance only
around 11% (2001)58
of the Finnish population live on an income of less than
60% of median income. Surprisingly given the nature of Finland's social
security system, it spends slightly less than the EU average on social
protection. The unemployment rate in Finland stands at 9% (January 2004).59
15.2 Social inclusion policy
Social exclusion has been the main concept used in the Finnish discourse on
social disadvantage. In Finland, social exclusion is used as a
multidimensional tool for analysing the lives of the disadvantaged individuals
and groups. It is seen as a multidimensional marginalisation process that has
economic and social, cultural and political connotations (Silver, 1994; Strobel,
1995). The concept of social exclusion is concerned with inadequate social
participation, lack of social integration and lack of power. In Finnish society,
the most central social ties that connect individuals to society are education,
employment, family and other social relations. Thus, social exclusion in
Finland primarily means an exclusion from the fields of education,
employment and economy, on the one hand, and from social relations and
social networks, on the other.
Underpinning Finland's contemporary approach to social exclusion is the aim
of preserving the basic structure of the social security system and where
possible, enhancement of the Scandinavian universal welfare state model.
Finland's policy response to social exclusion is defined by this structure. The
main aim of social protection is to safeguard people's income by providing a
comprehensive system of basic security and income-related benefits that
58
See Eurostat. This is based on the share of persons with an equivalised disposable incomes below the
risk-of-poverty threshold set at 60% of national median equivalised disposable income (after social
transfers).
59
Found at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat/Public/datashop/print-product/EN?catalogue=Euro... .
143
guarantee a reasonable level of consumption. To date, this system has
guaranteed social cohesion, fairness and equality. Almost all households get
some kind of income transfer or use social and health services from time to
time. In recent years national policy has stressed the `primacy of work' and
the Government has sought to reform the social security system, taxation and
service charges in order to make employment attractive and financially viable
(see below).
Preventive action is an integral part of social protection in Finland. Its aim is to
forestall a range of risks and problems so that use of the more expensive
services and forms of assistance can be minimised. The main areas of
preventive action are environmental health care, effective primary health care,
occupational health care, maternity and child welfare services, and the
prevention of poverty and social exclusion. The strategies, objectives and
measures for social inclusion are based on the Government's programme and
budget framework for 2004-2007 and the social welfare and health policy
strategies (2010) drawn up by the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health. In
April 2001, the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health published `Strategies for
Social Protection 2010 ­ towards a socially and economically sustainable
society'. This strategic document set out the social protection strategy for the
next ten years. It outlined a strategy for reform of the social protection system
along four strategic lines:
ˇ promoting health and functional capacity;
ˇ making work more attractive;
ˇ preventing and combating social exclusion;
ˇ providing efficient services and income security.
In 2001, the Committee on Social Protection Expenditure and its financing
prepared its proposals for reform of the Finnish social insurance system. The
Committee's proposals were published in Spring 2002. They were based
partly on the agreement between the social partners in late 2001, to improve
the sustainable future of social protection and address the main challenges for
social policy for the coming years. These are:
ˇ unemployment and its structure;
ˇ changes in demography and family structure;
ˇ the employment rate and maintaining the work ability;
ˇ the care and services needed by the ageing population;
ˇ availability of sufficient and capable personnel in the social and health
care sector;
ˇ the trend in expenditure on social and health care services;
ˇ poverty and social exclusion;
ˇ sustainable financing of social expenditure;
ˇ new information technology.
Social exclusion challenges:
A key challenge facing Finland is adapting the Scandinavian social welfare
system to `make-work-pay'. There is a need to address specific areas and
groups facing disadvantaged such as older workers, long-term unemployed
144
and persons with mental health or addiction problems. In addition, action is
required to increase levels of co-operation among key actors in the social
exclusion sector and address regional disparities so that `national' standards
of social services are maintained.
15.3 Groups at risk of social exclusion
The NAP/incl 2001 identifies groups at risk from social exclusion, in particular:
ˇ long-term and `recurrently unemployed';
ˇ disabled;
ˇ children living in unstable conditions;
ˇ immigrants;
ˇ the chronically ill;
ˇ substance abusers;
ˇ violence against women and prostitution;
ˇ the over-indebted;
ˇ the homeless;
ˇ prevention of crime-related social exclusion;
ˇ minority ethnic groups (e.g. Sami, Romany).
15.4 The national structures to take forward social inclusion policy
The Ministry of Social Affairs and Health has responsibility for social
protection and social inclusion. Other Departments have a role in relation to
these issues, including the Ministry of Labour, the Ministry of Justice and the
Ministry of Learning.
15.5 The regional/local structures to take forward social inclusion
policy
Social policy competences have traditionally been decentralised in Finland.
Social inclusion policy is delivered through existing governance and delivery
structures at the regional and local levels. In addition, `regional partnership
centres of NGOs' will be established.
Municipalities, most of which have less than 10,000 inhabitants, can levy
taxes. They receive a government grant to enable them to arrange the
services they are obliged to provide. Municipalities are responsible for
arranging basic services like schooling, social services, childcare and health
services. Municipal institutions provide statutory services, either the
municipality's own or joint bodies run together with other municipalities. The
municipalities can also buy these obligatory services from the private sector to
supplement public services.
15.6 Examples at a local level
Finnish policy makers have developed an initiative to foster co-operation
between municipal authorities in the area of `active social policy'. In addition,
integrated housing strategies aimed at stimulating demand for existing
145
housing stock in areas with falling populations will be drawn up at the
municipal level60
. An equalisation fund will be set up to ensure that child
protection is not dependent on the financial situation facing individual
municipalities.
15.7 The National Action Plan Inclusion 2001
Who was responsible?
The Ministry of Social Affairs and Health is directly responsible for the
NAP/incl. A working group also included representatives from Trade Unions,
the Lutheran Church, Ministry of the Environment, Ministry of Labour and
Ministry of Finance.
Main focus:
The NAP/incl is based on preserving the basic structure of social security
system while placing emphasis on employment and skills development. The
plan adopts a broad conception of social inclusion and places a strong
emphasis on preventive measures. Priority areas for policy action are:
ˇ economic exclusion;
ˇ health;
ˇ labour market exclusion;
ˇ housing market exclusion;
ˇ exclusion from education;
ˇ other forms of exclusion such as criminality, substance misuse etc.
The Finnish NAP/incl envisages a number of policy innovations such as:
ˇ the promotion of employment for the disabled;
ˇ reform of the occupational health system to incorporate short-term
jobs;
ˇ the establishment of a centre dedicated to monitoring and studying
social exclusion;
ˇ changing the benefit system to increase the chances of employment
for those at risk from exclusion;
ˇ raising the national pension level;
ˇ raising child supplements.
Extent to which culture was included in the NAP/incl:
Limited - `cultural exclusion' is mentioned in the NAP/incl as one of `risk
factors' that could lead to social exclusion. The cultural policy objectives of the
Finnish government as expressed in the government programme of 1999,
include among other things the promotion of cultural diversity and
strengthening the role of cultural policy decision-making in various
development initiatives. The programme also promised to enhance national
cohesion by alleviating social and economic inequalities. Efforts have been
made by policy makers to take culture into account as a dimension of various
forms of development. This objective has been operationalised to some extent
60
This initiative comes from the `Pidot Report'.
146
in the projects financed from the EU Structural Funds, although to date the
role of culture in regional development projects has been modest.
Who was responsible for implementation?
Ministry of Social Affairs and Health
How was the NAP implemented?
The Ministry of Social Affairs and Health has co-ordinated a working group
with representatives of various departments/agencies to oversee
implementation.
How was the NAP/incl monitored?
A range of indicators are listed in the NAP/incl. These are based on:
ˇ housing statistics;
ˇ benefits recipients;
ˇ income levels;
ˇ health statistics;
ˇ employment rates;
ˇ educational attainments.
These are monitored by relevant Ministries or agencies and overseen by the
working group.
EU Commission analysis:
The Commission offers a fairly favourable analysis of Finland's policy and
strategy towards social exclusion and poverty, stressing the comprehensive
nature of the Finnish approach.
15.8 Key comparative changes between NAPs/incl 2001 and 2003
The 2003 NAP/incl adopts the same overall strategic approach as the 2001
plan and in general there appear to be few significant changes. The Nordic
welfare state model, based on universal services and high standards of social
protection, is seen as fundamental to the prevention of poverty and social
exclusion. The NAP/incl provides a description of the terms poverty, exclusion
and inclusion.
15.9 The role of cultural policy in NAP/incl 2003
Culture does not feature as a core policy concern in the NAP/incl. Culture is
mentioned as one aspect in the agenda for promoting social inclusion. One
area where this is seen as important is the availability of `versatile information'
and access to library services. These areas are regarded as key to the
prevention of exclusion and the promoting inclusion. The NAP/incl proposals
are linked to the `Library Strategy 2010 Policy for access to knowledge and
culture' (p.23).
According to the NAP/incl, at risk groups will require `targeted special
measures' in addition to universal welfare services. One aspect of this
147
targeting will be `support for `cultural plurality' (p.25). The need to support
`cultural plurality' has arisen in response to the projected growth of Finland's
immigrant population as a result of anticipated labour shortages. The
overarching policy objective of the Government is to prevent the `escalation of
cultural conflicts' and promote `social participation of ethnic groups' (p.28).
The government will also draft an `immigration policy programme' that is
designed to promote the language and cultural rights of children from ethnic
groups.
15.10 Cultural Policy
The understanding of culture:
Finnish culture is characterised by a large number of institutions and highly
organised and wide-ranging cultural activities. The arts are supported by an
extensive subsidy scheme and an effective copyright system. In the 1990s the
growth in government cultural funding slowed. Following the subsequent
restructuring of the Finnish economy, allocations began to increase again in
2000. However, in recent years services are increasingly being developed
with private funding. This understanding of culture is based on:
ˇ the affirmation of national identity;
ˇ artistic creativity;
ˇ expanding participation in cultural life;
ˇ promotion of cultural diversity.
The focus of cultural policy:
The priorities of Finnish cultural policy aim to maintain the country's high
standards in information technology, which has proven particularly successful.
The programme `Education, Training and Research in the Information Society
­ A National Strategy for 2000-2004' is designed to improve conditions for
relevant training systematically, focusing in particular on virtual study and life-
long learning. The Government's ambitious goal is to provide all citizens with
equal access to and use of the electronic media by the year 2004.
Cultural policy focuses on the cultural dimensions of the information society,
the utilisation of regional resources, multiculturalism, tolerance and
international cooperation. Increasingly the focus is on creativity and the
cultural industries.
15.11 The national structures to take forward cultural policy
The Ministry of Education is responsible for promoting and developing culture
in Finland. In its Department for Cultural Policy these tasks are divided
between the Culture and Media Division and the Arts and Cultural Heritage
Division. The aim is to ensure comprehensive quality services in Finland.
Citizens must have access to cultural services and opportunities to participate
in culture, regardless of their place of residence and financial standing. Within
this department the Minister of Culture has responsible for the arts, sports and
youth.
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The Ministry focuses on strategic policy concerns, with decision-making and
implementation delegated to quasi-governmental bodies such as the Arts
Council. These bodies allocate various project grants. This structure is
complemented by regional cultural bodies, which promote cultural
development at the regional level. This arms-length approach is considered
the most effective way to develop and finance cultural policies and
programmes.
Most cultural financing comes from the Ministry of Education and the local
authorities. Other ministries also support culture to some extent. Local cultural
expenditure is financed from tax revenue and with state grants and subsidies.
The arts and culture appropriation in the state budget amounts to 315 million
(2003). Finnish cultural projects also receive financing through the EU cultural
and Structural Fund programmes.
Certain cultural institutions receive statutory state aid. Museums receive
statutory aid up to 40%, theatres 80% and orchestras 25%. The municipalities
receive statutory state aid for operating public libraries. The libraries receive
between 25-50% state aid toward construction costs of a library. Other state
funding is discretionary subsidy such as artist grants. A national lottery, which
originated in 1926, provides a key share of the `public' funding for culture,
heritage and sport. The most important additional sources of financing are
business and various cultural and arts foundations. Business enterprises
purchase art and sponsor cultural events.
15.12 The regional/local structures to take forward cultural policy
Although culture is supported by a nationwide network of institutions some
responsibility and funding is undertaken at the local level. Municipal councils
are responsible for the arts at the local level. Cultural issues are dispersed
across a wide range of committees. At the sub-national level, regional
councils, municipalities, associations and joint corporations of municipalities
have a role in cultural policy decision-making and funding. They are given
freedoms within this role to allocate funding to specific local projects.
15.13 Approach to the links between social exclusion and culture
Who makes the links?
There is very limited integration between culture and social inclusion policies
in Finland. Several small cultural projects are aimed at specific groups such
as the disabled and ethnic minorities. Funding for the enhancement of Sami
culture is relatively high, although this is less about inclusion and more about
preservation and tourism.
Interviewees stated that the main problem seems to be the lack of a critical
mass of people of `excluded' groups in areas outside of Helsinki. Even within
the capital, the numbers are relatively small, making projects difficult to
sustain and expensive on a per capita basis.
149
Recently there has been more recognition of the role of culture in social
inclusion but it is currently limited to ethnic groups and disabled groups. Most
of these projects are based in the Helsinki area (one in Joensuu) and have an
emphasis on visual arts. Interviewees stated that excluded groups are
`categorised' and supported by different Ministries or agencies without any
real co-ordination in terms of needs.
Target group:
As alluded to above, a very fragmented approach to culture and social
exclusion exists in Finland. There is no strategic or target approach as such.
Cultural emphasis:
As mentioned above, several small cultural projects are aimed at specific
groups such as the disabled and ethnic minorities. Funding for the
enhancement of Sami culture is relatively high (see above for the predominant
rationales).
15.14 How is the combined approach being delivered?
First, the fragmented approach limits the potential for joined up working. The
Arts Council works with local municipalities to fund specific projects, although
most social exclusion and culture projects are undertaken at the municipal
level where joint working appears to be more in evidence. KSV (Helsinki City
Council) has linked with the Somali community to develop programmes for
enhancing their culture and increasing acceptance within the broader
population. In general there are limited organisational structures and a lack of
experienced leaders to take projects forward. Lottery funding for these
projects operates in parallel with (not in addition to) Government funds.
Secondly, the dominance of the social protection system appears to address
issues about levels of income and social cohesion. In many ways the support
provided by national government funding toward social protection is viewed as
almost guaranteeing inclusion, thus limiting the need for other initiatives.
15.15 Finland - case study profile
Dates of visit:
8-11th
July 2003
Interviews:
ˇ Sari Salovaara, Access to Culture Manager, Finnish National
Gallery.
ˇ Outi Lindroos, Chair, National Board of Disabilities People.
ˇ Tiina Korpimaki, Project worker Galleria 2003.
ˇ Marian Tolbey, Head of Education Services, Finnish National
Gallery.
Visits to programmes/projects undertaken:
ˇ Accessible Museums Project. Ateneum Museum, Helsinki
150
15.16 Finland case Study - example 1
Who is responsible?
ˇ Sari Salovaara, Access to Culture Manager, Finnish National
Gallery.
Date begun:
The project began in 1999 and is funded on a yearly basis. It has recently
received three years funding.
Description of programme/project:
Accessing Museums
Project to improve access for disabled people to National Museums/Galleries
in Finland. The project is based at the Ateneum Gallery in Helsinki (part of the
Finnish National Gallery). Project seeks to:
ˇ engage disabled people in arts appreciation;
ˇ provide easy access to galleries and museums;
ˇ run gallery programmes for the visually impaired community;
ˇ develop programme of other activities for disabled people;
ˇ outreach work ­ taking art out to the community.
Monitoring mechanisms:
Monitoring is limited and is based on attendance figures and exit surveys.
Effectiveness:
The lack of monitoring programmes makes an analysis of the effectiveness of
the project difficult. There appears to have been little promotional activity,
although support for the project is apparently very good and feedback has
been positive. However, interviewees suggested that the limited funding and
resources do limit the capacity of the project.
15.17 Finland case study - example 2
Who is responsible?
Tiina Korpimaki, Project worker Galleria, 2003.
Date begun:
The project began in 2000.
Description of programme/project:
Taru ­ Kulttuuria, Tiedotusta ja Koulutusta
The project aims to enable disabled people and immigrants living in Helsinki
to develop artistic skills. The project is based in central Helsinki and seeks to:
151
ˇ exhibit multi-sensual artistic works;
ˇ present a positive image of excluded groups to the wider
population;
ˇ provide education for artists;
ˇ generate funds for further development;
ˇ provide a catalogue of disabled and ethnic artists.
Monitoring mechanisms:
Monitoring is limited and is based on attendance figures and exit surveys.
Effectiveness:
The project has developed its own television show aimed at excluded groups
that is broadcast on national television. Interviewees said that a mix of
different excluded groups helped to improve understanding and highlighted
the common problems they faced.
Views of participants:
Very positive ­ following the widespread attention the project has received
there has been a marked change in public attitudes to such groups by the
wider population.
15.18 Implications for policy
ˇ No cohesive and overarching approach exists for linking social
exclusion to culture. Policy has tended to adopt a fragmented approach
that focuses mainly on a certain number of excluded groups and
specific institutions. This approach has in itself `excluded other
excluded groups'.
ˇ Funding for some projects has been limited and the emphasis has
been on short-term targets and objectives.
ˇ Despite the fact that public intervention has primarily focused on
addressing employment issues, high long-term unemployment still
persists.
ˇ Government and policy makers have been overly reliant on the social
welfare system as the primary vehicle for ensuring social cohesion. To
some extent this has led to other policy approaches and initiatives
being neglected such as comprehensive measures to address cultural
exclusion.
15.19 References
Circle network - website: http://www.circlenetwork.org/activity/edmonton
2000/reports/finland.htm.
Council of Europe/ERICarts (2002) Cultural Policies in Europe: a compendium
of basic facts and trends: Finland. Found at: www.culturalpolicies.net/.
152
Finnish government publication Poverty and Social Exclusion in Finland in the
1990s, new edition. Found at: www.vn.fi/stm/english/publicat/
publications_fset.htm.
Finnish Government (2001) National Action Plan against Poverty and Social
Exclusion.
Finnish Government (2002) Government decision-in-principle on arts and
artist policy.
Finnish Government (2003) National Action Plan against Poverty and Social
Exclusion for 2003-2005.
Heikkinen, M. Social Networks of the Marginal Young: A Study of Young
People's Social Exclusion in Finland Journal of Youth Studies, 1 December
2000, Vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 389-406 (18).
Ketola, Outi, Thomsen, Kre & Warming Nielsen, Hanne (1997) From poor
relief to social rights and social care services' clienthood. In: Sipilä (ed.) Social
Care Services: The Key to the Scandinavian Welfare Model. Avebury:
Aldershot.
Kokkosalo, P. (ed.) (1997) Arts in Hospital. Helsinki: The National Arts in
Hospital Working Group.
Room, G. (1995) Poverty and social exclusion: the new European agenda for
policy and research. In: Room (ed.) Beyond the Threshold. The measurement
and analysis of social exclusion. Policy Press: Bristol.
Santamäki-Vuori, Tuire & Sauramo, P. (1994) The economic depression and
youth unemployment in Finland.
Silver, H. (1994) Social exclusion and social solidarity: Three paradigms.
International Labour Review, No. 5-6.
Strobel, P. (1995) From Poverty to Exclusion: a wage earning society or a
society of human rights? International Social Science Journal, No.148.
