Gender Attitudes Outline § Cultural approaches § Why are attitudes changing in Central Europe? § Micro-level explanations of gender attitudes The Modernization Explanation (Inglehart & Norris) § Industrialization brings women into the labor market § Educational opportunities rise for women and they begin to participate in government § The postindustrial phase brings a shift toward greater gender equality as women rise in management and gain political influence § Transition from survival to self-expression values (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?) The Failure of Modernization Theory to Explain this Shift in Central Europe § High female employed existed already under the communist regime § Women had rather equal access to education already under communist rule § People did not have to worry about survival except perhaps in Poland But not completely wrong § But it is true that women did not yet rise in management or politics § The industrial shift from an industrial to a knowledge-based economy with a large service sector was hindered by the communist regimes § This does not seem sufficient to explain the change Cultural Differences? § Pfau-Effinger: two countries can have similar policies, but peple will still use them differently § In some societies men are more likely to choose father leaves than in others because they have different conceptions of the role of the father § Duncan: Gendered moral rationalities: what is morally rational is not always economically rational, for example, women might refuse daycare because it goes against their view of what is “proper” Hakim’s Preference Theory § Individualization process means we cannot group people of one country together § In modern society we have become more individualistic § There are different groups in every country Hakims 3 Groups § Caring group: will want to stay at home regardless of policies (about 20% of the population) § Career group: wants to have a career and is not interested in having children (about 20% of the population) § Adaptive group: will choose work or career depending on incentives Implications of Preference Theory § We cannot achieve gender equality because men do not want to change roles, only women § In Sweden, despite policies encouring men to stay at home, few do so § Only the adoptive group can be influenced by policies § The three groups have competing interests, while men all have the same interests, § Thus, men can organize better around their interests Criticisms § Men are stupid, but not as stupid as Hakim thinks, nor are they as homogeneous § In Sweden men are beginning to take father leaves to a much greater extent (now they take over 20% of the total leave time and almost all fathers go on leave) § Gender equality is also in the interests of many men. She just assumes men think the same, but does not provide evidence § Surveys show big differences among women in different countries § The largest group is adoptive, which means that policies do in fact matter Attitudes Changing in Central Europe § Slowly beginning to support more gender equality at the theoretical level § Great support for more gender equality at the concrete daily level § “Feminism” becoming more acceptable Theoretical level: Support for Equal Gender Roles Concrete, Daily Level: Women’s organizations § In Poland: 133 women's organizations § 50 consider themselves to be feminist (38%) § 93 support gender equality (70%) § In CR: 49 organizations § 6 show some support for feminism (6%) § 18 show support for gender equality (37%) § 1995 in CR: none openly supported gender equality, but 2 of 31 came close Newspaper Articles in the CR § In MF there were 15 articles in 2007 using the word “feminism” § Not negative anymore, but there is a defensive tone, the need to show feminists are not radical § Typical to use the term, “I am a feminist, but not a radical feminist….” Why this change? § The EU gave legitimacy with “gender mainstreaming” § Czechs have more experience living and studying in the West § The development of domestic gender studies § Cooperation with Western and international women’s organizations § Can we call these openings of the political opportunity structure? § Beliefs coming from communist legacy not as strong as other beliefs? Microlevel Analysis § Age § Church § Degree of religiosity § Educational Level § Gender Age § Generational difference: younger people have more post-modern values § Today’s women have greater career opportunities § Younger men are more interested in spending time with their children Church and Degree of Religiosity § The Catholic Church has traditionally supported the “nuclear family” and “traditional” roles § But this traditional family only existed for a very short time in our history § In agricultural society women worked, as did children and the family was extended § Degree of religiosity is important (not in Wilcox’ article) because in a country like Poland, almost everyone is Catholic, but not everyone is as religious § In the USA evangelical pastors have been very conservative § In Poland the degree of religiosity is not significant in explaining attitudes Educational Level § Those with a higher education are more supportive of gender equality § Women with higher education want equal chances § Men with higher education often chose partners who are higher educated and want to have careers § Educational levels are increasing, as is support for gender equality McDonald’s incoherence theory in the industrially advanced countries the conflict between norms supporting high levels of gender equity in individual-oriented social institutions (like education system and labor market) and sustained gender inequality in family-oriented social institutions (in caring and nurturing and household maintenance) has caused fertility rates to drop. Gender differences § Women obviously have a greater incentive to support equality § But in America more men than women supported ERA Conclusions § Attitudes toward gender equality are becoming more positive § This is partially due to post-modernization and to the development of the international discourse § All micro factors point to an increase in support for gender equality (the new generation and higher educated are more positives as are the more secular) § Life is becoming increasingly more difficult for men who want to oppress women and hate their children