Virtanen, P. (1996) The Making of a New Underclass Among the Unemployed
Youth? Emerging Social Exclusion, the Mechanisms of Integration and the
Need for Active and Network-based Employment Strategies. Labour Policy
Studies 150. Helsinki: Ministry of Labour.
153
Section 16: Case Study - Italy
16.1 National socio-economic context
The Italian context is characterised by a north-south divide, which cuts across
social, political, economic and cultural affairs. In the field of social exclusion
the most intense and concentrated problems are found in the southern
regions of Italy. While there are problems with social exclusion in northern
regions, these tend to be more limited and focused on particular groups. The
main cause of social exclusion, particularly in the south, is `economic poverty'
and exclusion. Based on 2001 figures, relative poverty in Italy was 19%61
,
while the unemployment rate stood at 8.4 (October 2003).62
However, a
geographical break down of poverty highlights the regional disparities in Italy,
where the poverty rates in some southern regions are approximately double
those in the north.63
The family unit still remains strong in Italy and is seen as a core institution
underpinning the Italian social model. Families benefit from family support
policies (e.g. tax benefits) provided by the state. However this socio-economic
structure has traditionally had a negative effect on females, despite attempts
by the Government to develop initiatives that will improve the family-work-life-
balance. Nonetheless, social exclusion is particularly prevalent in respect to
larger families where the main breadwinner is unemployed, among elderly
people and those individuals with a poor education. It is in southern Italy
where the largest concentrations of these `at risk' groups can be found.
16.2 Social inclusion policy
The Italian social protection model is not managed by objectives rather it is
based on legislative measures that set the `framework conditions' for action
and policies are then implemented by subsequent acts and decrees (Strati,
61
See Eurostat. This is based on the share of persons with an equivalised disposable incomes below the
risk-of-poverty threshold set at 60% of national median equivalised disposable income (after social
transfers).
62
Found at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat/Public/datashop/print-product/EN?catalogue=Euro... .
63
NAP/incl 2003.
154
2003). As a result, Italian policies are "implemented in a fragmented series of
norms, programmes, plans and initiatives" (Strati, 2003: 7).
Another feature of the Italian social protection model in recent years has been
the devolution of power from central government to regional and local
authorities. This began in 1997 and has led to a transfer of responsibilities for
many aspects of social policy to sub-national tiers of government.
In recent years the Italian Government has embarked on a programme of
privatisation and `outsourcing' of public services. This trend has been
strengthened by national financial laws that have reduced resources available
to regional and local authorities for providing services. Furthermore this state
of affairs was compounded by the fact devolution of responsibilities was not
followed by significant fiscal and financial devolution of power. Sub-national
authorities have therefore faced difficulties taking on greater responsibilities
for social policy with limited financial resources and levers.
The recent Italian White Paper on welfare focuses on supporting the family
unit and increasing the fertility rate (Italy has the lowest rate in the EU, which
is below `replacement level') to address the predicted decline in population.
Most of the policy measures suggested in the White Paper are fiscal in nature
such as tax reductions to reduce the costs incurred by having children,
financial support to young families to buy their first home and family-friendly
policies aimed at raising the birth rate.
Social inclusion challenges:
The main challenge facing Italy is the development of the southern part of the
country and the problem of co-ordination between institutional scales. There
are problems of sub-national authorities facing up to the social policy
responsibility devolved to them.
16.3 Regional Policy
The management and implementation of the NAP/incl is the responsibility of
the regions.
In recent years Italy has developed a bottom-up planning culture, which has
been tried and tested via territorial, national and community `pacts', a number
of experimental local social pacts and arrangements for regional pacts, in
spite of there being few generally appropriate regional rules64
. Under the new
`framework law on welfare', the regional plans and area plans are about to
come on stream. The regional planning framework documents sets out overall
guidelines, which link into local planning.
This process has focused on local development problems, while local action
has been based on projects for the establishment, installation and relocation
64
Experiments have been carried out in recent years with `social coalitions' within the traditional local
pacts (Lamezia Terme in Calabria, Enna in Sicily, and social pacts (central Apennines, north west
Turin) for greater inter-dependence in society through new activities in the social sphere involving all
local public and private interested parties.
155
of production activities under the local social pacts. Social well being and local
welfare policies are regarded as factors affecting and influencing local
development.
In the context of administrative decentralisation and given that there were no
national rules, certain regions have started drawing up plans for the social
sector65
. Region-wide plans have been drawn up alongside the national and
sectoral plans. An example of this is the Umbria Region Social Plan, 2000-
2002. The Umbria plan is based on an analysis of local needs and it aims to
promote integration of the various networks of services, guarantee
satisfactory equity and uniformity in the quality and quantity of services,
develop effective welfare through networks and involve the key local players.
The progress of implementation and monitoring are made via the local plans.
16.4 Italy - case study profile
Dates of visit:
8-10th
September 2003
Interviews:
Ministry of Heritage and Cultural Activity
Very little in the way of central government policy focuses on social inclusion -
or indeed on the taxpayer as potential consumer - in the recently re-united
Culture Ministry. Indeed, the up-to-date Directory of Ministry Services we were
given confirms this vividly. The organisational structure is still the traditional
`vertical' function one. Several of the people we interviewed are working full
time on the `Minerva' project - in which Italy is the Project Co-ordinator for the
EU - which is all about digitising the record of Europe's cultural patrimony,
which now includes the new Member States. This project can move forward in
a variety of directions but the `information' and `Europe' connections seem
largely peripheral to our main concerns.
Most of the productive discussion therefore centred on new developments in
the Objective 1 regions, where the Single Programming Document (SPD) (2000­
2006) addressed our concerns. Unfortunately we were unable to see Maria
Grazia Bellisario, Head of Servizio V in the Ministry's Secretariat-General
(Centre for Evaluation and Verification of Public Investment), who had served
on the joint-Ministerial working group from 1999. Our main interlocutor was
Rosa Caffo who is Head of Servizio VI (Information, I.T., Statistics and
Foreign Relations).
The SPD incorporates at least 63 cultural institutions. The fact that `culture'
(linked to economic and social development) is one of the six priority themes
is largely down to Walter Veltroni's advocacy with the EU, when he was
Deputy Prime Minister and Culture Minister in the centre-left government.
While the Ministry has an overall co-ordinating function (agreeing plans,
65
Three Regions have so far approved their welfare / health plans Umbria, Marche and Tuscany.
Others in the Centre / North areas have made some progress, but there is significant delay in the South.
156
setting deadlines and monitoring), the call for proposals and management of
local partnerships is the responsibility of regional government, although as
ever in Italy central government and the Civil Service in particular drags its
heels in actually decentralising legalised authority (the additional transfers
under the 2000 constitution revision are far from complete).
We discussed the issue of libraries as agents in delivering information,
help/assistance and services. However, the Ministry's main concern seems to
be with high profile historic libraries and archives, leaving it to the
approximately 13,000 local authorities and private outlets to determine and
provide the general service on the ground, which is hugely variable in quality
and scope in Italian towns and cities, although the local authority legal
competence is uniform. Apparently around 1,800 libraries are networked in
the Objective 1 programme. E-learning projects are beginning to be available
through some public libraries, the most effective so far being `la rete regionale'
in Basilicata region.
For policy and monitoring as to how `culture' is being used within the
programme, we were pointed in the direction of the Ministry of Labour and
Social Policy and to the Observatory in the Finance Ministry. With the firm
emphasis on the regions as the key players on the ground, it is clear that the
Culture Ministry only sees a very limited role for itself in relation to the broader
inclusion agenda.
Ministry of Finance
Giampiero Marchesi had worked closely with Walter Veltroni on the cultural
aspects of the Mezzogiorno Objective 1 plan and was a key player in the
cross-Departmental team. He is now involved in monitoring the plan from
within the Finance Ministry. Inter-Ministry dialogue is now the responsibility of
Lea Battistoni in the Labour and Social Policy Department (located in DG
Employment). An important previous adviser to Minister Livia Turco had been
Professor Chiara Saraceno (both based in Turin). The monitoring group on
the NAP/incl is now co-ordinated by an attached adviser, Paolo Sesito. There
is an accepted view that culture is being treated as an increasingly important
resource for more general social development. The Italian Government had to
fight hard to obtain the agreement of the EU Commission to the high cultural
priority within the SPD. This was achieved through co-ordination with the
regions concerned and setting the same priorities on behalf of the local
partners. Despite the previous acceptance of the Commission's DGVI of the
importance of culture as an engine of regeneration, officials still seemed to be
sceptical about giving it the major priority as was urged by the Italian partners.
Key issues to arise through these various processes include:
ˇ Culture as a major resource and engine for development in the south of
Italy (admittedly primarily starting from economic arguments).
ˇ Social policy increasingly using cultural resources via its mechanisms
(e.g. benefits) to link with labour and social inclusion agendas.
ˇ Managing cultural resources in ways that help build support for marginal
groups.
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The autonomous region of Sicily has a number of successful schemes and we
were informed of one high profile scheme involving an NGO (Italia Lavoro)
using cultural heritage linked to territory that involves an area of land around
Corleone (confiscated from the Mafia) with the employment of ex-drug
offenders. There is apparently a book (published by Mulino of Bologna)
covering social inclusion policy linked to suppressing organised crime by
Professor Carlo Borzaga of the University of Trento, who is an expert on
Italian NGOs.
The Culture Ministry's main contribution to the implementation of the SPD has
been through instructions to its national network of directly `managed'
sovrintendenze (archaeological/cultural agencies co-terminus with the Italian
provinces, although Sicily and Sardinia are two of Italy's five autonomous
regions) to co-operate with the regions and local partners. They are also
represented in the cross-Departmental Monitoring Group. Results so far are
encouraging and show that good co-operation is developing that was
previously absent in the gap between the regions and comuni (local
authorities) and the Ministry's `superintendencies'.
The SPD's indicator relating to `cultural identity' has had some interesting use
in respect of criminality in the south and there have been pilot projects around
this theme in Naples and Campania involving the Ministry of the Interior (cf:
Mirella Barraco's, Fondazione Napoli '99). The criteria outlined on p.74 of the
SPD are beginning to be developed in more interesting ways, although it is
admittedly difficult to respond to the EU Commission's demand for evidence
of `direct impact'. On pp.150/152 of the SPD it sets out a framework for
`integrated projects' that appear to be making connections, which were
previously lacking. Out of over 130 projects running, at least half have
heritage as a key priority and some of the lessons being learned are already
being copied in Objective 2 programmes in other parts of Italy. The region of
Molise has made big strides in developing services. Campania and Basilicata
are progressing, while progress is slower in Apulia and Calabria.
Ministry of Labour and Social Policy and the NAP/incl
The original version of Italy's NAP/incl (2003) was formally approved and
submitted by the Berlusconi Government. However, the thinking and
approach underlying the plan belonged to the previous centre-left government
and as a result, it was treated by the Berlusconi Government as not much
more than a planning exercise. The revised version (approved in August) was
much more coherent internally and its general principles were influenced by
the White Paper on social welfare produced in early 2003 (this was shaped by
junior Minister Grazia Siliquini). Key factors shaping contemporary social
policy are the role of the family and the structure of the continental European
system (specifically the `Mediterranean' model). Highlighting the position of
the household/family seems to be a means partly to mollify the lobbying of the
Roman Catholic church that was feeling marginalised and wanted to be
included as a more active partner. Currently, the focus of social inclusion
policy is in a number of key groups and sectors:
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ˇ immigrants;
ˇ people with disabilities;
ˇ areas of structural poverty;
ˇ large families;
ˇ old people at risk (i.e. without family support);
ˇ home assistance;
ˇ pensions;
ˇ increasing life expectancy (females currently 83).
Under the revised Italian constitution (2000/01), the role of central government
as national co-ordinator is more clearly defined with the regions taking on
greater responsibility for strategy and delivery in collaboration with local
partners. Traditionally social policy in Italy had been organised through the
Government's direct social security agencies, based on redistributive
mechanisms via the fiscal system. Public intervention initiatives, facilities and
direct services have generally been provided by the comuni (local authorities).
However, reform is ongoing, and the current situation is very fluid and liable to
change.
The impression given was that the first NAP/incl (2001)66
had a rather under-
developed planning role and that the linkages among Ministries and with
NGOs and the other key agents, needed to go much further. However, it
should be noted that consultation did take place and proved to be useful.
`Technical' appendices to the second version set out the main social issues in
Italy and the regional authorities asked for greater input into the NAP/incl
process, so that it reflected major issues in their own areas.
There have been ongoing problems for newly `combined' Labour and Social
Policy Ministry. Previously `Social Affairs' dealt with ESF and small/specific
project-based initiatives, whereas the old Labour Ministry was very `regulatory'
in approach and mainly utilised its strategic relationships with trade unions
and employers' organisations. However, there is still considerable difficulty in
bringing together strategic thinking at the macro-level.
Although the 2001 NAP/incl67
makes some reference to culture in terms of
guaranteeing access of all citizens to culture, the impression received during
interviews that there might be a reduced role for `culture' within the revised
Italian NAP/incl, as there is less enthusiasm for culture under within the
present government. At the same time the cultural aspects of social
deprivation were starting to register more strongly with the Government. The
NAP/incl does contain some data on `cultural deprivation' but this is primarily
directed to institutional aspects of `participation', for example ticket sales and
attendance levels (drawn from ISTAT's the state statistical office and regular
general surveys).
66
The Italian `National Action Plan on Social Inclusion' (2001), can be accessed at:
http://www.eapn.org/inclusion/EUdocs/napsincl/italy_en.doc.
67
Under the section of promoting `access by all to resources, rights, goods and services' the
Government set down the following priorities: "guaranteeing access, particularly for individuals and
groups most at risk of exclusion, to the major public and private services (education, culture, justice,
sport, free time)."
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Pension reform is a major political issue for the Government. The current
strategy report has guidelines and indictors (these are primarily economic in
nature) relating to the use of internet. Currently, little policy attention has been
paid to this at national level, although regionally it is seen as an important
information function and there are signs that this and similar considerations
are beginning to affect the distribution of funds for regional development.
16.5 Italy case study - example 1
Teatro Kismet, Bari - Apulia
Notes from conversations with Roberto Ricco - Director in charge of social
programmes
Those working in the `community/social arts' field in Italy have all the usual
problems of uncoordinated Ministries at national level and fragmentation
between the regional, provincial and local authority levels. This makes it very
hard to sustain or replicate successful initiatives on any longer term basis. It is
extremely difficult for the committed theatre (and music) groups to sustain
long-term objectives in this field when the funding fluctuates so wildly at all
levels. Teatro Kismet tries to earmark around 20% of their annual resources
to education, training and social targets.
Italy case study project 1: theatre in education
After much preparation, the Ministries of Education and Culture signed a joint
protocol about theatre in schools. This also involved the national
representative body for drama (ETI ­ Ente Teatrale Italiano), which was never
allowed to take the lead. However, the success of projects depends crucially
on the commitment and motivation of individuals and theatre companies. Any
money decentralised under the protocol has to be routed through the regional
direction of the Education Ministry, rather than the region or local authority.
Four pilots happened under the protocol in Genoa, Rome, Apulia and Turin.
One project focused on the city government and another in a theatre
company. The Education Ministry has now withdrawn its money and only the
cities of Rome and Bari have remained committed and are currently providing
resources to continue the initiative.
Italy Case Study Project 2: drama work with young offenders
About 4/5 years ago the Ministry of Justice, which is responsible for detention
and the prison service, negotiated and signed a protocol with ETI. Each
region has a regional directorate of the Social Welfare Ministry, which has a
role with young people obliged to undertake `community service orders'.
Once again, it tends to be the theatre companies' commitment that drives
initiatives and as a result the original programme has been reduced. There
were 6/8 pilot projects in locations including Catania, Bari, Rome and Milan,
Padua. Teatro Kismet worked on the Catania and Bari projects and is still very
committed to this in Apulia (institutions in Bari and Trani). Social Policy Law
2/85 is helpful here - again driven by Livia Turco when she was a Junior
Minister in the centre-left government ­ as it sets social policy objectives for
young people and allocated government funds as matching funding for EU
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Objective 1 and 2 funds in relevant areas. The Social Welfare Ministry's
regional Directorates were obliged to co-ordinate regional level plans involving
the regional, provincial and local authorities, the latter being responsible for
implementing action. Eleven metropolitan areas received earmarked funds
under a special law that targeted four main priorities:
ˇ young people at risk (social, cultural and sport based programmes);
ˇ institutions willing to make some contribution;
ˇ families;
ˇ nursery schools (with input from private sector and NGOs).
Voluntary associations of social workers have made an impact in terms of
`bottom up' action but from the point of view of the cultural institutions/partners
they did not feel equal, as they were used as a convenient new tool (much the
same conclusion comes from the educational context in which the Ministry's
manuals all refer to theatre as `knowledge' but never as valuable
`experience'). In addition there is no formal concern for the quality of artistic
experience and the public system provides no training, support or opportunity
for reflection for the committed networks of teachers and social workers etc.
There is invariably a dominant partner, although never the cultural one, which
establishes projects in terms of its own mission/objectives/goals. Hence, the
lateral connections that come out of such collaborations with artists are not
sufficiently valued by the authorities and are very hard to sustain.
Italy case study project 3: prisons for minors
Projects are run in Bari and Turin, another one is sustained in Sardinia by
Sassari comune and a further one with substantial NGO support in Padua.
The permanent organisation based in Volterra `teatro nelle carceri', in
partnership with the Ministry of Justice and ETI is the most important Italian
organisation in this field. This work relies upon a joint protocol signed six
years ago, with funding coming from Ministry of Justice and ETI on a 50/50
basis. However, the Berlusconi government appears to be downplaying it. In
Bari and Turin, theatre companies worked with offenders to create `black box'
drama spaces within the institutions, with extremely simple technical
requirements. Operational objectives needed to fit with the overall institutional
philosophy. Kismet has come under pressure from the prison authorities to
institute training programmes but has resisted this as they feel they do not
have enough knowledge about a very complicated and potentially dangerous
situation.
When Teatro Kismet started this type of work in Apulia, the young inmates
were fairly evenly drawn from three groups: young Italian offenders, offenders
from North Africa and Albanian boat people, many of whom were refugees
rather than criminals. There was a clearly racist dominant prison culture, with
the young Italians constantly trying to be moved to adult prisons full of
hardened Italian criminals. Some of these are youths connected to Mafia
families, who arrange to `lose' their official documents, showing their age etc,
so that they can infiltrate the young offenders' institutions. Kismet felt their
work helped make a constructive input into greater tolerance and
understanding between these groups, although they are often unsure about
161
the motivations of people inside who want to work with them. After the age of
21 there is no means of monitoring what happens to young offenders. Now
the state has adopted a policy of dispersal ­ partly driven by prison
overcrowding ­ and the institutions in Apulia are receiving much higher quotas
of hardened criminals from the north, as well as Albanians and North Africans
who are also professional criminals.
Teatro Kismet, in increasingly difficult circumstances, is persevering and now
has a circuit in Apulia of four (male and one female) prisons to which they tour
the shows created with and involving inmates under very controlled
circumstances. Approximately 15 performances of each are given to a
maximum audience of 60, with local schools and church organisations also
invited. The city of Bari now treats this work almost like an established cultural
institution. The theatre company also promotes the work of writers in prisons.
Italy Case Study Project 4: work with disabled people
Funding amounting to 50,000 from the city of Bari supports this project.
Kismet is working on three levels:
ˇ Generic drama based training, involving a group of 30 people with
disabilities and 30-voluntary sector (mostly from education).
ˇ Selecting a small group (6 or 7) of disabled people for additional
development with the company's professional actors.
ˇ 5 carried on as professionals and toured a show (15 performances a year
were booked and toured by ETI, around half the total output).
This work continues, albeit at a lower level and was adjusted in the light of
Kismet's accepting that the `educational' benefit is probably more valuable
than the `artistic' aspect. They are increasingly uncertain what the correct
balance is between the social and cultural emphases in this work, although
they have taken on trained disabled actors in to the permanent company.
Nevertheless, under Law 85/2, it is clear that the recognised benefits are
purely educational, which increasingly causes Kismet to question what their
own `added value' is to the project.
Additional information (Richard Schechner, Professor of Performance
Studies):
Since the 1970s, and increasingly since then, the `theatre of crisis' or `social
theatre' has been growing exponentially. Social theatre may be defined as:
theatre with specific social agendas, theatre where aesthetics is not the
ruling objective; theatre outside the realms of commercial success or the
cult of the new that dominates the avant garde (not that social theatre need
shun innovation or never be seen in a commercial venue).
The very powers that create the structural inequities ­ whose powers and
profits depend on those same inequities ­ also pay for programmes to
alleviate the pain caused by the inequities. Follow the money. From where
do the UN, government organisations and NGOs get their money, a tiny bit
of which is used to support social theatre? ...While the right hand holds the
population down, the left hand doles out a modicum of funds and other
resources allowing for a certain amount of artistic and academic
162
expression, social theatre and other means of alleviating the sufferings of
the oppressed.
If you follow the money, you will soon discover that the governments,
NGOs, foundations and universities etc, are the very ones who, in other
guises, maintain the structural inequities.
16.6 Italy case study ­ example 2
Framework for support for Italian `Objective 1' Regions 2000-2006
The regions concerned constitute Italy's Mezzogiorno (viz. Apulia, Basilicata,
Calabria, Campania, Molise plus Sardinia and Sicily).
The Single Programme Document (published 2000, pp. 51 ff.) sets out six
priority `axes' or themes for intervention in order to articulate the strategy
across this group of regions. These are:
i) Making best use of natural resources and the environment.
ii) Making best use of cultural and historic resources.
iii) Improving use of Human Resources.
iv) Expansion and exploitation of local development systems.
v) Improving the quality of cities, local institutions and community life.
vi) Strengthening networks and service points.
The stated intention is for an `integrated approach' to ensure that the separate
sectors work together to mobilise and develop the potential across the whole
area.
The detailed section on cultural resources (pp. 69-75) stresses that it is not
simply focussing upon major heritage sites and institutions but also the hidden
potential across the region. Here, there are converging but hitherto
inadequately exploited strands including cultural tourism, cultural activity of all
kinds and the cultural industries in a very broad sense. A detailed SWOT
analysis is undertaken, leading to an outline strategy setting out how `culture'
can make a significant contribution to the economy and production processes
of the areas concerned. The principal means of intervention are:
ˇ Creating improved conditions for entrepreneurial activity, directly or
indirectly linked to exploiting cultural heritage - with particular reference to
tourism.
ˇ Improving conditions to encourage greater external investment.
ˇ Bringing about more favourable conditions to deal with social and
environmental deterioration.
ˇ Developing and supporting cultural and regional identity.
Factors to be taken into account to ensure effective policy interventions are:
ˇ Efficient programming/scheduling.
ˇ Selection processes which focus on sustainable development.
ˇ Territorial choices of initiatives to encompass the broad priority themes.
163
ˇ Choices to integrate and respect the individuality of culture in each region
(or sub-region where appropriate).
A contrast is made with the long-standing tendency of annual government
subventions for cultural heritage to be through crisis management and
responding to emergencies. The SPD is strongly focused on making
connections and sustainable development. It is emphasised that an overall
aim is to: `maximise the cultural potential in order to stabilise conditions
through new dynamic opportunities for heritage and cultural activities, to
improve the quality of life for citizens, building trust and social well-being.'
The key indicators set out in a summary table do, however, tend to identify
some of the more concrete (expected) outputs:
ˇ Visitor numbers - by site/institution - increasing demand.
ˇ Visitor numbers - per square 1,000 km - increasing demand.
ˇ Ratio of paying to non-paying visitors - improving management and
supply.
ˇ Average annual per capita subsidy for live events - improving demand.
ˇ Average number of ticket sales per capita - improving demand.
ˇ Increase in total sales for cultural products.
ˇ Growth in numbers employed in cultural production.68
16.7 References
Italian Government (2001) National Action Plan on poverty and social
exclusion.
Italian Government (2003) National Action Plan on poverty and social
exclusion 2003-2005.
Strati, F. (2003) Report on the Italian NAP inclusion 2001. SRS: Firenze.
68
Extracts and summary taken from: `Quadro Communitario di Sostegno per le Regioni Italiane
dell'Obiettivo 1, 2000-2006'
164
Section 17: Case Study - UK
17.1 National socio-economic context
From the late-1990s to the present day the UK economy has grown steady
and stood up well to the recent economic downturn. The UK is widely
recognised as having one the strongest performing economies in the EU.
Despite this has still faced problems in terms of reducing child poverty - which
is a key government policy priority - and concentrations of deprivation and
poverty in certain regions (e.g. northern regions of England and Northern
Ireland) and among particular groups and local communities.
According to the latest figures available, unemployment in the UK was 4.9%
(in November 2003).69
In addition, the UK has recorded employment levels
and is experiencing labour shortages in certain sectors. On means of
addressing this has been immigration of suitably qualified persons. Based on
2001 figures the at-risk-of-poverty rate was 17%, two points above the EU-15
average.70
17.2 Social inclusion policy
According to Bradshaw and Bennett (2003: 1): "The UK strategy to combat
poverty and social exclusion as presented in Opportunity for All (2002) has
shifted from a life cycle approach to focus on the main elements of the
strategy, which are:
ˇ Ensuring that work that pays is possible;
ˇ Support for those unable to work;
ˇ Investing in services for children to break cycles of deprivation;
ˇ Tackling inequalities by improving public services."
69
Found at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat/Public/datashop/print-product/EN?catalogue=Euro... .
70
See Eurostat. This is based on the share of persons with an equivalised disposable incomes below the
risk-of-poverty threshold set at 60% of national median equivalised disposable income (after social
transfers).
165
In both policy and political terms the battle against poverty and social
exclusion has been a high priority during the both Labour administrations
(1997 and 2001). The headline policy of the Government has been the
ambitious target of reducing (by a quarter by 2004) and the eventual
eradication child poverty (in a generation).
One institutional manifestation of the Labour Government's overriding
domestic policy priorities, signalled very soon after their election victory in
1997, was the establishment of a powerful Social Exclusion Unit (SEU) in the
Prime Minister's Cabinet Office (now part of the Office of the Deputy Prime
Minister). The SEU required all government departments immediately to set
up Policy Action Teams (PATs) and report back to it within a limited timescale
on how their own particular policies and initiatives could contribute to wider
government policies and objectives regarding social inclusion. As well as
mapping current actions and potentially productive initiatives, the Government
as a whole sought through this process to break down inter-departmental
rivalries and deliver more coherent and co-operative policy and
implementation on social inclusion.
17.3 Key comparative changes between NAPs/incl 2001 and 2003
As with most other member states the UK's NAP/incl 2003 does not diverge
significantly from the 2001 version. Once again the UK government
emphasizes its long-term commitment to eradicate child poverty in a
generation and halve it by 2010. Access to employment and `making work
pay' are seen as the best route out of poverty. Accordingly, UK policy has
focused on strengthening the labour market and increasing the financial
rewards of work through tax credits, minimum wage and developing the skills
base. One feature of the UK is the relatively high proportion of the population
that live in low-income households.
17.4 Groups/sectors targeted for policy action - from NAP/incl 2003
1. Children;
2. Large families;
3. People from ethnic minorities;
4. Disabled people;
5. Older people.
In addition, social exclusion in rural areas is seen as presenting a different set
of problems to policy makers than is the case in urban areas. Consequently,
the Government recognise that rural areas require a different policy approach.
In relation to the common EU objectives the current NAP/incl (2003) suggests
that greater attention should focus on:
ˇ linking the NAPs/incl process more clearly with existing policy making
processes (including as appropriate the use of budgetary resources)
and ensuring that a concern with poverty and social exclusion is
mainstreamed into all policy areas, including the use of Structural
Funds;
166
ˇ increasing awareness of the social inclusion process both amongst the
general public and amongst policy makers and practitioners including
national parliaments;
ˇ acknowledging the importance of the regional and local dimensions
while respecting the different distribution of competences in different
Member States;
ˇ developing an integrated and strategic approach to key issues that cut
across the common objectives. These could include for example,
depending on the particular situation in each Member State, child
poverty, disability and immigration and ethnic diversity;
ˇ identifying and developing policy responses to assist those who are
most marginalised and excluded and who experience particularly severe
integration problems. They will vary depending on specific national
circumstances, but could include for example women from ethnic
minorities, ex-prisoners, drug addicts, the homeless, street children or
people discharged from institutions;
ˇ reflecting the major structural changes, the key risk factors and the core
challenges identified in the Joint Report on Social Inclusion;
ˇ ensuring a better integration of areas such as health and culture with
other policy domains;
ˇ setting clear objectives and specific targets for the reduction of poverty
and social exclusion;
ˇ mainstreaming gender issues at each stage of the plans, in the
identification of challenges, the design, implementation and assessment
of policies, the selection of indicators and targets and the involvement of
stakeholders;
ˇ ensuring that there is a good coordination between the preparation of
the NAPs/incl and NAPs/employment so that each reinforces and
complements the other'.
It should be noted that Communities where English is not first language (e.g.
rural mid and West Wales) are also categorised as `at risk'.
17.5 The role of cultural policy in NAP/incl 2003
In contrast to the NAP/incl 2001 the current document makes `access to
culture, sport and leisure' a specific policy objective for UK actors. Given
Britain's devolved system of government, each territorial administration
(Scottish Parliament, Welsh Assembly, Northern Ireland Office) and in the
case of England the UK government, have drawn up individual plans for
access to culture and set their own specific targets and priorities.
Accordingly:
ˇ England
The national priority is for enhanced access to achieve a `fuller cultural
and sporting life for children and young people' and increase the take up
of cultural and sporting opportunities by new users aged 20 and over
from priority groups.
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ˇ Wales
The Welsh Assembly Government has produced a cultural strategy
(Creative Future: Cymru Greadigol), which pledges to ensure that all people
in Wales should be able to participate and share in cultural life.
ˇ Scotland
The Scottish Executive has produced a National Cultural Strategy.
There is a target to increase the number of under-represented groups
(particularly children and young people) taking part in cultural and
sporting activity by 5% by 2006.
ˇ Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland policy makers aim to make access to culture, sport and
leisure facilities available to all.
17.6 The British cultural policy context
The development of cultural policy in the UK
In the UK, `cultural policy' has always been a problematic area within broader
`social policy'. The debate about cultural policy often turns into a surrogate
one about values, for instance high/low, popular, traditional, relative, post-
modern culture and so on. Raymond Williams in his 1976 book Keywords (A
Vocabulary of Culture and Society) states that `culture' is one of the two or
three most complicated words in the English language. He explains:
This is so partly because of its intricate historical development, in
several European languages, but mainly because it has now come to be
used for important concepts in several distinct intellectual disciplines
and in several distinct and incompatible systems of thought.
For our purposes it is worth summarising two relevant contemporary
understandings of the concept:
1. Used to denote the product of intellectual and in particular artistic
activity. From here, it is all too easy for discussion and any critique
to move into an aesthetic and art form (although even this is now an
increasingly complex and difficult area) based analysis.
2. Used to denote an anthropological understanding, with reference to
an entire way of life, including recent portmanteau terms such as
youth culture, feminist culture or black culture.
`Official' cultural policy in the UK - never overtly stated by government until
1998 - in spite of a national tendency to be suspicious of `intellectuals', has
always been weighted towards the first of these definitions: culture as an
aesthetic or intellectual product. Nevertheless, the broader `cultural'
environment within which this exists, coupled with the instability of the
terminology itself, acts as a form of permanent challenge to the narrower
understanding and to those who feel more comfortable clinging on to it. This
in turn has meant that a good deal of the public debate and consequential
action around the key issues in the UK has made government and established
cultural institutions into natural allies almost against the articulated (but often
168
extremely fragmented) demands of the advocates for a more holistic
understanding of culture, its needs and its beneficial aspirations.
Sir William Emrys Williams, an early Secretary-General of the Arts Council
plumped for the élitist slogan `few but roses' as his guiding principle. Sir Roy
Shaw, a later successor, an adult educator by profession (and largely
sceptical about the aims of the burgeoning community arts movement), was
by 1977 clearly nostalgic for those simpler times in stating that:
...it would be folly to starve the roses and change to a policy of `many but
dandelions'. We must preserve, and indeed improve, traditional centres of
excellence, but we must also spread the excellence as widely as possible.
Shaw's mantra became `excellence and access'. However, there was neither
additional government money for new policy departures, nor any general Arts
Council will to reallocate resources towards a more inclusive policy.
In the UK today and increasingly in the rest of Western Europe and even
more acutely in Eastern, Central and South-East Europe, we see the
dichotomy between the integrative, personal development and holistic
emphasis on culture and the limited view of most politicians of culture - and
heritage in particular - as a financial `burden', which is also capable of
economic exploitation. The increasing number of dedicated lotteries is in part
a contemporary response to this situation but in the UK the established
cultural institutions were not slow to raise objections when they felt that the
current government was beginning to regard it as their own preserve and
divert lottery revenues into cultural programmes with more strategic social
objectives. It is worth noting that occasionally lotteries do enable new and
desired policy departures to take place, as it is `new' money that is
unencumbered with the baggage and expectations of cultural institutions. If
the commercial success of lotteries declines, then the risk of `substitution' can
become very real, although this is hard to prove on any objective criteria.
From the early 1970s in Europe there were a number of manifestos produced
by groups of professional cultural operators, signalling a wish for state cultural
policies and funding to become much more inclusive. Whilst the documents
themselves may now appear to be somewhat nave, their altruistic optimism is
still engaging. So far as the UK is concerned, the key text - known as the
`Beaford Declaration' (named after the location of a trail-blazing rural arts
centre in North Devon) - was the outcome of the first conference of
professional arts centre directors and community artists, held in 1973. This is
the preamble to this text:
It is our conviction that the fastest growing field of professional arts work in
Great Britain is in the area of work loosely but usefully described by the
activities of Arts Centres and Community Arts Groups. This growth reflects
a new generation's determination to make creative activity as well as the
`art object' available and accessible to the vast majority of the population
who are currently untouched by the `art' which is provided for their
consumption.
169
It is difficult to define this work in relation to the social services, education,
sport or leisure provision by which it is at least partially subsumed, or to the
participatory activities initiated by formal institutions such as certain
repertory theatres, galleries, museums etc. Nevertheless it is our conviction
that the spontaneous development of this field of activity, both in this
country, in Europe and America, is not only the expression of a deeply felt
need: it is central to the quality of life of each individual and his (sic)
community.
In this field, even a modest increase in financial support and recognition
would bring an immediate return. But the recommendations of the
conference are more radical. They call for a re-examination of current
attitudes to the `arts' as they are publicly interpreted and supported.
It was unanimously agreed that the Arts Council was not useless, but
inadequate. Its view of art as a self-evident source of pleasure appealing to
well-formed Taste derives from the Eighteenth century. Its view of the public
as a passive mass to whom works of art, embodying spiritual values, should
be made available, belongs to the tradition of public works and benevolence
stemming from the Nineteenth century. But the establishment of the idea
that arts activities should begin with the human experiences of the sixty-odd
million inhabitants of this Island - which belongs to the thinking of our own
time - has not become part of the Arts Council's interpretation of its Charter.
These are the thoughts which are implicit in the conference's report and
recommendations.
New Labour, New Policy Focus
Chris Smith, the UK's Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS)
throughout the first Blair administration is notable for having been the first
British Minister to formulate and publish a broad cultural policy (although
some would probably see Jennie Lee's famous 1965 White Paper A Policy for
the Arts ­ First Steps, which was decentralist, democratic and developmental
in tone, as a clear move in that direction, but was never openly followed up at
government level). Smith is perhaps best remembered in Europe for his
significant initiative in `mapping' the creative industries in the UK, thereby
helping to improve the political profile of `culture' as a key growth sector in the
modern economy. During Smith's tenure of office a clear enunciation of the
Government's broad policy framework and how this should be translated into
cultural policy and used by the `arm's length' agencies71
in their own strategic
plans was promulgated.
The primary aim of the Ministry, its `mission statement', was formulated as
follows:
To improve the quality of life for all, through cultural and sporting activity
and to strengthen the cultural industries.
Four broad unifying policy themes were set out:
ˇ promotion of access for the many, not just the few;
71
The DCMS passes on about 90% of its annual budget to `arm's length' bodies.
170
ˇ pursuit of excellence and innovation;
ˇ nurturing of educational opportunity;
ˇ fostering the creative industries.
In parallel to this ran a strong government initiative, fronted personally by Blair
himself, combining social inclusion with the `information revolution' to deliver
at least one free public internet access point in every school and public library
across the country by the end of 2002.
The Audit Commission, the UK government's independent inspectorate on
local authorities has for some time been producing guidance manuals on
good practice in cultural provision by local government, and the organisation
does have some understanding of the important policy linkage between
cultural and social policy. The Commission's constructive encouragement is
useful up to a point but a problem has always arisen where `measurement'
and `value for money' surface. Currently the Commission is attempting to
devise `Best Value' indicators for local authorities that can be used as
comparators but it should be noted that the organisation is, after all, primarily
a financial inspectorate. Its development of measurable `outputs' tends to take
refuge in numerically based indicators. This often misses some of the more
valuable outcomes which are invariably more complex and multi-dimensional
and usual need to be on longer-term timescales, and as such are not
susceptible to this kind of mechanistic comparative measurement.
One of the achievements of the Blair Government has been to bring some
order and clarity to the complicated field of cultural data. Traditionally, the
collection of cultural data in the UK has been patchy and inconsistent and its
interpretation uncoordinated and far from systematic. In the context of
decentralisation, work is proceeding on a Regional Cultural Data Framework
for the UK. This is proposing a standard conceptual and technical definition of
the cultural sector. The initiative has, on the whole, been welcomed by
regional and local authority cultural policy makers who see it as a tool for
strengthening the role of culture in social and economic programmes. In
addition, they see it potentially acting as a counterbalance to the previous
tendency of central government and its `national' cultural agencies to use
available cultural data and intelligence in a misleading way, which often had
the effect of under-representing local cultural development or only recognising
it when it appeared to mirror traditional national or metropolitan models. In the
final Technical Report (November 2002) on the Framework, the DCMS
comments on the `seminal importance' of an earlier piece of work conducted
by the Department's Quality, Efficiency and Standards Team (QUEST) in the
document `Making it Count: the Contribution of Culture and Sport to Social
Inclusion'72
. It contains a lengthy appendix setting out details of all relevant
identified research into social inclusion issues. The principal argument
advanced in the document is that a coherent and consistent analytical
framework and process for measuring the impact of culture on social inclusion
issues is essential if current practice is to benefit and improve. It is expected
that the evolving system will in future make it easier for vertical and sector-
72
Found at: www.culture.gov.uk/quest.html.
171
focused systems to be aligned so that multi-purpose frameworks can be more
effectively used to assist policy development, not least in relation to social
inclusion issues.73
17.7 Departmental approaches to the links between social inclusion
and culture
PAT 10 and after
The UK Government's current intention is to `mainstream' broad government
policy within individual sectors and departmental responsibilities. Given that
the landscape has changed a substantially since 1997, the initial setting up of
a dedicated Social Exclusion Unit (SEU) within the Cabinet Office, which
required each government department to report back on how their particular
policies addressed social exclusion, may have served its purpose. The same
might also be said of the Policy Action Team (PAT) Reports that emerged
from this process. In retrospect, officials in the Ministry for Culture (DCMS) felt
that the process had probably been more important than any individual results
or outcomes.74
DCMS's relationship with the Education and Skills Ministry and
with the Home Office is now very much improved and the next big target for
them is the Department of Health. DCMS hopes, among other things, to
develop common agendas with the Department of Health around sport and
health.
DCMS's strategic policy role
In regard to the DCMS's directly responsible non-Departmental Public Bodies
such as the Arts Council England, Sport England and Re:source (the UK
umbrella body covering Libraries, Archives and Museums), according to the
Department, the reorganisations since 1997 have delivered a more coherent
and inter-linked national/regional/local system. There is more confidence now
among DCMS officials that the Department can be `outward facing' on its
principles and broad policy aims. To this end, DCMS has developed more
focused strategic priorities that are stated in the DCMS Annual Report:
1. Children and young people: enhancing access to a fuller cultural and
sporting life for children and young people - giving them the opportunity
to develop their talents to the full.
2. Community: opening up our institutions to the wider community, to
promote lifelong learning and social cohesion.
3. Economy: maximising the contribution which the creative and leisure
industries can make to the economy.
In the above context, sector strategies are more and more likely to reflect the
social inclusion agenda, which is without doubt where the current
Departmental Ministers' main interests lie, despite the importance of the
`cultural agenda' per se. For instance, the architecture strategy has a major
role to play in disability access, whilst Sport England and Re:source have both
73
See also consultants' report: `Count Me In - The Dimensions of Social Inclusion through Culture and
Sport'. DCMS/Leeds Metropolitan University Centre for Leisure and Sport Research, March 2002.
74
Note: Phil Clapp came out of the SEU, where he was lead official on the PAT 12 Report ­ on young
people. PAT 10 was the DCMS's Report.
172
seconded officers into key departments to ensure closer policy development
and delivery. Although DCMS relies heavily on what they describe as a
"messy network of contacts", they have a confident sense of progress in how
their agendas are influencing other Departments of State. As Brian Leonard
put it:
The DCMS is increasingly geared towards an inclusion agenda and funding
agreements, in particular, are geared towards asking bodies not to do
culture purely for culture's sake but to actually use this money to deliver
outcomes like social inclusion.
QUEST and indicators of progress
Chris Smith (Secretary of State for Culture 1997-2001) instituted the `Quality,
Efficiency and Standards Team' (QUEST) within the DCMS and it did initially
come up with some performance indicators for social inclusion within its broad
report on indicators. This has however proved difficult to implement. The
focus of the DCMS has now shifted to making the objectives in its Public
Service Agreements (PSAs) much more overt. This means that the triennial
and detailed annual DCMS funding agreements with NDPBs have tightened
up on expected `outcomes' but are at the same time, allowing a greater
degree of latitude to the NDPBs in how they think it is appropriate for them to
meet these targets.
Each DCMS Director oversees a limited number of PSAs. The Arts Council,
Heritage, Museums and Galleries and Sport have all been given targets to
achieve in relation to lateral issues. Projects are required to show that as a
result of their funded activity, there was an improved degree of participation
amongst priority groups, which the DCMS define by income, disability and
ethnicity.
It is also worth remembering that there is a real dilemma as far as PSA
targets are concerned. In particular, where is the break point between
legitimate cultural action/programmes per se and a politically driven wish to
make providers actually change their programmes for social and other
reasons?
The developments outlined above reflect broader changes going on in the
cultural sector that the DCMS does not claim to lead. Officials quoted as an
example the Bradford Bulls Rugby League team who have developed a
variety of out-reach programmes underpinned by principles of good
commercial sense. An official also talked about a project on the west side of
Newcastle-upon-Tyne that offered both day-care for old people and provided
facilities for making stained glass and painting. This was seen as an example
of a socially inclusive project that had culture at its core.
Delivery at the local level
DCMS is fairly confident that the picture is steadily improving at the local level.
There was acknowledgement that for decades many good local authorities
(LAs) have been pursuing cultural and social agendas in constructive parallel,
even if central government was unaware of this activity. The figure of 3
173
billion was quoted as a broad estimate of current LA expenditure on culture
(bearing in mind that the public library service is the only statutory cultural
service that LAs must provide). LA cultural strategies, which they are now
obliged to submit to the DCMS, are still coming in. The key thing for DCMS
seems to be their sense that there is now a good `fit' on shared policy
priorities between central and local government. They have a clear feeling
that even LAs which were under-performing are now engaging positively and
taking note of cultural aspects of educational attainment and social inclusion.
These developments are, of course, very much tied up with the importance of
place and territory that is becoming more of a strategic concern to LAs. The
networking of government departments' is much improved with the Local
Government Association (the English and Welsh national body for local
government) and with SOLACE (the professional network organisation/society
for the LA chief executives). `Beacon Councils' were also identified as playing
an invaluable role in helping to raise the profile of these issues among local
authorities. For example, the role of libraries in combating exclusion,
`culturally-led regeneration' through cultural quarters, iconic buildings, leisure-
based schemes, safer parks and play-schemes etc. In this context, `Best
Value'75
is currently being rethought in an effort to make the concept more
strategic in nature. Many authorities are increasingly open to the potential of
making culture a central plank of their policy strategy. There is recognition that
culture can therefore be used to deliver outcomes that are not themselves
purely cultural in nature. Above all, this represents a genuine change in the
way local government is thinking.
In terms of area-based initiatives the consultancy firm Geoff Fordham
Associates was commissioned to look at the delivery plan for the New Deal
for Communities programme. It found that virtually all communities had
chosen to invest in the culture in some form or another as part of this
programme, for instance by employing Arts Development Officers. There is a
20-year longitudinal research project attached to this project, the aim being to
show what the cultural sector can achieve for social inclusion.
There is further evidence that various cultural programmes and projects with a
social inclusion agenda are having some success. One such example is the
Bristol Mass Read of Treasure Island that was partly funded by Penguin
books and which in turn further illustrates the crucial role to be played by
private sector partnerships. The Museums Project will also, from this point of
view, hopefully have an impact in a sector that has further to go on the social
inclusion front.76
In short, DCMS are concerned to play a key strategic role in maximising the
impact of culture as an agent for social inclusion. On a negative note, this is
inevitably partly a response to a set of circumstances in which they admit that
75
This is the Labour Government's successor to compulsory competitive tendering (CCT). CCT sought
to challenge the cost-effectiveness and operational efficiency of LA's services with those of private
contractors. Under this system the private sector could bid for certain local government services and
were usually successful if a lower price was tendered.
76
As did the relocation of Bournemouth city library.
174
realistically there is very little money available to make real inroads into the
existing infrastructure. As such, the `Extended Schools' initiative is indicative
of the way in which the framework that already exists needs to be maximised
in order to ensure that local people from all backgrounds realise the cultural
potential of the resources already available to them. In doing so the DCMS
believe cultural policy can have a real and increasing impact on issues of
social exclusion.
From DCMS's point of view, one of the reasons culture is having such a
renaissance in terms of regeneration and local provision has been the
willingness of central and local government to loosen some of the reins over
local programmes. When local people are given the chance to choose and are
given money to do something with that money, the suggestion is that they
often choose to invest in arts, leisure and sports activities. This manifests
itself in Neighbourhood Renewal Areas such as East Manchester which has
chosen to put money into its sports facilities. The 130 million `Space for
Sport and Arts' programme in primary schools is helping open up school
facilities as a community resource, as is the national network of `Extended
Schools' which is now touching on other aspects of social inclusion in the form
of primary health care, child care, libraries, sport and the arts. Indeed, the
Government feel that public libraries have potential value in relation to many
of their targets for social inclusion. In recent years they have sought to
promote links between education, access to information and future prosperity,
notably through equipping libraries with information technology as a means of
social inclusion. This has been funded by the National Lottery through a 270
million programme devoted to the public library IT network.
A key theme in the DCMS agenda is to promote `freer-thinking' about what
constitutes a cultural resource and how it can be best used by the local
community. Real advances are also being made in the form of `Creative
Partnerships' (CPs). Working with actors, artists, music producers and others
in the creative industries, CPs aim to give schoolchildren the opportunity to
experience the arts and creativity at first hand. Similarly, the Physical
Education and School Sports programme represents a massive investment in
the infrastructure of school sports.
Despite the above advances it is also important, as officials themselves
stated, to resist what might be called `initiative-itis' from central government.
There is plenty of evidence of usage of cultural facilities, in particular libraries,
which illustrates the more general point that regardless of government
intervention people actively use culture and as such, culture plays a role in
`engaging the disengaged'.
The DCMS is confident that the Regional Cultural Data Framework will help it
move beyond the merely anecdotal to a more scientific and evidence-based
approach. Similarly with Neighbourhood Renewal programmes and the rising
profile of culture within the New Deal for Communities, the feeling was that
the DCMS had reached a stage where it could now say in its discussions with
other departments - unlike at any time in the past - that culture can make a
significant contribution to social well being.
175
The Government's English regional dimension
Government Offices for the Regions (the national government's administrative
arms in the English regions) make a significant contributing to the delivery of
area-based initiatives and the administration of EU funding streams. The
Regional Cultural Consortium (RCC) which operate as government appointed
champions of culture, are also important players in terms of regional cultural
policy. They are partly intended to make a significant contribution to DCMS's
strategic priorities. In addition, RCC chairpersons automatically have a placed
on Executive Boards of Regional Development Agencies, which are the
principal economic development vehicle in the English regions This enables
RCCs/RDAs to give greater attention to the broader context within which the
RCC sits such as factors which can have a major effect on access to `culture',
such as transport, pricing and education.77
17.8 UK - case study profile
Date of visits:
July and October 2003.
Interviews:
Department of Culture, Media and Sport:
ˇ Brian Leonard, Director, Tourism, Libraries and International.
ˇ Mark Ferrero, Head of Libraries and Communities Division.
ˇ Phil Clapp, Head of Education and Social Policy Unit, formerly in
Social Exclusion Unit of the Cabinet Office.
ˇ Michael Helston, Head of International Unit.
Department for Work and Pensions:
ˇ Steve Clode.
17.9 UK case study - example 178
The Breightmet estate in Bolton, Greater Manchester, is in the lowest 10% of
areas in the UK measured against the indicators of income deprivation and
child poverty. The study explores what this statistic means in a practical sense
for the people living in the area, seen through the eyes of local residents, as
well as using additional factual data. Whilst there are many published studies
of particular projects or initiatives showing the capacity of cultural activity to
empower local communities, this is a rare example of a 10-year longitudinal
study.
The research on the first 3-year period is beginning to record changes in the
perceptions of local people, in terms of their perception of the arts helping to
lead to an improved image for and pride in the area, a new sense of self-
77
An example of positive practice was evident in the South West region that brought key players
together.
78
Full copy of the report can be found at: www.breightmet.co.ukleselvin@yahoo.co.uk.
176
identity and more choice and opportunity for local people through
participation.
An organisation was created through Bolton Community Education Services
and was funded through the local authority Housing Department's `Percent for
Arts' scheme, a 10-year strategy to use culture on the estate as a catalyst for
positive change. The ethos is closely linked to community development and it
supports community action. A high percentage of the work involves
participation in arts activity and direct engagement in creative practice.
Over the first three years, the project has delivered:
ˇ Work with 71 partner organisations (63 local, 5 national, 3
international).
ˇ Contracted work to 43 artists (36 local, 7 from outside the region).
ˇ Coordinated over 60 projects with local people (446 participatory
sessions).
ˇ Worked with 4,324 children and 727 adults.
ˇ Received grant income of 75,000 from the local authority.
ˇ Harnessed 6,000 worth of `in kind' support from Community
Education.
ˇ Drew in 80,000 worth of additional resource to the area (combining
cash and volunteer time costed at 5 per hour).
After careful consideration, research methods selected were as follows:
ˇ Published statistical data.
ˇ Arts practitioner observation of sessions and qualitative interviews with
participants.
ˇ Focus group and questionnaire-based studies by professional (non-arts)
researcher.
ˇ Social Impact Study Research Group ­ composed of local residents and
outside professionals.
Key findings and positive indicators so far include:
ˇ Personal self-image.
ˇ Image of the estate as an area.
ˇ Ability of individuals to work collectively and collaboratively.
ˇ Social cohesion and solidarity.
ˇ Increase in perception of choices available.
ˇ Health (although less strong than those listed above).
Children and young people in particular recorded a sense of achievement and
higher status, as well as changing perceptions (their own and those of others)
of the area where they live. The project has also successfully created a space
and focus where different generations and ethnic groups can work side by
side on activity of mutual interest. Questionnaire responses demonstrate that
almost 93% of adult residents on the estate believe that they now have
something positive to build on, rather than just temporary activity. Interviews
with children and young people during the third year suggest that they
177
perceive art to have some psychological benefit in reducing their feelings of
stress and anxiety.
Local consultation has led to a number of recommendations for future
development, in particular over the forthcoming period more work will be
aimed at young people over 14 and adults over 50 living on the estate.
Discussion with the local authority is looking for cost-effective ways of
ensuring long-term sustainability and adaptation of the positive results so that
they can be replicated in other areas.
17.10 References
Council of Europe (1998) Cultural Heritage and its Educational Implications: a
Factor for Tolerance, Good Citizenship and Social Integration. Proceedings of
Brussels seminar held in August 1995.
UK Government (2001) United Kingdom National Action Plan on Social
Inclusion 2001-2003.
UK Government (2003) United Kingdom National Action Plan on Social
Inclusion 2003-05.
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Section 18: New Member States79
18.1 A review of culture and social inclusion policies in selected new
Member States
This section provides a brief overview of current culture and social policy
developments and practices in six of the new Member States: the Czech
Republic, Malta, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia and Cyprus. These states provide
a representative sample of the new Member Countries in terms of
geographical size and location, history, tradition and culture, population size
and contemporary practices and policy issues confronting them in the area of
culture and social inclusion policies.
1) Czech Republic
Cultural policy
The Charter of Basic Rights and Freedoms guarantees the right of all Czech
citizens to access culture, including socially disadvantaged groups such as
the disabled, who must be given the opportunity to access the nation's cultural
wealth, and the possibility of taking part in its creation. As part of its
preparation for accession to the EU, the Czech Government pledged to raise
public expenditure on culture to similar levels in comparable European
states.80
The main public actor in the field of cultural policy in the Czech Republic (CR)
is the Ministry of Culture. It has responsibility for matters such as: art, cultural
educational activities and cultural heritage. In 2001 the Czech Government
publish its cultural policy.81
One of the main policy objectives of the
Government is:
to guarantee equality of access for citizens to cultural treasures and to
facilitate this access to disadvantaged social groups (minorities, the
disabled). (p.4)
The specific aims of cultural policy are laid down in `articles', some of which
are relevant to the social inclusion agenda. Article one states:
to support the widest possible involvement of citizens and civic initiatives in
cultural and artistic activities, enhance their access to cultural values and
participation in the care of the cultural heritage, including their active and
fully-fledged participation in decision-making procedures." (p.5)
This will be achieved by "regularly advertising discretionary grant
programmes" and raising awareness of government activities in this field.
79 There are 10 new countries that joined the EU on May 1 2004: Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia,
Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia.
80
CR spends 0.23% of GDP compared to European average of 1% of GDP (Ministry of Culture, 2001).
81
Accessed at: http://www.mkcr.cz/en/www/article.php?id=10.
179
Article two pledges to continue to maintain a "system of discounts on prices"
(p.6) covering access to cultural services for citizens who belong to socially
disadvantaged groups.
Article fourteen states that the Government will "support the cultural activities
of different ethnic minorities" (p.13). Priority will be given to programmes that
support `multiethnic events' and wider awareness of other cultures. The needs
of the Roma minority will receive greater attention from Government policy
makers.
Article fifteen aims "to support the integration of foreigners into Czech society
and the relationship between communities" (p.13). A dedicated programme
will support cultural and religious activities of foreign citizens who have settled
in the CR, as a means of raising awareness and assisting with the "creation of
genuine media representation of the relationships between communities with
cultural and religious differences" (p.14).
Article sixteen aims to "support participation of disabled persons in cultural
activities and services" (p.14). In 1998 a National Plan for the provision of
equal opportunities for citizens with disabilities was passed. This allows the
Ministry of Culture to provide a special grant programme to support cultural
activities of disabled people. Financial support is provided for projects that:
ˇ provide wheelchair access by means of technical equipment to cultural
facilities not established by the Ministry of Culture;
ˇ support cultural activities produced by disabled persons. (p.14).
The Culture Ministry will also examine the implementation of copyright law to
assess whether it addresses the needs of the disabled in respect to the
"accessibility of cultural works" via "audio and audio-visual recordings using
modern technologies" (p.14).
Article thirty states that the Government will "support cultural activities and
cultural services as a complementary component of awareness-raising and
preventive programmes" (p.19). In support of this article the Ministry of
Culture has a special discretionary grant programme. This programme:
supports those projects in which the cultural component follows its main
overriding purpose, for example prevention of drink and drug addiction,
gambling and AIDS; education in partnership and family relations and
education for psycho-social rehabilitation and the reintegration of victims of
crime. Priority will be given to activities of a continuous, long-term character.
(p.19).
Article forty-one aims to "ensure that children, youth and students have
access to cultural heritage" (p.25). National collections will be made
accessible to children and youth. A grant is available from the Culture Ministry
to collecting institutions to raise awareness among children and youth.
180
Article fifty-two aims to "reinforce the role of public libraries in the process of
making information accessible to citizens" (p.32). This will be achieved by
supporting interconnection with other information networks.
Article fifty-eight seeks to "secure the general accessibility of library services"
(p.34). Government policy aims to make library services accessible not only to
citizens with disabilities but also to those living in remote areas. The "practical
support of this service should be guaranteed by the responsible middle level
body" through programmes such as "support the funding of barrier-free
access", the "acquisition of library funds for the blind" and "ethnic minorities"
and "participation in the financing of the general accessibility of library
services, for example travelling libraries" (p.34). The Ministry of Culture gives
discretionary support to libraries that support accessibility to the disabled.
Social inclusion policy
The Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs82
is responsible for social inclusion
policy. The Joint Memorandum on Social Inclusion (JIM)83
undertaken by CR
and European Commission highlights the lack of any substantial links or co-
ordination between the social inclusion and culture agendas. However, the
JIM recognises that there is a need to:
support the integration of people with intellectual disabilities into society in
areas such as education, employment, social, recreational and cultural life
and developing enhanced supports and living facilities, promoting greater
public awareness and countering prejudice and discrimination will be
important. (p.39).
In comparison with other new Member States and also with the EU average,
CR has a low rate of poverty. Existing systems of social protection, education
and health etc were designed to prevent the occurrence of social exclusion
and to date have proved largely successful in doing this. Therefore major
changes are not required to social protection system in the CR. However, the
JIM process identified challenges such as the need for existing systems to be
adapted to new phenomena, which have emerged in developed modern
societies such as population ageing, changes in family composition and the
emergence of the knowledge-based economy. In addition, certain
disadvantaged groups such as the disabled or those in disadvantaged social
and cultural environments, particularly the Roma, need further consideration
from policy makers. Employment is regarded as the primary means of
achieving social inclusion.
82
Accessed at: http://www.mpsv.cz/scripts/default.asp?lg=2.
83
Prior to accession, all countries were expected to jointly prepare with the European Commission (DG
Employment and Social Affairs), a Joint Inclusion Memorandum, the purpose of which is to prepare
the candidate country for full participation in the `open method of coordination' on social inclusion
upon accession. The JIM outlines the principal challenges in terms of tackling poverty and social
exclusion, presents the major policy measures taken in the light of the agreement to start translating the
EU's common objectives into national policies and identifies the key policy issues for monitoring and
review. It should be noted that culture or cultural policy matters are barely mentioned at all in these
documents.
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2) Malta
Cultural policy
The small island state of Malta spends approximately 0.5%84
of its GDP on
culture and culture-related activities.85
The direction of cultural policy is
orientated toward "consolidation of cultural democracy at all levels...it
manifests itself at the level of individual needs and capacities rather than in
terms of bringing individuals within the framework of the general cultural
policy."86
Another feature of cultural policy is the aim of decentralising power,
particularly in respect to local Councils.87
Until April 2003, art and culture in Malta was the responsibility of the Ministry
of Education. A new Ministry for Arts and Youths was created with
responsibility for setting general policy guidelines for culture and the arts,
broadcasting, museums, sports and youth affairs. However, the Ministry of
Education retained control over for the Library and Archives sector as well as
matters relating to the Maltese Language.88
There is co-operation on cultural
matters between the two Ministries and with other bodies and agencies. The
Ministry for Youths and the Arts is responsible for formulating policy, which is
implemented via arms-length agencies such as the Council for Culture and
Arts and Heritage Malta.
The Policy Unit at the Ministry of Education has launched a strategy for
"inclusive creative action" (Everitt, 2002: 14)89
, aimed at those from "cultural,
social, physical or educational disadvantage backgrounds (e.g. children with
learning difficulties, disabled, refugees, women who are victims of
violence)."90
`Creativity projects' have been developed that include children
and young people with social disadvantages and children and adolescents
from families of illegal immigrants in detention.91
In August 200192
the Government issued the first comprehensive official
cultural policy report in Malta. It is based on several principles including
democratic participation, inclusion, diversity and subsidiarity. One of the
cultural policy objectives is:
84
This figure includes allocations to the National Tourism Federation for cultural activities.
85
Information accessed at: http://www.culturelink.org/culpol/mt.html.
86
Accessed at: http://www.culturelink.org/culpol/mt.html.
87
The activity of Councils appears to be focused mainly on preservation of heritage and traditions.
88
See Compendium of Cultural Policies in Europe. Accessed at: http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
89
See Everitt, A. (2002) Report on Malta's National Cultural Policy. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
90
`Creativity projects' have been undertaken to include children and youth with social disadvantages
and children and adolescents from families of illegal immigrants in detention.
91
Accessed at: http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
92
This document was updated in 2002.
182
ˇ accessibility for all citizens to participate in cultural life, embracing all
mainstream and peripheral art forms/activities as well as those
socially disadvantaged communities and minority cultural groups.93
In April 2002, a new Act of Parliament established the Malta Council for
Culture and the Arts (MCCA). Its mandate is to "increase accessibility of the
public to the arts, collaborate with local councils, non-governmental
organisations and others to promote artistic and cultural initiatives."94
One of
the main objectives of the organisation is set out in the Act of Parliament,
which is to "encourage the exploration, development and expression of
personal artistic potential and promote participation, inclusiveness, equality
and the freedom of artistic expression..."95
Local councils and MCCA are
responsible for developing new programmes:
...in stimulating culture as a democratic process, accessed by all people.
Specific programmes include those designed for physically disabled people,
in the form of animated workshops and a bi-annual festival, projects that will
involve the refugee community and others to benefit the spectrum of society
suffering from a cultural deficit, due to personal or societal background. It is
also expected that the Council will launch specific outreach programmes that
will take culture and the arts to the peripheries.96
Following on from the last point above, in a review of cultural policy in Malta,
Everitt (2002)97
noted that greater attention needed to be given by local and
national government policy makers to "interactive community-based or
outreach art activity" (p.12), as a means to encourage citizen participation in
creative and culture activities.
Social inclusion policy
Social inclusion policy falls within the remit of the Ministry of Social Policy.98
While the Maltese JIM specifically mentions access to culture as an important
component in the prevention of social exclusion, it provides little information
on how this objective will be achieved. At a practical level there does not
appear to be clear linkages between cultural and social inclusion policies and
programmes in Malta.
The main challenges facing Malta in relation to social exclusion are the high
levels of illiteracy, adults with low skills and other shortcomings in the labour
market. According to the JIM, a high political priority should be given to
addressing educational and labour market weaknesses. Apart from the
unemployed, the groups most at risk of poverty and social exclusion in
Maltese society include: the disabled (those without adequate education or
skills), disadvantaged children (i.e. those living in low income or families in
93
The Council of Europe review of national cultural policy recommended that a "primary long-term
objective of Maltese cultural policy should be to increase access to the arts, heritage and libraries by
citizens of all socio-economic groupings". See Everitt, A. (2002) Report on Malta's National Cultural
Policy. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
94
Accessed at: http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
95
See Everitt, A. (2002) Report on Malta's National Cultural Policy. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
96
Accessed at: http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
97
Ibid.
98
Ministry website can be accessed at: http://www.msp.gov.mt/documents/msp/background_jim.pdf.
183
difficulty) and single parents (particularly those with dependent children and
paying high rents as tenants).
3) Hungary
Cultural policy
The Ministry of National Cultural Heritage is responsible for cultural policy in
Hungary. In addition, the Parliamentary Cultural Committee has an important
role to play in respect to the preparation of Bills and debates in this field. Local
governments support cultural activities in their areas and have a broad range
of powers. The 19 counties also have cultural responsibilities and in addition,
the national and local foundations have some involvement in cultural policy.99
According to the Compendium of Cultural Policies in Europe100
following the
change of government in 2002, cultural policy in Hungary is now less
influenced by ideology and politics. Cultural policy has followed a pragmatic
course in Hungary. There are "few cultural laws, and practice is rarely guided
by high level statements or theoretical documents guiding the development of
cultural policy".101
In recent years the Government has attempted to reverse
the process of decentralisation, believing that this process has "gone beyond
rational limits."102
In June 2003 the Minister responsible for cultural matters defined two key
priorities for government policy, these were:
ˇ `közmüvelödés', which is the generic term for access to culture,
especially locally, for the widest public, in the sense of `socio-culture';
ˇ the promotion of Hungarian culture abroad.103
The process of transition from communist state to liberal democracy during
the 1990s caused a crisis in the system that financed culture. This was the
result of a decreasing GDP and the consequent fall in state revenues, which
led to a tightening of the public expenditure budget. In addition, the former
communist regime pursued a policy of state subsidy of culture that enabled
low cost access, which in turn encouraged high levels of cultural consumption.
Current popular interest and participation in culture is now less than during the
communist era. However, the funding situation in respect to culture has begun
to stabilise in recent years. Currently public expenditure on culture amounts to
0.5% of GDP (Compendium of Cultural Policies in Europe, Hungary).
Social inclusion policy
Social inclusion policy is the responsibility of the Ministry of Health, Social and
Family Affairs.104
The main policy objective of the Hungarian Government is to
99
`Decentralisation: Investing in Culture in the Regions'. Workshop held in Bistritsa, Bulgaria, 18-20
January 2001 (http://www.policiesforculture.org/Workshopdossierbistritsaenglish.html).
100
Accessed at: http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
101
Ibid.
102
`Decentralisation: Investing in Culture in the Regions'. Workshop held in Bistritsa, Bulgaria, 18-20
January 2001 (http://www.policiesforculture.org/Workshopdossierbistritsaenglish.html).
103
Ibid.
184
ensure that the basic role of the state is to provide an opportunity for people to
find their way out of poverty and exclusion through their own efforts and also
community assistance. In relation to cultural matters, the Hungarian JIM
states that "enhancing integration into education of excluded groups could be
addressed by easier access to cultural and information services" (p.14). In
terms of key priorities that will be subject to a future policy review, "equal
access to culture and cultural services" (p.33) will be considered. According to
the JIM this will be achieved by "reinforcing institutional services, modernising
and reconstructing the institution network and reinforcing the inclusion of the
civil society." (p.33). Government support will be directed towards "social sport
(especially sport for women, families and the elderly), as well as programmes
of crime prevention and those encouraging a healthy lifestyle, in order to
facilitate the social integration of the marginalised groups." (p.33). Another
objective is to promote sport facilities for the disabled. To this end, a minimum
policy objective is to ensure that "all large cities should have an accessible
sports centre and swimming pool by 2005" (p.33).
4) Poland
Cultural policy
The constitution of Poland, specifically Article 73, refers to culture and states
that every citizen is "granted the right of freedom of creation, to conduct
scientific research and announce their results, freedom of education and use
of cultural assets."105
In 1993 The Principles of State Cultural Policy document was published,
which signalled a shift in orientation of cultural policy towards:
ˇ decentralisation: shift the competencies from the central
administration to the regional level and from the regional to the local
level;
ˇ public financial support for selected cultural institutions and crucial
cultural events;
ˇ support for the development of non-public cultural institutions and
funding mechanisms which could supplement the public funding of
culture.106
The period 2001-2002 is seen as a turning point in Polish cultural policy,
following the reform programme instituted by Culture Minister Andrzej
Celińskis. The programme included comprehensive changes in the
organisational and financial system of Polish culture. As a result the Polish
cultural policy model is highly decentralised, with local authorities playing a
central role. The Ministry of Culture has now withdrawn from direct
management of culture, although it still retains responsibility for the most
important cultural institutions. The Ministry of Culture is also responsible for
formulating cultural policy. Local governments have the power to create local
development strategies and they currently spend more on culture than central
104
Ministry website can be accessed at: http://www.eszcsm.hu/eszcsm/eszcsm_angol.main.page.
105
Accessed at: http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
106
Ibid.
185
government, accounting for over 80% of public funding given to the culture
sector.
As mentioned above, the institutional structures of Polish culture are
undergoing change. There has been a shift from "State monopoly over
cultural institutions towards diversification of ownership (including changes of
legal status to private organisations, foundations or associations) and
encouragement to create third sector institutions."107
Efforts have been made
to combine public and private funding streams in culture. The Government
also aims to ensure that in the future cultural spending represents at least 1%
of the state budget. At the end of 2002 it became possible to assigning funds
from the lottery to cultural activities. In terms of the National Health
Programme, the Ministry of Culture along with the Ministry of Health co-
finances approximately 27 projects/events such as `Therapy Through the Arts'
for disabled people and those with social problems.108
However, there are areas of cultural policy that require further consideration.
Despite the efforts of the Government there is a lack of arms length culture
institutions in Poland, which in other European states ensure the autonomy of
decision-making over cultural matters.109
Cultural policy makers have not yet
made any comprehensive efforts to create strategies that would stimulate
employment in the cultural sector in Poland.
As with other former communist states, Poland saw a drastic fall in cultural
participation rates during the early years of the country's transformation
period. This decline came to a halt in 1994. While participation figures have
begun to rise they have yet to reach the levels recorded before the
transformation period.
Social inclusion policy
The Ministry of Economy, Labour and Social Policy is responsible for Social
inclusion policy. In 2004 the `National Action Plan on Poverty and Social
Exclusion' will be presented to the European Commission. The JIM notes that
culture and education play an important role in respect to "social integration"
(p.14). However, the JIM has little to say about the role of culture/cultural
policy in supporting the social inclusion agenda.
According to the JIM, the major policy challenge facing Poland in terms of
overcoming poverty and social exclusion is the need to address the country's
low activity rate, particularly among the long-term unemployed, older workers,
the unskilled and young people (especially women). There is also a `high
dependency ratio' due to the extensive use of early retirement schemes and
invalidity pensions during the restructuring of the Polish economy in the
1970s-1980s. Other groups at risk from poverty/social exclusion include the
elderly, the homeless, children/youth and people from abusive environments.
The JIM recommends that the Government invest in education,
107
Accessed at: http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
108
Ibid.
109
Ibid.
186
training/retraining as well as "reforming and increasing the consistency of the
several and sometimes overlapping benefit systems" (p.49).
5) Slovenia
Cultural policy
The Slovenian constitution guarantees the cultural rights of citizens.
Parliament has responsibility for formulating and legislating on cultural policy.
The Ministry of Culture has responsibility for administering and managing
cultural policy but not for leadership in this field.110
As well as the Culture
Ministry there are other important cultural institutions in Slovenia. For
instance, the National Council for Culture has 18 members and is nominated
by Parliament on the proposal of Slovenian Cultural Assembly and Culture
Ministry. The Council is responsible for managing the `Cultural Fund'. The
Slovenian Cultural Assembly is responsible for developing the overall
principles of cultural policy, culture legislation and Slovenia's programme for
culture. The purpose of these bodies is to ensure that the voice of the public
(primarily artists) is feed into the policy process. The Parliamentary
Committee for Culture and Preservation of Cultural Heritage acts as a link
between Parliament and the Cultural Assembly.111
In 1996 the Council of Europe noted that in Slovenia "there is no political
agenda for national cultural policy."112
However, since then it appears that
moves have been made to formulate a national cultural policy, although there
has been criticism of a "lack of political will to adopt a more active and
proactive approach to designing a more progressive policy."113
The objectives
of Slovene cultural policy are determined by the Public Interest in Culture Act.
These are: "supporting cultural creativity, access to culture, active
participation in cultural life, cultural diversity, development of Slovene cultural
identity and supporting cultural heritage conservation in Slovenian cultural
areas, which includes parts of Slovenia and Slovenian minorities..."114
living
aboard. Priorities for culture are set out in the National Programme for Culture
(2004-2007).
The Compendium of Cultural Policies in Europe115
highlighted a number of
features of the Slovenia cultural policy model:
ˇ The central role of the state in the area of culture - the Constitution of
Slovenia defines itself as a `social state', where the social-democratic
value paradigm is generally accepted as a civilisation achievement. The
further development of cultural standards are also part of this paradigm;
ˇ Intensive regulation as a method of managing cultural affairs - which
mirrors the German tradition of legal regulation and includes relatively
extensive cultural regulation, including secondary legislation;
110
See: http://www.culturelink.org/culpol/si.html.
111
There are numerous other private bodies responsible for culture.
112
Accessed at: http://www.coe.int/T/E/Cultural%5FCo%2Doperation/Culture/Cultural%5Fpolicies/
Reviews_per_country/Reports/slovenianat.asp#P795_230172
113
See: http://www.policiesforculture.org/ Workshopdossierbistritsaenglish.html.
114
Accessed at: http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
115
Ibid.
187
ˇ Complicated procedures - the process and procedures to distribute
public funds, aimed at increasing transparency, are in fact difficult and
frustrating for both the cultural administration and for the receivers of
public funds;
ˇ Expert advice on financial decisions - expert committees, composed of
artists and other professionals, prepare all the proposals for financing,
except for the budget reserve of the Ministry, which represented 0.36%
of the entire state budget for culture in 2002. Although the Minister
takes a final decision, it is usually done in accordance with their opinion;
ˇ Heavy institutionalisation of Slovenian culture - public cultural
institutions emerged out of the civic initiatives that began in the 19th
century. They were nationalised as a consequence of regular financing
received during the first decades of the last century. After the Second
World War the communist ideology created a monopoly over the public
cultural sector. De-etatisation is a very sensitive process, especially in
countries with a strong social-democratic tradition like Slovenia. There
is, however, some evidence towards liberalisation, which will slowly be
incorporated in the cultural policy and system as a whole;
ˇ Cultural institutions are not part of public authorities - all institutions are
separate legal entities under public law with full legal and business
capacity and their own management structure; the latter appointed by
the founder, which is the public authority. These institutions are
QUANGOs, which operate according to the arms' length principle;116
ˇ Multiannual programme financing - in 2004 NGOs will benefit from
three-year structural financing, which should temporarily give them
stable working conditions;
ˇ Centralised funding - The main concept for cultural development applied
after the Second World War was polycentric and based on 25 traditional
cultural centres in Slovenia. The establishment of local governments,
which would independently take decisions on their own priorities,
represented a threat to this concept. Therefore, since the middle of the
1980s, all larger municipal cultural institutions have become state
financed, while local governments independently manage them and
appoint directors to their respective councils;
ˇ Decentralised cultural infrastructure - Municipalities are in charge of
museums, library activities, amateur cultural and art activities and other
cultural programmes of local importance. In areas where national
minorities live, the municipalities are also obliged to support their
cultural activities. There is no intermediate level of government."
Public culture expenditure per capita in 2002 corresponded to 0.82% of the
GDP.117
Municipalities now provide over 50% of public funding for culture, the
remainder coming from the Culture Ministry. While other sectors of Slovene
society and economy have undergone significant change since
independence, the cultural sector (including funding levels) has remained
untouched.
116
The guarantee of the autonomy of culture is a key principle of the Slovenian model.
117
GDP figure found at: http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
188
Social policy
The Ministry of Labour, Family and Social Affairs118
is responsible for social
inclusion policy. In February 2000, the Government adopted the `Programme
to Combat Poverty and Social Exclusion' and with the adoption of this
programme social inclusion became formally defined as a government policy
priority.
The analysis undertaken in the Slovenian JIM shows that the main groups at
risk from poverty are the long-term unemployed and youth, particularly in
respect to the existing regional disparities. The JIM recommends that
spending on education, training and re-training should become a high political
priority in terms of eradicating poverty.
The JIM has little to say on the issue of culture or cultural exclusion, although
there is a concern to prevent and address cultural exclusion of minority
groups, especially in regard to the Roma.
6) Cyprus
Cultural policy
Administrative responsibility for cultural affairs lies with the Ministry of
Education and Culture and is implemented through the Ministry's Cultural
Services section. However, a number of other Ministries also have
responsibility for aspects of cultural affairs. In 1973 a Co-ordination
Committee for cultural matters was established under the aegis of the
Education Ministry. Local authorities also have a range of responsibilities for
culture. Other important policy priorities for the Cypriot Government include
making culture more widely available and encouraging greater public
participation in cultural activities.
Social inclusion policy
Social inclusion policy is the responsibility of the Ministry of Labour and Social
Insurance. According to the Cypriot JIM (p.43) the main policy challenge in
respect to social inclusion is dealing effectively with problems resulting from
dynamic social and economic developments and as a consequence, there is a
need to focus in on those groups who are vulnerable to such developments, in
particular older and retired people living in single person households. These
groups suffer high levels of poverty, which suggests that the present pensions
system may be inadequate to secure sufficient income in old age. Other social
groups, such as the disabled, single parents and immigrants are also at risk
from poverty and social exclusion. The JIM suggests that "it is crucial to adapt
the social protection system to address in a preventive way the consequences
of social and economic developments and pay special attention to older
persons and the above mentioned vulnerable groups, which should become a
high political challenge for poverty eradication" (p.43). However, the JIM does
not mention matters pertaining to culture or cultural exclusion and there
appears to be little or no integration between cultural policy and social
inclusion agendas.
118
Ministry website can be accessed at: http://www.gov.si/mddsz/english.htm.
189
18.2 Policies and practices in new Member States
In the former communist regimes of eastern/central Europe a key theme
permeating many national cultural policies and discourse on the subject of
culture is the desire to restrict or remove direct state involvement in and
control of arts and culture. As a result `cultural democracy' is seen as a key
principle in these states. This concept is based on a belief that culture and
cultural practitioners and citizens should be autonomous actors, free from
direct state control. This approach to cultural matters is a legacy of the
communist era, when the arts and culture sector was strictly controlled by the
state for political and ideological reasons. Consequently, in most former
Soviet Bloc countries and elsewhere significant restructuring of cultural
institutional structures and policies has occurred. For instance, many
countries have moved to establish arms-length cultural institutions and
initiated programmes to decentralise and devolve power to local government
and other non-governmental bodies. As a result, in most former communist
states local government and other non-governmental bodies have an
important role in cultural matters, in relation to both administration and funding
of culture. However, the Government in Hungary has attempted to reverse
decentralisation, fearing that the process has gone too far. In addition, the
post-communist constitutions of eastern/central European states guarantee
the rights of citizens to access and participate in cultural activities and
explicitly prevent the state developing a `controlling' influence over the cultural
sector.
With the exception of the island states, most of the new Member Countries
have been compelled to address problems of social and cultural exclusion
faced by minority groups, in particular the Roma community. Given their
turbulent history and frequent changes of boundaries, it is not surprising to
find that many eastern/central European states have large numbers of other
minority nationalities living within their borders (e.g. Russians living in the
Baltic states). This legacy has required countries to develop special measures
to address their social and cultural needs (e.g. laws to protect/promote
minority languages). In other new Member States such as Malta and
Slovenia, culture has not featured as a prominent issue on either the political
and policy agendas and it is only recently that both states have begun to
seriously focus attention on the social and economic potential of culture and
the development of national cultural policies in support of this. This apparent
indifference and low priority assigned to cultural policy (until recently) is
perhaps understandable as governments in new Member States have sought
to tackle more immediate and pressing public policy issues such as economic
development and social problems.
Different approaches to cultural policy have been adopted by new Member
States. For example, the cultural policy of Malta stresses the need for
individual/citizen empowerment in culture rather than drawing individuals into
the national cultural policy framework. In Hungary the state has remained
relatively detached from cultural affairs, adopting a pragmatic approach to
cultural policy. As a result, practice in this field is rarely guided by central
190
government guidelines or cultural regulations and legislation. On the other
hand, the Czech Republic is a state that has developed a relatively
comprehensive cultural policy approach, certainly at a strategy making and
policy levels. The Czech cultural strategy recognises the problem of cultural
exclusion faced by some groups such as the disabled and ethnic minorities
and the role culture can play as a component in awareness raising activities
among excluded groups and in terms of preventative social and health
programmes.
However, some negative factors are evident in a number of the new Member
States. As alluded to earlier, the transition from communism to democracy
and free market economics has proved to be difficult process for the former
Soviet Bloc states, not just in terms of the ideological legacy of the
communism but also in relation to the institutional and structural frameworks
inherited from this era. In some countries there has been a considerable
decline in public participation rates in cultural activities, mainly brought about
by the reduction or withdrawal of public subsidies for culture that were
provided by the former communist regimes. In addition, many governments
sought to reduce or maintain a tight grip on overall funding levels for arts and
culture in response to poor economic performance and resultant social
problems arising from the `transitional period' from communism to democratic
and capitalist systems. As a result, public expenditure on culture in most of
the new Member States remains below the EU average, although some states
have committed themselves to raising expenditure levels to European Union
rates over the next few years.
All of the new Member States have taken part in the Joint Memorandum on
Social Inclusion exercise. However, few of the new Member States appear to
have developed policy approaches that integrate the cultural and social
inclusion agendas to any significant extent. In 2004 every new Member State
will have to produce their first NAP/incl and it will be interesting to see the
extent to which culture/cultural exclusion has been recognised as an
important dimension of social inclusion policy.
191
Appendix 1
A review of relevant academic literature
- Philip L.J., Shucksmith M. Conceptualizing Social Exclusion in Rural Britain
European Planning Studies, JUNE 2003, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 461-480(20).
Abstract:
Most studies of living conditions in rural areas have offered essentially static
snapshots. Social exclusion is a multi-dimensional, dynamic concept which
emphasizes the processes of change through which individuals or groups are
excluded from the mainstream of society and their life-chances reduced. This
article considers social exclusion in the context of the principal forces
operating on and within rural areas of Britain, including global restructuring
and the changing role of the State and supra-national institutions. A
framework of four systems of social exclusion and inclusion is proposed,
following Reimer (personal communication, 1998), according to the means by
which resources and status are allocated in society. This is used to structure a
presentation of the results of several recent empirical studies which provide
evidence of the processes and system failures lying behind social exclusion in
rural Britain. A number of research issues are identified concerning how these
processes vary between areas, how they connect to the broader forces
operating at macro and meso levels, and how local action is associated with
attempts to resist social exclusion.
- Annesley C. Americanised and Europeanised: UK social policy since 1997.
British Journal of Politics and International Relations, May 2003, vol. 5, no. 2,
pp. 143 -165(23)
Abstract:
A number of recent accounts of UK social policy under New Labour have
emphasised the continuing Americanisation of the British welfare state. This
article does not deny the influence of the US but rather seeks to balance it
with an account of the growing Europeanisation of UK social policy. It argues
that Americanisation and Europeanisation are distinct in terms of both content
and process. Since these are not mutually exclusive, the UK is currently
influenced by both. This situation is illustrated by looking at three social policy
issues under New Labour: social exclusion, the New Deal and the treatment
of lone parents.
- Walker R. and Wiseman M. Making welfare work: UK activation policies
under New Labour International Social Security Review, January­March
2003, vol. 56, no. 1, pp. 3-29(27).
Abstract:
This paper describes and briefly evaluates the major "New Deal" activation
policies introduced by the UK New Labour government since 1997. It outlines
the ambitious project to modernize the UK economy and welfare state and,
192
within this overall strategy, to end child poverty and to tackle social exclusion
by encouraging movement from welfare benefits into work, and by making
work pay. Three sets of New Deal programmes are discussed: those targeted
on unemployed claimants, lone parents and people with disabilities. The
paper concludes that real change has been achieved with measurable
beneficial effects but that there are threats to the further elaboration and
extension of the New Deal model.
- Belfiore E. Art as a means of alleviating social exclusion: does it really work?
A critique of instrumental cultural policies and social impact studies in the UK,
International Journal of Cultural Policy, 1 January 2002, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 91-
106(16).
- Milbourne L. Life at the margin: education of young people, social policy and
the meanings of social exclusion International Journal of Inclusive Education,
1 October 2002, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 325-343(19).
Abstract:
This paper explores the term 'social exclusion' in the context of new social
and education policies being constructed in the UK. It examines the links with
terms such as 'poverty', 'deprivation' and 'equality' and the implications of
policy developments for those identified as socially excluded. Tensions and
contradictions appear to be emerging between the UK government's stated
policy intentions to address social exclusion, and local knowledge and
experience. Issues of power, market power, participation and inclusiveness
are explored specifically in the context of education. The paper draws on
research being undertaken in a deprived inner-city area with voluntary sector
organizations that provide education for marginalized young people.
- Richardson L.; Le Grand J. Outsider and Insider Expertise: The Response of
Residents of Deprived Neighbourhoods to an Academic Definition of Social
Exclusion Social Policy and Administration, October 2002, vol. 36, no. 5,
pp. 496-515(20).
Abstract:
The aim of this paper is to compare academic interpretations of the term
social exclusion
Spear, R., Defourny, J., Favreau, L. and Laville, JL. Tackling Social Exclusion
in Europe: The Contribution of the Social Economy, The British Journal of
Social Work, 1 January 2002, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 130-131(2) .
No abstract, hard copy of book review available.
- Brine J. Education, social exclusion and the supranational state International
Journal of Inclusive Education, 1 April 2001, vol. 5, no. 2-3, pp. 119-131(13).
Abstract:
This paper explores the relationship between education, social exclusion and
globalization, especially as it is found in the policies of the emergent
supranational 'state' or sub-global bloc. The paper leads to an analysis of the
discourse of social exclusion, and focuses on the part that education and
193
training (ET) policies play in the individualization, pathologization and
criminalization of socially excluded people. Following an initial sketch of the
concept of globalization, the paper considers the development of
supranational and nation state ET policy. The next section provides a brief
sketch of the historic development of supranational ET policy. The final
section returns to the main theme of the paper, namely education and the
discourse of social exclusion.
- Mohan J. Geographies of welfare and social exclusion: dimensions,
consequences and methods. Progress in Human Geography, 1 February
2002, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 65-75(11).
- Abrahamson P. Researching Poverty and Social Exclusion in Europe.
Journal of European Social Policy, August 2003, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 281-
285(5).
- Jarman J. Explaining social exclusion International Journal of Sociology and
Social Policy, 1 April 2001, vol. 21, no. 4-6, pp. 3-9(7).
Abstract:
Explains that the article provides the opportunity to look at how the concept of
social exclusion develops when it is approached sociologically.
- Atkinson, T., Cantillon, B., Marlier, E. and Brian Nolan Social Indicators -
The EU and Social Inclusion 2002, Oxford University Press.
Abstract:
The European social agenda is at a crucial stage. This book describes the
Action Plans on Social Inclusion submitted to the European Union by national
governments in June 2001 and investigates the indicators that can be used to
assess social progress. It deals in a new way with key issues for social policy
in Europe: poverty, income inequality, non-monetary deprivation, low
educational attainment, unemployment, joblessness, poor health, poor
housing and homelessness, functional illiteracy and innumeracy.
Hard copy of book review by Figuieres C. is available.
- Stevens, A., Bur, A-M. and Young, L. People, jobs, rights and power: The
roles of participation in combating social exclusion in Europe
Community Development Journal, 1 April 2003, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 84-
95(12).
Abstract:
Interest is being revived in participation as a means of tackling social
exclusion. There are differing interpretations of both participation and social
exclusion, which leave it unclear as to how one is supposed to combat the
other. This article reports some findings from a project that looked at existing
participation efforts in four European countries, and compares observations
with previous insights. We categorize the aims of these efforts, relate these
aims to policy developments at European and local level and link them to
differing explanations of social exclusion. We argue that greater clarity is
necessary on the aims of participation and on how it is supposed to tackle
194
social exclusion if conflicts that have hindered previous programmes are to be
overcome.
- Mayes, D.G., Berghman, J. and Salais, R. Social Exclusion and European
Policy: Globalization and Welfare, The Economic Journal, June 2003, vol.
113, no. 488, pp. F401-F403(1).
Hard copy of book review by Figuieres C. is available.
- Silver H.; Miller S.M. Social Exclusion. Indicators, 1 February 2003, vol. 2,
no. 2, pp. 5-21(17)
Abstract:
In the United States poverty is traced with a single income number. But the
authors argue that there is a more useful way of measuring deprivation: social
exclusion. In Europe, governments are increasingly trying to measure it and
come up with policies to limit it.
- Schoukens P. How the European Union Keeps the Social Welfare Debate
on Track: A Lawyer's View of the EU Instruments Aimed at Combating Social
Exclusion European Journal of Social Security, 2002, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 117-
150(34).
Abstract:
The article provides a legal perspective on the current debate on combating
social exclusion at the EU level. In the first place, it attempts to provide a legal
definition of the concept of social exclusion. It then investigates whether there
have been any dramatic changes in the competencies of the EU to act in the
field of social exclusion since the Treaty of Amsterdam came into force. The
open method of coordination, the Treaty of Nice and the EU Charter of
Fundamental Rights are all assessed regarding their potential for combating
social exclusion.
- Begg I.G. and Berghman J. Introduction: EU social (exclusion) policy
revisited?
Journal of European Social Policy, 1 August 2002, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 179-
194(16).
Abstract:
Summary Since the mid-1990s, several steps have been taken towards an
integration of social policy in the EU. Yet there is reluctance in many quarters
to go further. This article introduces the special issue on integration of EU
social policy and explores the case for more comprehensive
'Europeanization'. We argue that the norms that underlie the European model
provide the rationale for integration, and that the usual focus on the
undoubted differences between countries in the approaches to, and delivery
mechanisms of, the welfare state are not as great an obstacle as is often
assumed. With the advent of EMU and with many common problems to
confront, the EU countries have good reasons to adopt a common approach
to social policy, even if implementation remains at the national level. The open
195
method of coordination provides the means of reconciling these aims and the
article concludes with a discussion of how it might evolve to achieve a more
integrated EU policy.
- Mayes D.G Social exclusion and macro-economic policy in Europe: a
problem of dynamic and spatial change. Journal of European Social Policy, 1
August 2002, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 195-209(15).
Abstract:
This article assesses whether macro-economic developments in Europe will
assist the reduction of social exclusion under EMU. It concludes that the
objectives of the Lisbon Council will be difficult to meet. Enlargement, ageing
and the 'new economy' may alter projections but more rapid structural change
has adverse asymmetric effects on average and regional unemployment. As
increased public spending can have disincentive effects, combating exclusion
needs to focus on building 'capabilities' to participate in society and economic
activity. However, constraints from EMU are largely illusory. Although
problems might arise if the fiscal policies adopted by different countries pull in
different directions, these can be attenuated by sensible coordination
mechanisms.
- Tsakloglou P. and Papadopoulos F. Aggregate level and determining factors
of social exclusion in twelve European countries. Journal of European Social
Policy, 1 August 2002, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 211-225(15).
Abstract:
There has been a shift in the public discourse of many EU countries from
'poverty' to 'social exclusion'. This article treats chronic cumulative
disadvantage as a proxy for 'social exclusion' and provides an empirical
application using data from the ECHP. Social exclusion appears to be more
widespread in Southern European countries with relatively underdeveloped
welfare states and the countries associated with the 'Liberal' welfare state
regime. The results of multivariate analysis demonstrate that in most
countries, lack of full-time employment, low educational qualifications, lone
parenthood, non-EU citizenship and bad health are positively and significantly
associated with increased risk of social exclusion. In contrast, the effect of
being an elderly citizen living alone or a member of an elderly couple is found
to be negatively associated with the risk of social exclusion in Northern but
positively in Southern Europe. Finally, country and welfare regime effects turn
out to be significant in explaining the probability of social exclusion.
- Van Winden, W. The End of Social Exclusion? On Information Technology
Policy as a Key to Social Inclusion in Large European Cities Regional
Studies: The Journal of the Regional Studies Association, 1 December 2001,
vol. 35, no. 9, pp. 861-868(8).
Abstract:
Social exclusion of parts of the urban population has come to be seen as one
of the key roots of many contemporary urban problems. Currently, a new
optimism can be observed about the possibilities of fighting social exclusion,
196
mainly based on the seemingly endless possibilities of information and
communications technology (ICT). ICT is believed to contribute to economic,
social and political dimensions of inclusion. Closer inspection leads to the
conclusion that policy makers' expectations of ICT as a solution for social
exclusion need downsizing but, under some conditions, in the longer run ICT
can support social inclusion policy. The degree to which the new opportunities
of ICT can be capitalized on depends to a large extent on the capacity of
urban management to influence the population's uptake and application of
ICT, and the alignment with other social inclusion policies.
- Micklewright J. and Stewart K. Poverty and social exclusion in Europe:
European comparisons and the impact of enlargement New Economy, June
2001, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 104-109(6).
-
- Berman Y. and Phillips D. Indicators of Social Quality and Social Exclusion
at National and Community Level Social Indicators Research, June 2000,
vol. 50, no. 3, pp. 329-350(22).
Abstract:
This paper explores the domains and indicators of social inclusion and
exclusion and their interaction at national and community level, within the
context of the social quality construct and the notions of Demos and Ethnos.
Social inclusion/exclusion is conceptualised dynamically within the
overarching construct of social quality. Micro and macro aspects of social
quality are discussed along with the relationship between organisations and
institutions and communities, groups and individuals. The relationship
between these levels is explored in relation to Delanty's distinction between
Demos and Ethos. Drawing on the work of McMillan and Chevis, two domains
of community are identified ­ identification and participation. Relevant
attributes and indicators are suggested for each domain.
Interactions between social inclusion and exclusion at national and community
level are then exemplified, ranging from inclusion to exclusion both
communally and nationally via intermediate stages of inclusion in one realm
and exclusion in the other. Social policy implications of the relationship
between national and community exclusion are drawn, both for
macro/institution and organisational levels (in relation to legislation and
society-wide service provisions) and micro and group and citizen level (in
relation to social work).
- Atkinson R. Combating Social Exclusion in Europe: The New Urban Policy
Challenge, Urban Studies, 1 May 2000, vol. 37, no. 5, pp. 1037-1055(19).
Culture
- Little S., Holmes L. and Grieco M. Calling up culture: Information spaces
and information flows as the virtual dynamics of inclusion and exclusion
Information Technology & People, 23 November 2001, vol. 14, no. 4, pp.
353-367(15).
197
Abstract:
Both critics and proponents of globalisation tend to assume that it is a uniform
process leading to a flattening of the cultural terrain. In contrast, this paper,
using examples from Africa, Indonesia, Malaysia, Japan and Canada,
demonstrates a more complex interaction between traditional cultural
practices and modern communication forms. The new information
technologies enable universal access to authentic local voice. Archiving social
and cultural practices has historically been the business of museums,
universities, and indeed oral traditions of song and poetry. New information
technologies provide for cultural continuities and reflexivities: they enable the
routine archiving of social and cultural practice at a minimal cost through
hypertext, Web pages and universal access. The "globalisation of culture", so
often discussed, needs to be reframed with reference to this highly overlooked
indigenous capability to archive own culture. This paper attempts to provide
such a reframing.
Concepts
- Edwards R, Armstrong P. and Miller N. Include me out: critical readings of
social exclusion, social inclusion and lifelong learning International Journal of
Lifelong Education, 1 September 2001, vol. 20, no. 5, pp. 417-428(12).
Abstract:
Social exclusion and inclusion have emerged as strong policy-leading
concepts at both the national and international level in recent years. Policies
on lifelong learning are themselves in part premised on the contribution
education and training can make to promoting an inclusive society. It is
argued that social exclusion offends against human dignity, denies people
their fundamental human rights and leads, in conjunction with social and
economic instability, to marginalization and deepening inequalities, which
threaten the stability of democracy. Social inclusion therefore appears to be
an unconditional good. The argument in this paper suggests that this is not
the case. Drawing on critical social policy studies and post-structuralist
philosophy, we argue that the notion of inclusion relies on exclusions, some of
which may be chosen and even desirable. We suggest that those interested in
lifelong learning should take a more critical stance towards the social inclusion
agenda to which it is being harnessed.
- Bowring F. Social exclusion: limitations of the debate Critical Social Policy,
August 2000, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 307-330(24).
Abstract:
This article is a critique of what Ruth Levitas calls the 'redistributionist
discourse' on social exclusion. While outlining a number of factors that have
caused the living standards and welfare of the poorest members of society to
deteriorate in recent years, I argue that there are serious limitations in the
attempt to define social deprivation as shame-inducing exclusion from social
norms. I argue that, if breaking the cultural foundations of capitalism is a goal,
then this means breaking with the dominant values of ever-rising consumer
expectations. It means breaking with the logic of exchange-values, which
198
dictates that the only needs worth expressing are those that correspond to
commodity equivalents. As I argue in my conclusion, it also means breaking
the link between the right to an income and the obligation to earn or use that
income in ways consistent with the economic and cultural hegemony of
capitalism.
- Porter F Social exclusion: what's in a name
Development in Practice, 1 February 2000, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 76-81(6).
- Atkinson R. and da Voudi S. The Concept of Social Exclusion in the
European Union: Context, Development and Possibilities Journal of Common
Market Studies, September 2000, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 427-448(22).
Abstract:
In recent years the term `social exclusion' has come to occupy a central place
in the discussion of social policy and inequality in Europe. While the notion
has acquired important strategic connotations, by stressing structural and
cultural/social processes, the precise meaning of the term remains somewhat
elusive. This article focuses on the reason for and the manner in which the
notion of social exclusion has developed within the EU social policy discourse,
aiming to provide a clearer understanding of its origins, functions and multiple
dimensions. Whilst adopting a critical approach to the notion of social
exclusion, the article suggests that the concept has played a positive role in
keeping issues such as inequality and poverty on the policy agenda. The
article also suggests possible ways in which social exclusion might be
developed in a climate which has become less conducive, if not hostile, to an
autonomous, activist EU social policy.
199
Appendix 2
European Data
i) Total EU Expenditure on education and culture
ii) Average expenditure by household on cultural goods
iii) Percentage of total household consumption expenditure on recreation and culture
(at current expenditure)
iv) Government expenditure of member states on recreation, culture and religion as a
percentage of GDP (2001)
v) Government expenditure of member states on recreation, culture and religion as a
percentage of total government expenditure (2001)
vi) Public expenditure per capita on culture in selected accession countries
vii) Public opinion poll data on cultural activities in the accession states:
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Estonia
Hungary
Latvia
Lithuania
Malta
Poland
Slovenia
Slovakia
viii) Statistics on public participation in cultural activities by selected EU and
accession countries:
Austria
Estonia
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Poland
Portugal
Slovenia
United Kingdom
200
(i) Total EU Expenditure on education and culture119
ˇ 2003 Budget expenditure - 829.25 million
ˇ Proposed 2004 expenditure - 883.74 million for EU-15
- 988.64 million for EU-25
(ii) Average expenditure by household on cultural goods (euros)120
AVERAGE EXPENDITURE BY HOUSEHOLD (1999)
Cultural expenditureMember States
Euros () % of total expenditure
Belgium 1 305 4.80
Denmark 1 775 6.17
Germany 1 364 5.46
Greece 509 2.66
Spain 562 3.33
Ireland 1 182 4.05
Italy 732 3.04
Luxembourg 1610 3.61
Netherlands 1 344 5.46
Austria 1 309 4.65
Finland 1209 5.61
Sweden 1775 6.15
United Kingdom 1419 4.75
EU13 956 4.65
Comments: There is a clear geographical variation in cultural expenditure in the EU.
Average cultural expenditure is highest in the Scandinavian states (e.g. Denmark,
Sweden and Finland) and lowest in southern European countries (e.g. Greece, Italy
and Spain).
(iii) Percentage of total household consumption expenditure on recreation and
culture (at current expenditure)121
Country
EU-15
Belgium 8.91 (2002)
Denmark 10.30 (2002)
Germany 9.34 (2002)
Greece 5.83 (2002)
Spain 8.29 (2002)
119
European Commission (2003) EU budget for 2004: first budget for the enlarged Union (IP/03/606,
30 April 2003). EU: Brussels.
120
Source: Eurostat, Household Budget Survey.
121
Ibid.
201
France 8.87 (2001)
Ireland 7.47 (2001)
Italy 7.48 (2002)
Netherlands 11.04 (2002)
Austria 11.73 (2002)
Portugal 6.31 (2001)
Finland 11.11 (2002)
Sweden 12.20 (2002)
UK 12.36 (2001)
New Member States
Czech Republic 10.05 (2000)
Estonia 7.53 (2002)
Cyprus 7.88 (2001)
Latvia 6.50 (2000)
Lithuania 7.10 (2001)
Hungary 7.76 (2001)
Malta 7.79 (2002)
Poland 6.59 (2001)
Slovenia 9.70 (2001)
Slovakia 6.83 (2002)
Comments: In general northern European states (e.g. UK, Sweden and Austria) had
the highest household consumption expenditure rates. In contrast, southern European
states (e.g Greece, Portugal and Italy), with the exception of Ireland, had the lowest
expenditure rates.
(iv) Government expenditure of member states on recreation, culture and religion as a
percentage of GDP (2001)122
Belgium 1.0
Denmark 1.7
Germany 0.7
Greece 0.4
Spain 1.1
France 0.8
Ireland 0.6
Italy 0.9
Luxembourg 1.7
Netherlands 1.1
Austria 1.0
Portugal 1.2
Finland 1.2
122
European Communities (2003) Government expenditure by main function: EU countries compared.
Eurostat.
202
Spain 1.1
UK 0.5
EU-15 0.8
Comments: No geographical correlation exists in relation to government expenditure
as a percentage of GDP. A number of states spent below the EU average, for instance
Greece, UK, Ireland and Germany. Expenditure levels in Luxembourg and Denmark
was more than double the EU average.
(v) Government expenditure of member states on recreation, culture and religion as a
percentage of total government expenditure (2001)123
Belgium 2.0
Denmark 3.0
Germany 1.5
Greece 0.9
Spain 2.8
France 1.6
Ireland 1.7
Italy 1.9
Luxembourg 4.3
Netherlands 2.3
Austria 1.9
Poland 2.5
Finland 2.4
Spain 2.0
UK 1.3
EU-15 1.8
Comments: Greece and the UK had the lowest expenditure levels among member
states as a percentage of total government expenditure. Expenditure levels in
Luxembourg was more than double the EU average.
(vi) Public expenditure per capita on culture in selected new Member States124
Country % of GDP
Estonia 1.9%
Hungary 0.5%
Lithuania 0.6%
Malta 1.4%
Poland 0.4%
Slovenia 0.8%
123
Ibid.
124
Ibid.
203
Comments: Despite pressure on other aspects of the Estonia public spending budget in
recent years, culture has managed to retain its share of funding. The levels of funding
provided in Estonia are greater than those provided by any of the EU-15 states.
However, the table shows that overall funding provision for culture in accession states
is on or below the current EU average.
(vii) Public opinion poll data on cultural activities in the new Member States125
Top ranking cultural activities (% participated in the last 12 months, by
country)
Cyprus
go to the cinema 43
visit historical monuments 34
go to a sport event 33
Czech Republic
visit historical monuments 57
go to the cinema 49
go to a sport event 43
Hungary
visit historical monuments 37
go to the cinema 34
visit museums or galleries 33
Latvia
visit historical monuments 45
go to a concert 42
go to a library 38
Lithuania
go to a concert 45
visit historical monuments 41
go to a library 36
Malta
go to the cinema 50
125
Eurobarometer (2003) Public Opinion in the Candidate Countries, New Europeans and Culture
(July 2003).
Estonia
go to a library 50
visit historical monuments 44
go to a concert 42
204
go to a sport event 27
visit historical monuments 24
Poland
go to the cinema 39
visit historical monuments 32
go to a library 30
Slovakia
go to a sport event 49
visit historical monuments 40
go to the cinema 36
Slovenia
go to a library 47
go to the cinema 46
visit historical monuments 41
Comments: Among accession state citizens Estonians and Slovenians go to the library
in the highest proportions. Going to the cinema is the most popular activity in Cyprus,
Malta and Poland. Attending a concert is the most popular activity in Lithuania, while
going to a sporting event attracts the highest number of people in Slovakia. The above
tables display a number of cultural differences/preferences among citizens in the
accession states.
(viii) Statistics on public participation in cultural activities by selected EU and
new Member States
Austria126
1999 2000 2001 2002
Culture
Visits to the Federal
Theatres, 1 000 1 367 -2.5 1 256 -8.1 1 297 +3.3 1 316 +1.5
Visits to provincial and
municipal theatres, 1 000 1 158 +3.5 1 224 +5.7 . . . .
Museum visits, million 22.0 -5.6 23.8 +8.3 . . . .
126
Austria - Visitor numbers to the Federal Theatres increased from those of the 2000/01 season by
3.3% or 1.5% compared to the previous year. A total of 1.32 million visits were reported during the
2001/02 season. Since the year 2000, the Federal Museums together with the other museums owned by
Federal Government also reported increasing visitor numbers, with 3.35 million visits recorded in
2002. In 2002, the public lending libraries reported 17.0 million borrowings and 1.1 million registered
readers. The number of borrowings had reached a record high in 1998 at almost 18 million borrowed
items. Source: http://www.statistik.at/englisch/results/population/culture_txt.shtml.
205
of
which
Federal Museums,
1 000 3 130 -7.7 3 214 +2.7 3 244 +0.9 3 351 +3.3
Provincial
museums and
exhibitions, 1 000 2 056 -29.6 2 926 +42.3 . . . .
Municipal
museums, 1 000 1 166 -4.0 1 233 +5.7 . . . .
Public lending libraries
Readers (users),
1 000 1 129 -1.3 1 118 -1.0 1 129 +1.0 080 -4.3
Borrowings,
million 17.7 -1.6 16.6 -5.8 17.1 +3.0 17.0 -0.6
Comments: Museum visits in Austria increased from 22 million in 1999 to 23.8
million in 2000, while visits to provincial and municipal theatres rose from 1158 to
1224 over the same period. However there was small decline in visits to federal
theatres over the period 1999-2002. There was also a decline in the number of readers
using public libraries between 1999-2002.
Estonia
Participation in cultural life: selected indicators for Estonia, 1992-2002127
Year
Indicator 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
Registered users of public libraries
(in thousands)
366.8 344.9 387.4 428.4 449.5 448.3
Library units lent (in millions) 8.9 11.1 13.6 15.3 14.0 13.1
Museum attendance (in thousands) 816 808 1 145 1 240 1 539 1 524
Theatre attendance (in thousands;
from 1996 incl. private theatres)
690 697 960 967 921 1 002
Cinema attendance (in millions) 3.4 1.4 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.5
Publishing of books and magazines
(in millions)
16.0 8.6 6.7 6.0 5.9 5.4
Comments:
Between 1992-1994 publishing of books and magazine fell by a significant amount
from 16 million to 8.6 million. This decline continued between 1996-2002. In
addition cinema attendance has undergone a considerable decline since 1992,
although this decline has been partially arrested in recent years (2002). Museum
attendance significantly grew between 1996-2000.
127
Original source: Figures provided by the Ministry of Culture and the Statistical Office of Estonia.
See: http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
206
France128
Ministry of Culture survey on cultural participation in France, 1998.
Activity Attendance figures
1989
Attendance figures
1998
Visit to museums 30% 33%
Historic Buildings 28% 30%
Theatre 14% 16%
Dance 6% 8%
Comments: In all categories attendance figures grew over the period 1989-1998. The
most popular cultural attraction was visits to museums, closely followed by visits to
historic buildings.
Germany129
Visits to museums
Number of visits to museums
Visits
2000 2001Type of museum
1 000
Local history and culture museums 18 738 18 181
Art museums 15 122 16 251
Palace and castle museums 13 661 14 184
Natural history museums 6 900 7 198
Science and technology museums 14 662 15 307
History and archaeology museums 14 008 14 964
Specialised cultural history museums 9 754 10 079
Other museums 6 715 6 801
Total 99 560 102 966
Comments: Overall there has been a modest increase in the number of visits to
museums. The only category to record a fall was `local history and culture museums'.
Greece130
128
Source: http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
129
Source: http://www.destatis.de/basis/e/biwiku/kulttab1.htm. These figures were last updated on 25
November 2003.
207
Attendance at museums and archaeological sites
Year 1998 1999 2000 2001
Archaeological sites
and monuments
6 725 278 5 964 441 7 141 420 6 336 272
Museums 2 207 585 1 595 295 1 948 288 1 724 931
Comments: Attendances at museums and archaeological sites/monuments have
fluctuated between 1998-2001. Overall there has been a fall in attendances in both
categories.
Hungary131
Museums visitors, Hungary 1990-2001
Year Number of
museums
Visits
(million)
Visits per
thousand inhabitants
1990 754 14.0 1 349
1996 775 9.9 970
1997 776 9.5 933
1998 788 10.0 990
1999 804 9.7 965
2000 812 9.9 987
2001 815 9.8 966
Comments: Between 1990-2001 the number of visits to museums has fallen by around
4 million, despite the number of museums increasing in the same period.
Italy132
% Participation in Cultural Activities and Entertainment, 1993-2000
Year
Theatre Cinema Museums -
exhibitions
Classical music
concerts (incl.
opera)
Other
concerts
Sport
events
130
Original source: Ministry of Culture, Directorate General of Antiquities, Directorate of Prehistoric
and Classical Antiquities, Section of Museums: Attendance at Museums and Archaeological Sites.
2001. See: http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
131
Source: Central Statistical Office at http://www.ksh.hu
132
Original source: ISTAT, Indagine multiscopo: Aspetti della vita quotidiana - Anni 1993-2000. See:
http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
208
1993 14.5 40.7 22.7 7.1 14.4 25.6
1994 14.3 42.1 23.4 7.5 14.7 27.0
1995 15.2 41.3 24.8 7.8 15.4 26.9
1996 15.8 41.9 25.6 7.7 17.1 26.4
1997 17.0 44.4 26.8 8.8 17.7 27.9
1998 16.0 47.3 26.7 7.9 17.0 26.5
1999 16.7 45.0 26.8 8.9 17.4 26.9
2000 17.2 44.7 28.6 8.5 18.3 27.8
Comments: Participation in most cultural activities in Italy grew steadily during the
late 1990s.
Latvia133
Number of visitors and spectators in different branches, Latvia
Activity 1998 2000 2002
Museums 648 423 711 873 727 313
Opera 123 100 114 177 136 799
Libraries 451 667 502 050 500 593
Theatre and concerts 762 444 737 264 745 774
Comments: The number of visitors to museums grew between 1998-2000, while there
was a decline in visitors attending theatre and concerts. Visitor numbers to opera and
libraries fluctuated over the same period, although in both cases a greater number of
people visited these attractions in 2002 in comparison to 1998.
Lithuania134
Attendance rates in selected cultural institutions, 2002
Institutions
Number of institutions Visitors, spectators,
readers
(in thousands)
Cinemas 65 1 916.2
Drama theatres 13 581.1
Opera theatre 1 137.6
133
Original source: Ministry of Culture, 2003. See: http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
134
Original source: Data of the Ministry of Culture of Lithuania, 2003. See: http://www.
culturalpolicies.net/.
209
Music theatres 2 117.6
Concert organisations 5 235.6
Museums 108 2 388.6
Libraries 1 425 857
Comments: Museums and cinemas attracted the greatest number of visitors in
Lithuania.
Poland135
Attendance figures for selected cultural fields, Poland, 1990-2002 (in '000)
Field 1990 1995 1999 2000 2002
Museum visitors 19 282 17 060 16 019 16 612 15 259
Art gallery visitors 5 036 2 318 2 361 2 644 2 685
Theatre and music institutions (audience
figures)
13 183 10 197 10 667 10 533 9 850
Cinema attendance 32 798 22 613 27 516 20 892 27 091
Comments: The number of visitors fell in all categories in the years following the
`high water mark' of 1990. While the fall in attendance figures to art galleries and
cinemas has levelled out the number of visitors to museums and theatre and music
institutions have continued to decline.
Portugal136
Overall changes in audience figures, 1985-1990 and 1995-1998
(in thousands)
Field 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998
Concerts and Dance 77 102 331 338 322 234
Opera 36 15 35 13 27 36
Theatre 486 327 339 281 232 229
Cinema 18984 9593 7397 10446 13708 14837
Museums 3125 3951 5216 5092 5076 5083
Monuments 1491 1397 1824 2173 2158 2660
Libraries - 2037 4101 4369 5885 6368
135
Original source: Kultura 2002 published by the Central Statistical Office (GUS). See:
http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
136
Original source: INE, Estatísticas da Cultura, Desporto e Recreio, 1985-1996. See:
http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
210
Exhibitions - - 2397 2028 2462 3900
Comments: Audience figures increased during the mid-1990s in the
categories of concerts and dance, museums, monuments and libraries.
A decline in audience figures was recorded for theatre, while audience
numbers fluctuated for opera.
Slovenia137
Performances and visitors of cultural performances in public institutions that
are co-financed by the Ministry for Culture, 2001, Slovenia
Galleries
Museums and museum
collections
Public
libraries
Number of units 10
30 museums + 82 museum
collections
60
Number of performances 200 401 14.271
Number of visitors 214.806 707.292 467.592
Number of visitors per 1000
inhabitants
108 355 235
Comments: Museums and museum collections recorded the highest number of visitors
in 2001.
137
Original source: Ministry for Culture, National and University Library. See:
http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
211
United Kingdom138
Number of visits to heritage sites in UK, 1998
Sector Number of visits
(millions)
Number of historic
properties
English Heritage 5.6 138
Historic Scotland 2.9 70
Historic Royal Palaces
Agency
3.4 4
Cadw 1.2 35
Subtotal 13.1 247
National Trust (a) 8.1 208
National Trust for Scotland 0.8 35
Subtotal 8.9 243
Total 22.0 490
Comments: the National Trust and English Heritage received the highest number of
visitors during 1998.
138
Source: http://www.culturalpolicies.net/.
212
Appendix 3
Report of the additional seminar to explore links between
cultural policies and social inclusion.
Centre For Cultural Policy and Management/Centre For Public Policy
Cultural and social policies: their relationship to each other and their joint
contribution to policies and practices promoting social inclusion
Report of a Seminar held at Northumbria University
1-2 October 2003
Background
1. The process of which this seminar is a part can be traced back to the
agreement of European member states at Nice in December 2000 to
common objectives on poverty and social exclusion as part of the
Community Action Programme, building on the outcome of the Lisbon
summit in March 2000. The agreement was that National Action Plans
(NAPs) would be developed to ensure more open methods of co-
ordination combining common objectives towards social cohesion.
Furthermore, in September 2001 the European Parliament adopted a
Resolution on Cultural Co-operation stressing the importance of
"cultural exchange and co-operation substantially contributing to
Europe's capacity for integration and cohesion". It should be noted that
the Union is unlikely under the new European Convention to obtain the
legal competence to pursue any `European' cultural policy as such,
beyond very marginal `support actions' to assist co-operation and
exchange. The key enabling text in the Treaty of Rome's Cultural
Article 151(4) ("The Community shall take cultural aspects into account
in its actions under other provisions of this Treaty") is largely
ineffective, and has not so far been actively used as a weapon of
encouragement by the Directorate General for Education and Culture.
The NAP process therefore gains in importance, seeking as it does to
put some constructive responsibility on to national governments in
member states, where there can be no surrogate disputes over
budgets, competence or interpretation.
2. The Commission was nevertheless disappointed at the general failure
of the Plans to reflect any serious cultural dimension. It accordingly
commissioned the University of Northumbria in 2002 to review relevant
213
research and to undertake fact-finding visits to at least five member
states. In fact eight have been examined. The conclusions, in late
Autumn 2003, will be used by the European Commission at a seminar
to be convened in Brussels for the national planners engaged in the
NAP revision process.
3. This report derives from a seminar convened by the University of
Northumbria as an independent supplement to the research project. Its
object was to share current thinking about the convergence of these
two policy areas which is increasingly happening at the levels of
political exchange and public administration. Developments in policy
are highlighting, as a by-product, the urgent need for a better shared
understanding of the problems faced by cultural and social policy
practitioners and researchers in this increasingly important field. The
intention was to improve mutual understanding and to propose future
ways of co-operating, in view of the growing importance of research
and evaluation in support of rapidly developing policies.
4. Much of the long-standing social policy research is firmly rooted in
official data collected by government agencies, which can be analysed
and interpreted by reference to case studies documented according to
well developed professional methodologies. Cultural policy research is
less well founded: there is a paucity of trustworthy or directly
comparable data, and much of the material is necessarily anecdotal or
project based. It is only very recently that Eurostat has had the backing
of the European Union member states to begin to collect and process
cultural data to agreed definitions and standards. The literature and
practice in some European countries is however now expanding, and
there is an urgent need to develop a better shared professional
understanding to improve co-operation between the two sectors. To
date there is an unfortunate history of two groups of natural allies
failing to make the necessary joint progress because of methodological
differences and institutional barriers.
5. In particular the hope was to deliver:
ˇ examples of shared good practice
ˇ bridge-building between professional research practice in
the two areas
ˇ advice to the Northumbria project team on how to assist
the Commission in achieving its cultural aims with the
planners in the member states
ˇ examples of good experience and case studies across
Europe which will support positive conclusions.
6. The participants in the seminar were aware of the considerable and
important work done in these fields by other bodies, notably UNESCO
and the Council of Europe, but limited their discussion solely to the
work of the European Commission. The hope was nevertheless
expressed that in carrying forward these themes the Commission
214
would draw on the work and experience of those other bodies and
liaise with them. There is a general need for greater awareness of the
existing patterns of effective co-operation which will bring about a fuller
recognition of the benefits and social impact of cultural activities.
7. The participants in the seminar are listed at Appendix A.
Preamble
8. Clarification of the meanings of certain key terms used in the seminar
was thought to be helpful:
`culture': Following the example of the University's Centre for
Cultural Policy and Management we recognised three
broad meanings for this term. The first refers to the
`received patrimony' of the arts and heritage, access to
which is an indicator of social inclusion; the second refers
to the political structure of individual states, whereby a
ministry is established for cultural affairs which generally
includes responsibility for other matters such as (in the
case of the United Kingdom) tourism, media and sport; the
third is the wider anthropological sense of the overall
ethos, customs and behaviour of society as a whole or of
a particular group. The hope is that in this report the
particular meaning will be clear from its context, or else
will be specifically identified;
`social exclusion': We took this term to refer to the condition of individuals or
groups who for one or more reasons are prevented from
participating in and benefiting from the society in which
they find themselves; the point was also made that
`culture' on a narrow socio-economic definition and
understanding can unfortunately also be a cause of
exclusion;
`social inclusion': We took to mean the state in which an individual or group
has the opportunity to participate without impediment in
the society in which he, she or they find themselves,
without threat to their particular identity or identities;
`social cohesion': Following the Council of Europe we understood this term
to refer to the "values and principles which aim to ensure
that all citizens, without discrimination and on an equal
footing, have access to fundamental social and economic
rights".
Policies for inclusion
9. The absence of mention of cultural policy or instruments in most NAPs
implies two serious problems in (a) lack of adequate understanding of
215
the issue itself within Culture ministries and (b) inadequate dialogue
between Culture ministries and their colleagues in other relevant
ministries (e.g. Employment and Social Affairs). Whereas top down
policy in the social field (in housing, for example) can often lead to
significant improvement over time, effective culturally-assisted
initiatives tend to be driven from the local level. The multi-faceted
nature of social exclusion requires mutual adaptation in both directions
for successful and co-operative solutions to be developed.
10. The primary focus of the NAPs appears to be on a rather traditional
understanding of social exclusion, with employment as a major target.
For culturally-based interventions to succeed, individuals, groups and
communities need to be able to represent themselves positively in their
own terms, and to be trusted to take increasing responsibility for
changing their own circumstances.
11. The research project is demonstrating that whilst there is an impressive
range of academic literature and analysis on the two policy areas
individually, there is remarkably little which aims to encompass the
social and the cultural within a single unified perspective. Part of the
problem is based in differing professional practice and methodology,
which argues for new approaches to be developed which can
accommodate the common objectives.
12. For socially excluded and marginalised people, the reality is a
preoccupation with day-to-day survival. This implies a psychological
state which precludes any notion of paternalistically motivated cultural
inclusion. The accumulation of practical experience seems however to
demonstrate that particular cultural instruments or routes, especially
when they involve families and other social networks, can have a
beneficial effect on wider groups and communities.
13. Responsibility for social policy delivery is located in a wide range of
agencies, governmental, professional and voluntary, and this is well
understood at national policy level. So far as `culture' is concerned, the
opposite is the case in many countries (with notable regional
variations). Although through cultural agents the various parties work
naturally together at the local level, this is rarely acknowledged in
`national' cultural policy. This does not, of course, imply that the
situation on the ground is necessarily better or more interesting in
those countries where national policy does recognise this reality.
14. The responsible institutions and agencies involved in the delivery of
national social policies may be wedded to particular agendas or
programmes with which they strongly identify. This can make the
sharing of (broadly common) agendas unhelpfully difficult, and can
even have the unintentionally harmful effect of institutionalising or
perpetuating identified `problems'. Aligning broadly similar social and
cultural policy objectives can prove difficult within such a fragmented
216
context, not least because the cultural approach is invariably treated as
instrumental and secondary.
15. Since the end of the Second World War the main tension in cultural
policy in Western European welfare states has been between
`democratising culture' and `cultural democracy'. The former implies a
paternalistic and educationally-based approach arising out of cultural
institutions and an accepted canon of `great' art, while the latter is
rooted in the unrealised creative potential of individuals. This has been
well analysed and documented. However, the very different current
situation and inherited institutional structures in the new democracies is
much less well appreciated within the EU. It is also questionable
whether the concepts and approaches dominant in post-war western
European cultural policy remain valid or viable in the current social,
economic and demographic structure of these societies. Cultural policy
in general is bedevilled by a lack of clarity, and it is essential that these
basic differences ­ and the acute problems that accompany them ­ are
properly understood, so that the true `cultural' situation in accession
countries can be fully taken into account (e.g. the relatively new
phenomenon of economic barriers to cultural participation).
16. With the rise of capitalism and the 19th
Century nation state, culture
became an issue of competitive advantage around Europe both locally
and nationally. This had the effect of putting a high symbolic value on
some modes of expression, whilst denigrating and marginalising
participation. This risk has reappeared in accession countries as they
reassert their individuality and suppressed identities following the
collapse of the Soviet Empire. At the same time cities and regions
across Europe in the post-industrial economy are attempting to re-
brand themselves through cultural symbols, design and the creative
industries, which carries a certain unintended danger of a new form of
cultural `exclusivity' being created.
17. While Europe grapples with the broad sweep of issues involved in
cultural diversity (cf. Treaty of Rome Article 151, new draft treaty Article
III-181) progress is liable to be obstructed through the continuing
practice of states to promote rather narrow concepts of `cultural policy'
while treating these as if they were unitary. Inclusive cultural policies, to
be effective, need to be multi-faceted and to acknowledge a much
more complex and stratified society.
18. Cultural operators often criticise the tendency of politicians to turn to
culture almost as a policy of last resort, as `social' sticking-plaster. Yet
a large amount of implementation is already of a social nature. The
policy model in Nordic countries, for example, is firmly rooted in
traditions of active participation ­ which can account for up to 80% of
the total expenditure. Yet this is never overtly expressed as `social'
policy. Elsewhere in Western Europe over the past 40 years, cultural
policy at the local level has developed its own rationales, to which
training and other support measures have increasingly responded. Few
217
countries acknowledge this broad base as a foundation in their national
`cultural policy' which still tends to be primarily focused on heritage and
`arts' institutional concerns.
19. The ways in which cultural policy is perceived and understood is
subject to widespread variations ­ at the European, national, regional,
local and community levels. A significant responsibility for the symbiotic
relationship (or absence of it) between social and cultural policy
therefore rests with whichever tier (or tiers) of government have most
influence in resourcing, and indirectly controlling it. Culture ministries
are too often the captives of high-profile institutional self-interest, while
the professional arts and museums lobbies frequently still exhibit
hostility to participatory and `instrumental' cultural agendas even
though the nature, legitimacy, perhaps even possibility, of non-
instrumental cultural policy is coming under increasing scrutiny.
20. The local level, where tradition and practice is well-rooted, is the
natural arena for co-operation between the two policy themes. Effective
and inclusive policies rely upon particular configurations of elected
authorities, voluntary, private and community partners, together with
professional animateurs, which are appropriate for the local
circumstances. This makes any simplistic notion of possible policy
transfer across the EU unrealistic. Nevertheless from the amount of
good practice which exists, there are clearly ample opportunities to
adapt models according to particular circumstances. There is an
important role for national and regional governments in absorbing and
disseminating successful models of good practice.
21. The post 1960s/70s idealistic community arts activists believed in
participation as a means towards individual and community
empowerment. There is increasing current criticism in Western Europe
that government, through resource control, is attempting to distort
these agendas into crude social control mechanisms. In the new
democracies the dangers are equally real, but very different in their
origins. Reunified Germany is a particular case in point. A combination
of the economic effects of reunification and the unresolved conflicts
over cultural policy priorities at Federal, Land and local authority levels,
is currently threatening to destroy 25 years' worth of successful and
innovative developments in `soziokultur'.
Evidence of activity and transfers of good practice
22. The research project has drawn attention to a number of examples of
initiatives in each of the countries visited which exemplify how cultural
and social activities can be successfully linked on the ground. Many
more could be added. What is striking is that such initiatives are not
generally supported by specific policies and co-ordination at national
level, let alone internationally. It is indeed a happy circumstance that
so much is happening on the ground despite the absence of policies to
support it; far better than the other way around, when perfect policies
218
may be in place but nothing is happening on the ground. Policies are
nevertheless crucial to further development, to the extension of what is
already happening, and to the allocations of finance. By observing what
is happening (as the research project has, within the limitations of its
brief), by drawing out principles from that experience, and by
addressing the complicated institutional issues concerned, policy
makers should be able to establish clear guidelines for each member
state, and each level of public administration, to pursue. This is a truly
`bottom-up' approach, which has everything to commend it. In this
context we are conscious of the importance of exchanges between
people working on the same themes in different contexts, and of the
process of `peer review' that can assure the credibility of the practice
and the principles in particular cases, and enhance the processes of
dissemination and of the transfer of experience and good practice from
one situation to another.
Indicators
23. Indicators of the overall situation in any particular country or region are
vital in the development of national policies. Relevant data in this field
are particularly difficult to gather, and there is a danger of creating a
system that is both burdensome and ineffective. Rather than using
incomplete, incompatible and often questionable national data sets it
might be preferable to conduct a common and statistically reliable
survey of citizens in each country. This would be rooted in a set of
principles drawn from experience on the ground. Such a survey would
meet the need of policy makers to know what cultural activities people
are involved in and who are excluded. It would not just measure
attendance at museums, galleries, theatres and concerts, but would
record the cultural activities and networks which people report
themselves to be involved in and on their attitudes to a number of
broader cultural questions. Such a survey would enable the situation of
different countries in key areas relating to culture and social exclusion
to be compared. While it would not be able to demonstrate causality, it
would certainly test the rhetoric of policy against the lived experience of
citizens.
24. The difficulty of doing even this much should not be underestimated,
given the varied situations of the member states, the particularities of
their policies and institutions, and the unique character of their cultural
and social lives. The development of a set of common indicators would
necessitate careful research and piloting in every country before it
would be possible to undertake such a survey. Nevertheless, such an
approach is both achievable and useful, as well as probably less costly
than others which might rely on gathering and analysing data from
cultural or social ministries within member states.
25. In recent years, there has been some development of methodologies
for evaluating individual projects which span the cultural and social
fields, but practice remains very uneven, from conception to
219
implementation. This is also inescapably linked to profound ethical and
political issues (including those raised in paragraph 21 above) since
evaluation cannot be considered separately from the stated or un-
stated objectives of the work itself, and the policy which supports it.
The question of who determines those objectives, and who decides
when and to what extent they have beet met, is central not just to
project evaluation, but to the whole issue of social inclusion and
cultural policy. The principal issues here, therefore, are not the
methodologies of project evaluation (relatively straightforward and for
which adaptable models exist in other fields), but of cultural policy and
its implementation. At present, there is little evidence that states are yet
able to conceive of action other than remedial (in terms of problems
they have diagnosed), still less to develop any cultural policy which
coherently reduces the incidental exclusion of some groups or
individuals.
Policies at local, regional, national and international levels
26. It is clear that practice in the field is well ahead of policy and co-
ordination at national or international level. The Northumbria University
research project has identified good examples from each of the
countries visited, and many more could be added. At local and regional
level there is more awareness and appreciation than at the national or
international levels of what is happening on the ground, and better
support in consequence. `Region' in Europe is a variable term. In
Germany, Austria, Spain and the five autonomous regions of Italy, the
`regional' powers and functions in the social and cultural fields are
equivalent to those of national government in many other member
states. In other countries the term 'region' describes a subordinate
entity, not even always with democratic legitimacy, but that may
nevertheless be capable of the effective action or co-ordination which
can be vital in socio-cultural matters. At base there is purely voluntary
activity at neighbourhood level, to which a professional contribution can
be added; beyond that are the actions and policies of local, regional
and national bodies, with diminishing capacities to make a difference.
Clear policies at these levels could be an enormous help to what is
already happening on the ground, frequently against the odds.
Considerations
27. Question: are we talking about cultural activities in their own right (the
creation of an artefact or an event, or the experience of an audience or
an individual in response to an artistic creation), or about activities with
an ulterior motive, a primarily social objective? The dualistic thinking
which creates such confusion in cultural policy tends to perpetuate a
false distinction here where none really exists. The seminar
nevertheless noted some distinction regarding this issue between the
intrinsic and the instrumental: that which is done for its own sake and
that which is done to achieve a further objective. However, it agreed
that there is a continuum here - the two formulations are by no means
220
mutually exclusive, and should not be in conflict. What is done
intrinsically for its own sake can also have desirable social effects. Our
position is that the cultural activities are primary, for all their beneficial
social effects ­ which can often be demonstrated. They are valid and
important in their own right. The crucial factor about cultural activity in
relation to social policy is that it has a positive starting point: we are not
defining people as a problem, but as a potential ­ and actual ­ asset.
Since culture is essentially concerned with communication,
representation and symbolic exchange, it has a very particular power in
relation to social inclusion. There is a need for some new thinking
which can articulate and understand what is happening on the ground.
28. The project has noted that good examples linking culture with social
inclusion often arise in the context of local regeneration, often
stimulated by EU Structural Funds. Heritage, for example, has
enormous potential as a vehicle for building both cultural and regional
community identity as a key factor in local regeneration. This is about
much more than the customary limited focus on creating conditions for
local economic growth. Cultural `agents' can be vitally important in this,
although there is also interesting evidence of what people do for
themselves. These animateurs are the people who take initiatives and
responsibility for `getting things moving' at neighbourhood level, and
often succeed in bringing things together almost in spite of the `official'
structures. Experience suggests that development is generally more
effective when the focus is programmatic, rather than institutional.
Supportive policy at higher levels should have the capacity to grow
connections beyond the immediate operational context.
29. One of the key areas in which cultural activity may be seen as a means
to social integration is that of the relationship between immigrants and
host communities. We mistrust the notions of `integration' or
`assimilation' in this context. Social cohesion is not a question of
uniformity. Culture is a precious factor of difference and diversity,
allowing for and celebrating different cultures within a single society. A
prime criterion for social inclusion is unfettered access to social
institutions and systems. The universality of such access does not
preclude a wide diversity of cultural habits and activities. Indeed within
each `culture' there are diversities which can also be recognised and
honoured: high and low, classical and popular, differences of gender
and of generations. Within multiculturalism there may also be
irreconcilable differences which demand respect:
"[Multiculturalism] is essentially an act of recognition of diversity and,
immediately beyond that, of committed judgement, one frame of
reference looking at another and having to come to terms with it...
Multiculturalism forces us to see that the co-existence of cultures can
be difficult, even impossible"
Farrukh Dhondy In: Elkin (2003)
221
30. The questions and issues raised here are presented in terms which so
far as possible can be applied to different national circumstances. In
accordance with its brief, the Northumbria study has been confined
almost entirely, however, to existing EU member states, with little
scope for examining the situation in the new democracies of Central,
Eastern and South-East Europe, shortly to join the Union, or aspiring to
do so. It is to be hoped that this omission can soon be rectified.
Historical perspectives can and do differ markedly between different
countries, and the recent Soviet domination has left a different
inheritance and different cultural institutions. There are also important
lessons to be learnt from more recent experience, including that of how
to achieve more with fewer resources.
Implications
31. It is noteworthy that government ministries responsible for culture were
not necessarily involved in the preparation of the National Action Plans.
Responsibility lay frequently with ministries responsible for
employment, or for employment and social affairs. Cultural ministries
should be closely involved in any future such exercises, and the
various authorities at international, national, regional and local levels
must be drawn together in structures (whether formal or informal)
which allow for the cultural dimension to be incorporated in policy-
making and systems of support for cultural activity and development.
32. In such activity it is essential to include clarification
- of the meanings attached to the terms being used in any particular
case;
- of the objectives to be met;
- and of the appropriate roles of the different parties.
32. In other words, social and cultural policies must be explicit, in
themselves and in their relation to each other. In addition, at all levels
there is a need for professionals working in both the social and cultural
fields to be more conscious of each others' work, and how it can be
mutually supportive.
33. But the main lesson to be learnt is highly positive. There is an immense
richness and diversity of activity at relatively local level right across the
continent. If that is not yet reflected fully in social and cultural policies
at a higher level, as it must be if the benefits of such activity are to be
fully realised, it is a matter nevertheless of rejoicing that so much is
going on and that a truly `bottom up' process can now reach into the
higher spheres of national life and European policies, to create a new
dimension in European civilisation.
December 2003
222
Reference
Elkin, Judith et al. (2003) Reading and reader development: the pleasure of
reading. Facet Publishing, London, p. 119.
223
Appendix A
Seminar Participants
Judith Allen - Principal Lecturer (Housing), University of Westminster, London
Eleni Apospori ­ Lecturer (Social Psychology and Communication), Athens
University of Economics & Business
Chris Bailey ­ Associate Dean, School of Arts & Social Sciences, Northumbria
University and Chair of Centre for Cultural Policy & Management
Simona Bodo ­ Freelance researcher in museum field (based Milan)
Hugh Frazer ­ National Expert (Social Inclusion & Social Protection issues),
EC Employment and Social Affairs DG
Christopher Gordon ­ Independent research consultant, and Associate,
Centre for Cultural Policy and Management at Northumbria University
Robin Guthrie ­ Moderator (Former Chief Charities Commissioner for England
& Wales, and Director of Social & Economic Affairs for the Council of Europe)
Dorota Ilczuk­ Assistant Professor (Social Economics), Faculty of
Management & Administration, Jagiellonian University, Cracow
Péter Inkei­ Director, Budapest Observatory: Regional Observatory on
Financing Culture in East-Central Europe
Helen Jermyn­ Independent researcher specialising in the cultural sector
Francois Matarasso ­ Researcher and writer (role of culture in democratic
society)
Steven Miles ­ Head of Research, Centre For Cultural Policy & Management,
Northumbria University
Ritva Mitchell ­ Director of the Finnish Cultural Policy Foundation, former
Head of Research and Information, Arts Council of Finland
Glenn Simpson ­ Centre For Public Policy, Northumbria University
Peter Stark ­ Director, Centre for Cultural Policy & Management, Northumbria
University
Roberta Woods ­ Associate Dean, Northumbria University and Chair of
Centre For Public Policy
224
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